Early life

According to multiple sources, Nguyễn Huệ's ancestors were peasants who lived in Nghệ An. They left Nghệ An and moved to southern Vietnam after an attack by the Nguyễn lords against the Trịnh lords in Nghệ An. His ancestors' surname was Hồ (胡), but Huệ's great-grandfather Hồ Phi Long, who was a servant of the Dinh family of Bằng Chân hamlet, Tuy Viễn district (or An Nhơn), Quy Nhơn province, married a woman from the Dinh family and had a son named Hồ Phi Tiễn, Huệ's grandfather. Hồ Phi Tiễn did not continue farming as his father, but instead traded in betel. Through his work he met and married Nguyễn Thị Đồng (阮氏仝), the only daughter of a rich betel tradesman residing in Tây Sơn village. One of their children was Huệ's father Hồ Phi Phúc (胡丕福, also known as Nguyễn Phi Phúc). Some sources say that in taking on the surname Nguyễn, the family followed the surname of Huệ's mother; other sources say that it followed the surname of Nguyễn lords of southern Vietnam.

Nguyễn Huệ was born in 1753 in Tây Sơn village, Quy Nhơn Province (now Bình Định Province). His father had eight children; later, three of them took part in the Tây Sơn Rebellion. According to Đại Nam chính biên liệt truyện, the Tây Sơn brothers, listed from eldest to youngest, were Nguyễn Nhạc, Nguyễn Lữ, Nguyễn Huệ. However, other source reported that Nguyễn Lữ was the youngest one. His birth name was Hồ Thơm, he also had a nickname Đức ông Tám (Sir Eighth the virtue).

Đại Nam chính biên liệt truyện described Nguyễn Huệ as "a cunning man, good at fighting; he has bright penetrating eyes, and always speak in a stentorian voice, everyone fears him." His father, Nguyễn Phi Phúc, made the three brothers dedicate themselves to their studies early in life. Their martial arts master was Trương Văn Hiến, a retainer (môn khách) and friend of Trương Văn Hạnh (张文幸), who in turn was the teacher of Nguyễn Phúc Luân, the father of Nguyễn Ánh. After Trương Văn Hạnh killed by the powerful chancellor Trương Phúc Loan, Trương Văn Hiến fled to Bình Định. He was first man to discover the talents of the Tây Sơn brothers and to advise them to do great deeds.

Later, Trương Văn Hiến encouraged Nguyễn Nhạc to revolt against Nguyễn lords: "The prophecy says: 'Revolt in the West, success in the North'. You are born in Tây Sơn District, you must do your best." Nguyễn Nhạc then gathered people to help him in his rebellion, saying to "overthrow the Trịnh lords, revive the Lê dynasty".

Seeking to overthrow the corrupted Trương Phúc Loan and to help the prince Nguyễn Phúc Dương, the eldest of the Tây Sơn Brothers, Nguyễn Nhạc, gathered an army and revolted in 1771. He was aided by his brothers Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ. In the early days of the rebellion, Huệ was the most helpful of Nhạc's generals both in finance and in training the army; with the encouragement of Trương Văn Hiến and his own talent, Huệ rapidly increased his own popularity and that of the Tây Sơn Rebellion.

Due to its popularity, the Tây Sơn army grew strong and attracted many talented generals, including Nguyễn Thung, Bùi Thị Xuân, Võ Văn Dũng, Võ Đình Tú, Trần Quang Diệu, Trương Mỹ Ngọc, and Võ Xuân Hoài. The rebels became famous for their policy: "fair, no corruption, only looting the rich, and help the poor" (công bằng, không tham nhũng, và chỉ cướp của của người giàu, giúp người nghèo).

Tây Sơn rebellion

After 200 years of holding power in southern Vietnam, the government of the Nguyễn Lords had become progressively weaker, due to its poor leadership and internal conflicts. Following the death of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát, the powerful official Trương Phúc Loan began to arrogate to himself control over the Nguyễn government. For the purpose of resisting against the excessive power of Trương Phúc Loan and coming to the assistance of Prince Nguyễn Phúc Dương, the Tây Sơn Brothers gathered an army and revolted against the government of the Nguyễn Lords. The rebel army of the Tây Sơn quickly occupied the central part of Nguyễn's territory covering from Quy Nhơn to Bình Thuận, thereby weakening the authority of the Nguyễn government.

In 1774, the government of the Nguyễn lords sent a large army led by general Tống Phước Hiệp against the Tây Sơn rebels. From Gia Định, the troops marched to northern central Vietnam, and after several battles they recaptured Bình Thuận, Diên Khánh, and Bình Khang (modern Ninh Hòa). The rebel army of the Tây Sơn now only held the land from Phú Yên to Quảng Ngãi.

Also in 1774, the ruler of northern Vietnam, Trịnh Sâm, sent a massive army of 30,000 soldiers led by general Hoàng Ngũ Phúc southwards with the same purpose as that of the Tây Sơn rebel army, namely to help the Nguyễn Lords fight Trương Phúc Loan. The northern troops were unobstructed in their march to Phú Xuân, the governmental capital of the Nguyễn Lords. The government of the Nguyễn Lords feared the beginning of an unmanageable war on two fronts. Officials of the government arrested Trương Phúc Loan and gave him up to the troops of the Trịnh Lords. The Trịnh lords, however, continued attacking Phú Xuân under the pretext of helping the Nguyễn Lords suppress the Tây Sơn rebellion. The Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần and his officials initially attempted to resist the attack, but ended up fleeing to Quảng Nam.

Seizing the opportunity, Nguyễn Nhạc led an army (with naval support from Chinese pirates) against Nguyễn lords. Once again, the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần fled, this time by sea to Gia Dinh, accompanied by Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, and leaving behind his nephew Nguyễn Phúc Dương. Early in 1775, the army of the Trịnh Lords marched on Quảng Nam at the same time as the Tây Sơn troops reached Quảng Nam. Tây Sơn troops searched for and then captured Nguyễn Phúc Dương. The army of the Trịnh Lords crossed the Hải Vân Pass, engaged the Tây Sơn troops, and defeated them.

At the same time, the general of the Nguyễn lords Tống Phước Hiệp (宋福洽) led his troops against Phú Yên, forcing the Tây Sơn army to withdraw.

Fearing a war on two fronts, Nguyễn Nhạc sent Hoàng Ngũ Phúc a proposal that if the Trịnh lords recognized the Tây Sơn Rebel Army, the Tây Sơn would help the Trịnh lords fight against the Nguyễn Lords. The proposal was accepted, and Nguyễn Nhạc was made an official of the Trịnh lords. Nhac also made peace with the Nguyễn lords, causing Tống Phước Hiệp to take off the pressure, and deluded Prince Nguyễn Phúc Dương. His diplomacy provisionally made Tây Sơn's enemies inactive and bought him valuable time to shore up his army.

Recognizing that the temporary ceasefire was unlikely to endure, Nguyễn Nhạc retrained the rebel army, recruited new soldiers, fortified Đồ Bàn fortress, and built new bases, preparing for an attack.

Tống Phước Hiệp, who had been deceived by Nguyễn Nhạc peaceful overtures, did not pay much attention to Nhạc's activities. He did not prepare for either defending or attacking. Nhạc made use of Hiệp's inactivity, and sent troops led by his brother Nguyễn Huệ against him. The Tây Sơn troops swiftly defeated the unprepared troops of the Nguyễn Lords and inflicted heavy losses upon them. Tống Phước Hiệp and his troops fled to Van Phong. It was the first great victory achieved by Huệ. Nhạc sent news of the victory to Hoàng Ngũ Phúc. On Phúc's request, the Trinh rewarded Nhạc with a new office.

Overthrow of Nguyễn Lord

Because the troops of the Trịnh Lords lacked familiarity with the southern country, Hoàng Ngũ Phúc withdrew the troops to the north. En route, he died of natural causes. Phúc's death marked the end of the Trịnh Lords' interventions in the south. While the army of the Trịnh Lords withdrew to Thuận Hóa, Tây Sơn moved quickly in sending its troops to take over the abandoned territory and to suppress elements loyal to the Nguyễn Lords.

Having gained a lot of new rich land without facing much opposition, the Tây Sơn army grew stronger. Nhạc had a desire to expand Tây Sơn's authority. He sent a large army led by his youngest brother Nguyễn Lữ to launch a sudden attack against Gia Định (now called Ho Chi Minh City) by sea. Lữ's raid was successful: he occupied Saigon and forced the Nguyễn Lord and his followers to flee to Biên Hòa. His success was short-lived, however, when an army loyal to the Nguyễn Lords and led by a man named Đỗ Thanh Nhơn rose against him in Đông Sơn. The loyalist army attacked and forced Tây Sơn's troops to withdraw from Saigon. Before withdrawing, Lữ seized the local foodstores and took them back to Quy Nhơn.

In 1776, Nguyễn Nhạc proclaimed himself King of Tây Sơn, choosing Đồ Bàn as his capital, renamed it Thành Hoàng Đế (Imperial City). He gave Huệ the title Phụ Chính (Vice National Administrator).

Southern campaigns

In 1777, Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ led an army marched further south. They captured Saigon, destroyed Nguyễn lords' army successfully. Most members of Nguyễn royal family killed or executed in this campaign, except Nguyễn Ánh. Ánh fled to Rạch Giá then to Hà Tiên. Finally, Ánh fled to Pulo Panjang together with a French priest Pigneau de Behaine. After the battle, Huệ and Lữ returned to Quy Nhơn, only a small army was left in Gia Định. Nguyễn Ánh returned and occupied Gia Định in the next year. With the help of de Behaine, Ánh made Western weapons, recruited Western adventurers, proclaiming the restoration of Nguyễn lords' regime. In 1782, a Tây Sơn army under Nguyễn Nhạc and Nguyễn Huệ reoccupied Gia Định. Nguyễn Ánh had to flee to Phú Quốc.

In Phú Quốc, Nguyễn supporters suffered from Tây Sơn's frequent attacks and lacked food and drinking water. Châu Văn Tiếp was sent to Bangkok to request for aid. In 1783, Nguyễn Ánh and his supporters retreated to Siam with Siamese army. In Bangkok, Ánh was warmly welcomed by king Rama I. Rama I promised that Siamese would help Nguyễn Ánh to retake his lost kingdom.

The Siamese army moved towards southern Vietnam in 1784. A fleet with twenty thousand men under Chao Fa Krom Luang Thepharirak was dispatched to attack and recapture Saigon for Nguyễn Ánh. Ánh and his supporters were also allowed to accompany with the Siamese army. Phraya Wichinarong led Siamese infantry marched to Cambodia, and manoeuvred the Cambodian army. The Cambodian regent, Chaophraya Aphaiphubet (Baen), recruited five thousand soldiers to accompany with Siamese troops.

Siamese troops defeated Tây Sơn army and captured several places including Rạch Giá, Trấn Giang (Cần Thơ), Ba Thắc (Srok Pra-sak, Sóc Trăng), Trà Ôn, Sa Đéc, Mân Thít (or Mang thít, Man Thiết), and controlled Hà Tiên, An Giang and Vĩnh Long. However, they met a stubborn resistance from Tây Sơn army, and could not capture any important places. Unable to repulse the enemy, general Trương Văn Đa sent Đặng Văn Trấn to Quy Nhơn for help.

The Tây Sơn reinforcements led by Nguyễn Huệ reached Gia Định in 1785. Huệ sent an envoy to Siamese army under a banner of truce. Huệ showed fear deliberately, requested Siamese not to support Nguyễn Ánh. It proved that it was an excellent stratagem; Thepharirak was taken in. On the morning of 20 January 1785, Siamese fleet was surrounded in Rạch Gầm River and Xoài Mút River (near Mỹ Tho River, in present-day Tiền Giang Province). The battle ended with a near annihilation of the Siamese fleet, all the ships of the Siamese navy were destroyed. Thepharirak and Nguyễn Ánh fled back to Bangkok.

Overthrow of Trịnh Lord

Northern Vietnam fell into chaos in 1786. An army under Nguyễn Huệ, Vũ Văn Nhậm and Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh marched north to attack Phú Xuân. The governor of Phú Xuân, Phạm Ngô Cầu, was a venal and superstitious coward, he was at odds with his assistant, Hoàng Đình Thể. An itinerant Taoist priest came to Phú Xuân, and said to Cầu that he should set up an altar to pray for himself. Cầu was persuaded; he built an altar, ordered his soldiers to serve him day and night, making his soldiers very tired. Take this opportunity, Huệ launched a raid on Trịnh army. Hoàng Đình Thể was killed in action. Phạm Ngô Cầu surrendered to Tây Sơn army.

After the capture of Phú Xuân, Chỉnh encouraged Huệ to overthrow Trịnh lord. Huệ took his advice, marched further north without Nguyễn Nhạc's order. Tây Sơn army easily defeated several Trịnh troops. When they reached Thăng Long (modern Hanoi), Trịnh Khải came to the battlefield to fight against Tây Sơn army. Tây Sơn army attacked war elephants with arquebuses, finally, they captured Thăng Long (modern Hanoi) successfully. Huệ met Lê Hiển Tông in the next day; he said he marched north to overthrow of Trịnh lords, and did not have any other intentions. Huệ was warmly welcomed by Lê Hiển Tông, and received the position Nguyên-soái (元帅 "supreme commander") noble title Uy-quốc-công (威国公). He also married Lê Ngọc Hân, a daughter of the Lê Emperor. The old emperor died several days later. Lê Chiêu Thống was enthroned by Huệ. Although he had not been proclaimed as an Emperor at all, Nguyễn Huệ was respected by citizens of Thăng Long as the way an Emperor would be treated.

Nguyễn Nhạc did not want to take northern Vietnam; he sent an envoy to Phú Xuân to prevent Huệ from marching north, but Huệ had left. Then he got the message that Huệ had captured Thăng Long, and realized that Huệ was hard to be controlled. Nhạc led 2500 men and marched north to meet with Huệ and the Lê emperor. In Thăng Long, Nhạc promised that he would not take any territory of Lê emperor. Then Nhạc retreated from Thăng Long together with Huệ. Vũ Văn Nhậm disliked Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, and persuaded Huệ to leave Chỉnh in northern Vietnam. Huệ led his army back to Phú Xuân secretly. Chỉnh abandoned all his property, and came to Nghệ An to join Tây Sơn army. Nguyễn Nhạc did not have the heart to abandon him again; Chỉnh was left in Nghệ An together with a Tây Sơn general, Nguyễn Văn Duệ.

Civil war between two brothers

In the same year, Nguyễn Nhạc proclaimed himself as Trung ương Hoàng đế (中央皇帝 "the Central Emperor"). Huệ received the title Bắc Bình Vương (北平王 "King of Northern Conquering"), the area north to Hải Vân was given as his fief. But not long after, he came into conflict with Nguyễn Nhạc. Nhạc attacked on Huệ at first, a civil war broke out.

But the military might of Huệ was stronger than Nhạc. Huệ besieged Quy Nhơn for several months. The main forces of Gia Định was called back to support Nhạc, but was defeated in Phú Yên, its commander Đặng Văn Chân surrendered to Huệ. Nhạc climbed onto the city wall, and shouted to Huệ: "How can you use the pot of skin to cook meat like that?" It is an old custom, if hunters seized a prey in the jungle without a pot, they would flay it and use its skin to cook meat. Using this metaphor, Nhạc indicated that brothers should not fight with each other. Huệ was moved to tears, and decided to retreat. Taking the advice of Trần Văn Kỷ, Huệ decided to reach a peace agreement Nhạc. The two brothers chose Bến Bản as a boundary; the area north to Quảng Ngãi was Huệ's area; the area south to Thăng Bình and Điện Bàn belonged to Nhạc. From then on, they ceased fire with each other.

Northern Campaign - Ending Le Dynasty

During Nguyễn Huệ's absence, northern Vietnam fell into chaos again. The regime of Trịnh lord restored. Lê Chiêu Thống could not control the situation, he asked for assistance from Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh. Though Trịnh Bồng was banished from Thăng Long, Chỉnh became the new regent just like Trịnh lords before. After learning about actions of Chỉnh, an army under Vũ Văn Nhậm was sent by Huệ to attack Thăng Long. Chỉnh was swiftly defeated and fled together with Lê Chiêu Thống.

Chỉnh was found and executed, but Nhậm could not find Lê Chiêu Thống. In order to gain popularity among Northern Vietnamese, Nhậm install Lê Duy Cận as giám quốc ("Prince Regent"). Two generals, Ngô Văn Sở and Phan Văn Lân, reported it to Huệ. Huệ led an army marched north, and launched a night raid. Sở and Lân opened the gate to let them in. Huệ captured Nhậm and had him executed.

Huệ led his army back to Phú Xuân. Lê Duy Cận remained in his position; Ngô Văn Sở, Phan Văn Lân, Nguyễn Văn Tuyết, Nguyễn Văn Dụng, Trần Thuận Ngôn and Ngô Thì Nhậm, were left in Thăng Long to watch Cận.

War with Qing dynasty

Lê Chiêu Thống never abandoned his attempt to regain the throne. He hid in Bảo Lộc Mountain; in there, he had a plan to fight against Tây Sơn. His mother, Empress Dowager Mẫn, fled to Longzhou, called for help from Qing China in order to restore Lê dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor of Qing China decided to restore Lê Chiêu Thống to the throne, though under Qing protection.

Two Chinese armies invaded Vietnam in October of the lunar year Mậu Thân (November, 1788): Liangguang army under Sun Shiyi and Xu Shiheng, as the main force, marched across the South Suppressing Pass (present day Friendship Pass); Yungui army under Wu Dajing, marched across the Horse Pass (Maguan); the two armies aimed to attack Thăng Long directly.

When Liangguang army reached Lạng Sơn, Sun announced that there was a very large number of Qing army, in order to threaten Tây Sơn soldiers. Chinese marched south swiftly. Realizing Tây Sơn army could not stop Chinese army from marching to Thăng Long, Ngô Văn Sở accepted Ngô Thì Nhậm's idea, abandoned Thăng Long and retreated to Tam Điệp orderly. In Tam Điệp, Ngô Văn Sở sent Nguyễn Văn Tuyết to Phú Xuân to ask for aid.

Nguyễn Huệ knew the situation on Lunar 24 November (21 December 1788), cursing the invaders. Huệ declared that Lê Chiêu Thống was a national traitor and not qualified for the throne. In the next day, Nguyễn Huệ erected an altar on a hill south of Phú Xuân and proclaimed himself Emperor Quang Trung, in effect abolishing the Lê dynasty. After the coronation, he marched north with 60,000 soldiers. He recruited volunteers in Nghệ An Province, now the number of his soldiers reached 100,000. In Thọ Hạc (Thanh Hóa), he made an invigorating speech before his soldiers. Soldiers replied a great shout of approval. They were encouraged, and marched quickly.

Huệ arrived in Tam Điệp on Lunar 20 December (15 January 1789). In there, Huệ gathered together the whole forces, and divided them into five branches: main force led by Huệ, marched north to attack Thăng Long directly; a navy led by Nguyễn Văn Tuyết (Commander Tuyết), sailed from Lục Đầu River to attack Lê supporters in Hải Dương; another navy led by Nguyễn Văn Lộc (Commander Lộc), sailed from Lục Đầu River to attack Phượng Nhãn and Lạng Giang; a cavalry (including war elephants) led by Đặng Tiến Đông, marched to attack Cen Yidong in Đống Đa; another cavalry (including war elephants) led by Nguyễn Tăng Long (Commander Long) marched past Sơn Tây to attack Xu Shiheng in Ngọc Hồi (a place near Thanh Trì).

Meanwhile, Chinese soldiers were preparing to celebrate the Chinese New Year festival, and planned to march further south to capture Phú Xuân on 6 January of the next lunar year (31 January 1789). As Vietnamese New Year (Tết) was generally celebrated on the same day, Chinese generals assumed that Tây Sơn army would not attack in these days. However, subsequent events proved that they were wrong.

Nguyễn Huệ made a surprise and fast attack against Chinese forces during the New Year holiday. They reached Thăng Long in the night of 3 January of the next lunar year (28 January 1789). In the fierce 4-day battle, most of Chinese soldiers were unprepared, they were disastrously defeated by the Tây Sơn army in Ngọc Hồi and Đống Đa (part of modern Hanoi). Qing generals Xu Shiheng, Shang Weisheng, Zhang Chaolong and Cen Yidong were killed in action. Many Chinese soldiers and porters were killed in action, or drowned while crossing the Red River. According to Draft History of Qing, over half number of Chinese soldiers died in the battle. Sun Shiyi, the commander-in-chief of Chinese army, abandoned his army, fled for his life back to China with several soldiers. Lê Chiêu Tông also fled to China. Huệ marched into Thăng Long, his clothes was blackened by gunpowder. Tây Sơn army marched further north after the battle; they reached Lạng Sơn, and threatened to march across the border to arrest Lê Chiêu Thống.

After Nguyễn Huệ defeated the Later Lê dynasty, the last Lê emperor Lê Chiêu Thống and high ranking Lê loyalists fled Vietnam for asylum in Qing China and went to Beijing. Lê Chiêu Thống was appointed a Chinese mandarin of the fourth rank in the Han Yellow Bordered Banner, while lower ranking loyalists were sent to cultivate government land and join the Green Standard Army in Sichuan and Zhejiang. They adopted Qing clothing and adopt the queue hairstyle, effectively becoming naturalized subjects of the Qing dynasty affording them protection against Vietnamese demands for extradition. Some Lê loyalists were also sent to Central Asia in Urumqi. Modern descendants of the Lê monarch can be traced to southern Vietnam and Urumqi, Xinjiang.

Reconciliation with Qing China

The irate Qianlong Emperor of the Qing replaced Sun Shiyi with Fuk'anggan. Fuk'anggan did not want a conflict with Nguyễn Huệ and he sent a letter to Huệ in which he expressed that a necessary prerequisite for a cease-fire was an apology of Huệ to the emperor. Nguyễn Huệ sought to restore the tributary relationship in order to deter a joint Qing-Siam pincer attack and prevent further Chinese attempts to restore the Lê dynasty. Nguyễn Huệ sent a ritually submissive request to the Qianlong Emperor under the name of Nguyễn Quang Bình (also referred to as Ruan Guangping).

In 1789, the Qianlong Emperor agreed to re-establish the tributary relationship and enfeoff Nguyễn as the king of Annam on the condition that Nguyễn personally lead a special delegation to Beijing to celebrate the Qianlong Emperor's 80th birthday. For the Qianlong Emperor, the motivation for accepting the arrangement was to retain the Qing's supremacy and stabilize their southern border. Chinese and Vietnamese sources agreed that Nguyễn sent an imposter with a delegation to Beijing, where they were received with lavish imperial favors. The Qianlong Emperor approved the proposal and bestowed Nguyễn with the title An Nam quốc vương ("King of Annam"). The title indicated that Huệ was recognized as the legal ruler of Vietnam and Lê Chiêu Thống was no longer supported.

Rule and reforms

Once in power, Emperor Quang Trung first began instituting massive and unprecedented national reforms in Vietnam.

Though Quang Trung entitled as "king of Annam" by Qing China, he always regarded himself as emperor of Đại Việt. He crowned Lê Ngọc Hân empress, and granted her the noble title Bắc Cung hoàng hậu (北宫皇后 "empress of Northern Palace"); Nguyễn Quang Toản was designated as Crown Prince.

Taking the advice of Nguyễn Thiếp, Quang Trung decided to relocate the imperial capital in Nghệ An Province. He ordered Trần Quang Diệu to build a new citadel at the foot of Kỳ Lân Hill (modern Quyết Hill in Vinh). The new citadel was named Phượng Hoàng Trung Đô (凤凰中都).

Thăng Long was renamed Bắc Thành (北城). Sơn Nam (山南) split into two trấn ("town"): Sơn Nam Thượng (山南上 "Upper Sơn Nam") and Sơn Nam Hạ (山南下 "Lower Sơn Nam"). Each trấn had two high officials: Trấn-thủ (镇守 "viceroy") and Hiệp-trấn (协镇 "deputy viceroy"). Each huyện ("district") had two officials: phân-tri (分知), the civil official, took charge of judicial litigation; phân-suất (分率), the military official, took charge of army provisions.

The official system of Tây Sơn dynasty was not mentioned in official records, but we could find several names of official positions in history records, such as tam công (三公), tam thiếu (三少), Đại-chủng-tể (大冢宰), Đại-tư-đồ (大司徒), Đại-tư-khấu (大司寇), Đại-tư-mã (大司马), Đại-tư-không (大司空), Đại-tư-cối (大司会), Đại-tư-lệ (大司隶), Thái-úy (太尉), Đại-tổng-quản (大总管), Đại-đổng-lý (大董理), Đại-đô-đốc (大都督), Đại-đô-hộ (大都护), Trung-thư-sảnh (中书厅), Trung-thư-lệnh (中书令), Đại-học-sĩ (大学士), Hiệp-biện đại-học-sĩ (协办大学士), Thị-trung ngự-sử (侍中御史), Lục-bộ thượng-thư (六部尚书), Tả-hữu đồng-nghị (左右同议), Tả-hữu phụng-nghị (左右奉议), Thị-lang (侍郎), Tư-vụ (司务), Hàn-lâm (翰林), etc.

The system of military units: a đạo (道) was composed of several cơ (奇), a cơ was composed of several đội (队). Quang Trung organized the army into five major wings: tiền-quân ("army of the front"), hậu-quân ("army of the rear"), trung-quân ("army of the center"), tả-quân ("army of the left"), hữu-quân ("army of the right"). Tây Sơn army was recruited by enforced conscription. Chose one in three adult males (đinh 丁), the chosen one should join the army.

Adult males of the whole country divided into three scales to pay taxes in corvée (sưu dịch) and capitation (thuế thân): vị cập cách (未及格), 2 to 17 years old; tráng hạng (壮项), 18 to 55 years old; lão hạng (老项); 56 to 60 years old; lão nhiêu (老饶), over 61 years old. Different scales had different tax collection standards.

Farmers had to pay a fixed amount of grain as tax. Publicly owned farmland divided into three scales: the first scale paid 150 bát (鉢, a unit of weight) per mẫu (a unit of area); the second scale, 80 bát per mẫu; the third scale, 50 bát per mẫu. Privately owned farmland also divided into three scales: the first scale, 40 bát per mẫu; the second scale, 30 bát per mẫu; the third scale, 20 bát per mẫu.

There were also two additional taxes of farmland: tiền thập-vật (钱什物) and tiền khoán-khố (钱券库). Publicly owned farmland: paid 1 tiền (currency unit) per mẫu for thập-vật, 50 đồng per mẫu for khoán-khố; privately owned farmland: paid 1 tiền per mẫu for thập-vật, 30 đồng per mẫu for khoán-khố.

Quang Trung introduced the identity card system to govern the large population. A census was conducted during his reign. Every adult male was granted tín bài (信牌), a wooden card on which was his name, birthplace and fingerprints. If anyone did not have the wooden card, he would be arrested and imprisoned with hard labour.

Quang Trung also replaced the traditional Chinese script with the Vietnamese chữ Nôm as the official written language of the country. Examinees were ordered to write chữ Nôm in imperial examination. Though this policy was criticized at that time, modern scholars stated that it had progressive significance.

A religious reform was carried out during his reign. Many small Buddhist monasteries were closed and merged into larger ones. Monks had to pass an examination, otherwise, they would be ordered to return to secular life. Quang Trung also adopted a policy of religious tolerance. His religious toleration won him the support of the growing Christian community and his campaign of the common people against the traditional elites won him the admiration of the peasant majority.

Plans to invade China

After the defeat of China, a Lê prince, Lê Duy Chỉ (黎维祗), fled to Tuyên Quang and Cao Bằng. There, Chỉ was supported by native chieftain Nùng Phúc Tấn (侬福缙) and Hoàng Văn Đồng (黄文桐). Chỉ devised a plan to unite Vientiane and Muang Phuan in a revolt of Tây Sơn dynasty. An army under Trần Quang Diệu conquered Muang Phuan and executed their chiefs. Then, the army invaded Kingdom of Vientiane; king Nanthasen fled, Tây Sơn marched west till the border of Siam. The victorious army attacked Bảo Lộc, captured Lê Duy Chỉ, Nùng Phúc Tấn, Hoàng Văn Đồng, and had them executed. Horses, elephants and war drums were brought to Vietnam as booty of war, then handed over to Qing China as tribute, Quang Trung did it to show power to China. Quang Trung also requested for exemption from customs duties, and established a yá háng (牙行, broker house in ancient China) in Nanning, they were both agreed by the Qianlong Emperor.

There was a territorial dispute near Sino-Vietnamese border. Vietnamese claimed this territory belonged to Tuyên Quang Province and Hưng Hóa Province, but was illegally occupied by native chiefdom of Guangxi in final years of Lê dynasty. Quang Trung wrote a letter to Fuk'anggan, required him to return this territory. Fuk'anggan rejected, and replied the border had been delimited. Quang Trung was resentful, from then on, he began to train his soldiers and build many large warships, planning to invade Liangguang. It was said that Quang Trung looked down upon the Qianlong Emperor. He said to his ministers that if given more time to train soldiers, he was not afraid to conflict with China.

Nguyễn Huệ was resentful, trained his army, built large warships and waited for an opportunity to take revenge on China. He also provided refuge to anti-Manchu organizations such as the Tiandihui and the White Lotus. Infamous Chinese pirates, such as Chen Tien-pao (陈添保), Mo Kuan-fu (莫观扶), Liang Wen-keng (梁文庚), Fan Wen-tsai (樊文才), Cheng Chi (郑七) and Cheng I (郑一) were granted official positions and/or noble ranks under the Tây Sơn empire. With the support of Tây Sơn dynasty, the number of Chinese pirates grew rapidly, they were able to block sea routes, and harassed the coastlines of China. The attack on China never materialized by the time that Quang Trung died in 1792.

In 1792, Quang Trung decided to invade China. There was evidence that he had the intention to conquer South China. Quang Trung attempted to seek a Chinese princess in marriage, and demanded that Liangguang should be ceded to Vietnam as dowry. He knew the Qianlong Emperor would not accept his unreasonable demand; he just wanted an excuse of war. But finally, the messager Võ Chiêu Viễn (武招远) did not set out because Quang Trung fell ill.

Final years

Quang Trung suddenly fell ill. The official records did not mention about what disease he got. Contemporary historians stated that his death was possibly due to a stroke. Legend had it that he died actually because he was punished by spirits of dead Nguyễn lords whose tombs he seriously insulted.

Quang Trung called Trần Quang Diệu back to Phú Xuân. He set a schedule to move the capital to Phượng Hoàng trung đô (present-day Vinh) together with high ministers. At this time, he got the information that Nguyễn Ánh had captured Bình Thuận, Bình Khang (modern Ninh Hòa) and Diên Khánh. He was depressed, and soon became critically ill. On his deathbed, Quang Trung was worried about the future of Tây Sơn dynasty. He described the Crown Prince Nguyễn Quang Toản as "a clever boy but too young", described Nguyễn Nhạc as "an old man who is resigned to the present state of affairs". His will instructed that he be buried within a month; all ministers and generals should be united as one to assist the Crown Prince; and move the capital to Phượng Hoàng trung đô as soon as possible. If not, one day all of them will be killed by Nguyễn Ánh.

Quang Trung was buried on the southern bank of Perfume River. He was buried secretly; Ngô Thì Nhậm stated that Quang Trung was buried in Đan Dương Palace (cung điện Đan Dương). The exact ___location was not clear; Nguyễn Đắc Xuân, a culture researcher, believed that it was located at Bình An Village, Huế.

Quang Trung received temple name Thái Tổ (太祖) and posthumous name Vũ Hoàng đế (武皇帝) from his successor, Nguyễn Quang Toản. Getting the information, Nguyễn Nhạc prepared to attend his funeral, however, the road was blocked by Toản. Nhạc had to return, and sent a sister to attend the funeral.

The plan to invade China was given up. Nguyễn Quang Toản built a fake tomb in Linh Đường (苓塘, a place in modern Thanh Trì District) for him. Then Toản reported his death to the Qianlong Emperor: "I followed my father's will, buried him in Linh Đường instead of his birthland because he was reluctant to leave your palace, and Linh Đường was nearer to your palace." The Qianlong Emperor praised Quang Trung, gave him the posthumous name Trung Thuần (忠纯 lit. "loyalty and sincerity"). He also composed a funeral oration for Quang Trung. In the oration, the Qianlong Emperor wrote: "(You have) blessed (me) and pledged loyalty (to me) in the southernmost, (so I) approved you to attend (my) imperial court; (now you) lie at rest beside the West Lake, (you are) nostalgic for (the good old days in) my palace till death." (祝厘南极効忠特奖其趋朝 妥魄西湖没世无忘于恋阙). The oration was engraved on a stone, and erected beside his fake tomb. A Chinese official was sent to Linh Đường to pay condolences, and granted Nguyễn Quang Toản the title An Nam quốc vương ("King of Annam").

The fall of Tây Sơn dynasty

However, Nguyễn Quang Toản (now crowned the Emperor Cảnh Thịnh) did not continue his father's policies. The identity card system was abolished, and the capital remained in Phú Xuân. High ministers and generals struggled for power, which led to the decline of his empire.

Tây Sơn dynasty was overthrown by Nguyễn Ánh in 1802 after a ten years long war. Quang Trung's sons: Nguyễn Quang Toản, Nguyễn Quang Thùy, Nguyễn Quang Duy (阮光维), Nguyễn Quang Thiệu (阮光绍) and Nguyễn Quang Bàn (阮光盘), were captured alive. Nguyễn Quang Thùy committed suicide; the others were executed by having their bodies dismembered by having five elephants pull the limbs and head (五象分尸). The tombs of Nguyễn Nhạc and Nguyễn Huệ were razed to the ground, their remains were dug out and crushed into ashes. The skulls of Nguyễn Nhạc, Nguyễn Huệ and Huệ's wife, were locked up in prison in perpetuity. It was said that Nguyễn Huệ had desecrated the tombs of Nguyễn lords before, Nguyễn Ánh did that to "revenge for the ancestors".

Tây Sơn dynasty was regarded as an illegal regime during Nguyễn dynasty; it was mentioned as Nguỵ Tây (僞西 "False Tây"), or Tây tặc (西贼 "Bandit Tây") in Nguyễn official records to highlight the supposed illegitimacy of the dynasty.

Legacy

Nguyễn Huệ was regarded as the national savior of Vietnam and one of the most popular figures in the country.

Nguyễn Huệ was deified in Vietnamese culture, Bộc Temple (Chùa Bộc) in Hanoi was a temple to him.

Nguyễn Huệ was depicted on the South Vietnamese 200 đồng banknote.

Most cities in Vietnam, regardless of the political orientation of the government, have named major streets after him.

Tây Sơn hào kiệt, a Vietnamese film, was based on his story.

On 6 February 2018 the Vietnam People's Navy commissioned the Quang Trung a currently in service with the 4th Regional Command.

家世来历及早年生活

西山阮氏三兄弟（阮文岳、阮文侣、阮文惠）本姓胡，与越南胡朝皇帝胡季牦是同宗。其四世祖胡丕康原居于越南北部郑氏势力范围下的乂安处英都府兴元县，在郑氏与广南国阮氏的交战当中，胡丕康被阮福濒所率的广南军队俘虏，安置在归仁府西山邑垦荒。由于胡丕康出生在书香门第，阮主阮福濒遂任命他为「西山寨主」。胡丕康的后代世袭西山寨主之职。到阮惠的父亲胡丕福时，迁居于坚城邑（今绥远县富乐村）。

阮岳、阮侣、阮惠都出生在坚城邑。后来阮岳也是因世袭而得到了「西山寨主」之职。而越南黎末学者裴辉壁的《乂安志》则记载，阮岳凭藉富裕世家而获得寨主的官职。因此说西山阮氏三兄弟并非一般的农民家世，而是西山邑里的一个「下层封建主小康之家」。

阮惠原名胡（），其在年少时曾受到思想启蒙而萌起造反念头。他的父亲胡丕福，曾向儒者焦献学习。焦献原姓张，是儒者张文行的儿子。当时张文行被旧阮的权臣张福峦杀害，焦献逃亡到安泰邑，在此学习文武之术。焦献认为其子阮岳、阮惠具备天才，非常器重他们，便激励他们起兵反抗旧阮。

参加西山起义

胡丕福死后，阮岳继承了西山寨主之职，后阮岳担任云屯巡卞吏（负责徵收税务的低级官员）。当时广南阮主治下的领地官员贪污腐败严重，而且克重税。再加上连年的自然灾害，导致农民起义此起彼伏。阮岳将税收的银币洗劫一空分给穷人（一说洗劫一空拿去赌博），因此受到通缉。阮岳在不得已之下携两位弟弟逃往西山邑，成为盗贼。

1771年（黎景兴三十二年），阮惠与兄长阮岳、阮侣，在西山邑建立屯寨，招纳军士。西山军声称张福峦腐败，提出要推翻张福峦和阮福淳的统治，改立有贤能的皇孙阮福旸为阮主。西山军劫富济贫，深得当地百姓的支持。为了更加得到百姓支持，三兄弟将姓氏改为母亲的阮姓。西山三兄弟得到土豪阮桩、富商玄溪的支持，吸收了周围的小股农民起义军，又得到李阿集、李才的起兵响应，势力越来越壮大。1773年，阮岳自称第一寨主，以阮桩为第二寨主，玄溪为第三寨主。

阮惠当时年仅19岁，但却健壮而有胆略，在战斗中身先士卒，因而在军中甚得众望。而根据成书于阮朝年间的《大南正编列传初集·伪西列传》记载，阮惠「声如巨钟，目闪闪若电光，狡黠善鬭」，因此「人皆惮之」。

消灭南方旧阮

联郑击阮

当北方的郑主郑森得悉南方旧阮大乱后，在1774年（黎景兴三十五年），命大将黄五福率水步三万大军，以征讨旧阮权奸张福峦为名，入侵旧阮领地。黄五福的军队势如破竹，攻陷旧阮都城富春（今顺化），阮主外逃广南府。与此同时，西山阮军队亦正在从归仁府出发，欲攻取广南府。阮岳、李才、李阿集率西山军在锦沙村（今岘港市和荣县）与郑军交战失利，郑军进占广南，而南方的旧阮君主阮福淳则逃到嘉定（今胡志明市及附近一带），以图重新站稳阵脚，收复失地。阮岳感到自己夹在旧阮和郑主中间，认为有必要暂缓军事压力，便向黄五福讲和，并要求成为征旧阮的前驱。郑森同意了这个请求。

1775年（黎景兴三十六年），阮岳认为向旧阮施袭的机会已到，便向旧阮军将领宋福洽诈称议和，希望联阮击郑；阮岳又献女儿寿香于旧阮的东宫阮福旸。乘宋福洽毫无戒心的时候，命阮惠进行突袭。阮惠不负所望，击败旧阮军队，占领了富安。经此一役，阮惠获郑主封为「西山校前锋将军」。

攻克嘉定，覆灭旧阮

与此同时，郑主军队也大举南下。但旋即爆发瘟疫，大量郑军士兵死亡。黄五福便率军放弃广南，撤回富春。广南之地亦被西山阮所占。这时，阮岳认为政权基础已足够稳固，便于1776年（黎景兴三十七年），先派弟弟阮侣率军攻击嘉定地区（今胡志明市及附近一带）。阮侣虽曾占领重镇嘉定城，但旋即被挺旧阮的杜清仁驱逐，最后亦失利而回。

次年（1777年，黎景兴三十八年），阮岳再派阮侣、阮惠攻打嘉定的旧阮军。嘉定被攻占，阮福淳外逃龙川（今金瓯省），阮福旸逃至巴（地属今永隆省），皆被阮惠追兵所擒，同众多宗室大臣一起被斩首。旧阮统治集团至此暂时灭亡，旧阮的宗室多遭到杀害，只有阮福淳的侄儿阮福映侥幸逃脱。阮惠、阮侣率军回到归仁以后，阮福映便纠集旧阮的势力起兵继续抗争。次年，阮岳在闍盘城（今越南中部的归仁）自称西山王，改元泰德，建立西山朝；阮惠受封为龙骧将军。

当阮惠领兵追捕旧阮君主时（1777年，黎景兴三十八年），河仙镇都督鄚天赐亦随同护驾，并幸运地逃脱阮惠军的追捕，回到河仙。虽然西山阮军向鄚天赐招降，但鄚天赐郤决意效忠旧阮，不肯投降。后来鄚天赐预料自己无法对抗西山军，便经富国岛逃入暹罗。西山军遂进驻河仙。

嘉定等地的争夺战

西山朝虽然已把旧阮朝廷的主力歼灭，但阮福映仍然活跃，以图复国。阮惠、阮侣平定嘉定一带后，便一同返回归仁府，只留部下镇守。就在他们离去后，阮福映在龙川起兵，当地挺旧阮的东山军杜清仁便起兵响应阮福映，并迅速占领嘉定。黎文匀、阮文弘、宋福匡、宋福梁等支持旧阮的人士也纷纷举兵响应。在杜清仁等将的支持下，嘉定城及其辖下的藩安镇、边和镇、定祥镇、永清镇及河仙镇一带都被旧阮收复，西山军多次南下讨伐，皆被击退。

再战嘉定

但到1780年（阮岳泰德三年），杜清仁因恃功弄权而被阮福映所诛，导致东山军纷纷背叛，嘉定地区陷入混乱局面。

1782年（阮岳泰德五年），阮岳与阮惠率水步兵三千、战船若干一同南攻嘉定。在七岐江与阮福映军交战。这一战役中，阮福映得到法国人幔槐（Manuel）率西洋船助战。据阮朝编成的《嘉定城通志》的记载，阮惠在此处与阮福映军进行了一场水上激战，「贼兵（阮惠军）乘顺风水潮，饱帆直冲，我兵（阮福映军）不战自溃，独西洋艚幔槐拒战久之。伪惠合兵攻围烧其艚，幔槐死之」，对阮福映的水师给予重创。其后，阮福映退守富国岛，嘉定地区再度被西山朝平定。

其后，阮惠和阮岳又再返回归仁府，只留原东山军的降将杜闲蛰镇守。不久，朱文接在富安举兵，又迎回阮福映，重新抵抗西山朝。1783年（阮岳泰德六年），阮侣、阮惠再次领兵南下，在四岐江背水一战，大败阮福映军队，使之再度败走到富国岛。阮惠攻打富国岛，阮福映逃往昆仑岛。阮惠又攻打昆仑岛，但西山军遭遇风暴，阮福映得以冲破重围，逃回富国岛。

击败暹军

阮福映再次战败后，仍不愿罢休，一面派法国传教士百多禄携东宫阮福景前往法国求助，另一方面遣朱文接到暹罗求援。1784年（阮岳泰德七年），暹罗国王拉玛一世先派六坤、沙苑 会同暹罗任命的柬埔寨摄政昭披耶·阿派普贝至柬埔寨，由此进攻嘉定；七月后又派大将昭曾、昭霜率士兵二万、战船三百艘，从曼谷出发，渡海攻打嘉定。阮福映及其部将亦追随前往。暹罗军势如劈竹，连破沥架（今坚江省迪石市）、巴色（今朔庄省朔庄市）、茶温（今永隆省茶温县）、斌沏（今永隆省斌沏县）、沙的（今同塔省沙沥市）等地。西山军守将张文多不敌，遣人向归仁求救。阮岳得悉后，便派阮惠领兵截击。

阮惠率军与暹罗军作战，经过数次败战之后曾有撤军并同暹罗议和的想法，但在旧阮降将黎春觉的劝说下放弃了议和的念头，决定采用诱敌深入的战略。1785年1月19日（阮岳泰德七年农历12月9日到10日），西山军在美湫附近的沥涔和吹蔑（又作蔑）一带沿岸设立陷阱，同时派遣一小队西山军前去引诱驻守沙沥的暹罗军。暹罗军反击，这股西山军便沿水路败退到沥涔、吹蔑地区。暹罗军追击，进入了西山军的伏击阵地。阮惠立即命令炮兵突然轰击暹罗军战船。乘暹罗军大乱之际，阮惠军的水陆部队再进行冲杀，于是大败暹罗军，并乘胜追击阮福映。阮福映弹尽粮绝，仅率亲信随从数人逃入暹罗。这场战役便是历史上的沥涔吹蔑之战。经过此役，阮惠成功令暹罗人「心惮西山如虎」。

进兵北方

阮惠攻灭旧阮及扫荡嘉定城一带后，便受阮岳之命，向北攻取郑氏所占的富春。其后，阮惠更擅自继续北伐，终于消灭了郑主及后黎朝。

攻取富春

北方郑主占领旧阮首都富春后，大将黄五福不久便死去。郑森派遣裴世达为顺化留守，后来又派陶郡公范吴俅前去接替其留守之职。根据《大越史记全书续编》的记载，范吴俅是一个怯懦而多疑的贪官，因此富春防守松懈。顺化副督视阮令宾曾经上书郑森揭发范吴俅的作为，要求郑森将范吴俅撤职。但郑森反而将阮令宾召回。随范吴俅一起驻守顺化的阮有整知郑主必败，遂投奔西山朝。

1786年（阮岳泰德九年）五月，泰德帝阮岳知顺化之地防备松懈，便派遣阮惠为节制、武文任为左军都督、阮有整为右军都督，率水步大军进攻顺化。阮惠指使一位算命先生前去给范吴俅算命，声称范吴俅将会生病，建议建立祭坛并祈祷七天七夜。范吴俅听从了他的建议，命令士兵都来祭坛服役侍候。西山军趁机大举进兵，郑军大败。范吴俅在惊恐之下回到富春城据守，派遣副将黄廷体出战。阮惠写信劝黄廷体投降，并故意将信送到范吴俅处。范吴俅怀疑黄廷体有二心，不予接应，导致了黄廷体的阵亡。西山军旋即攻城，范吴俅大惧，开城投降。西山军迅速占领顺化之地。

北伐郑主

阮惠成功夺取富春后，乘胜攻占洞海（今广平省洞海市），守将宁逊弃城而逃。阮惠派人修理洞海屯（又名长垒），准备仍守罗河旧界。但阮有整提出了反对意见，建议继续北攻郑主。据《大南实录·大南正编列传初集·卷三十·伪西列传》及《钦定越史通鉴纲目》的记载，阮惠对这项建议亦甚感犹疑，便与阮有整进行争辩。阮有整提出，郑主「将惰兵骄，朝廷无复纪纲」，是阮惠乘胜北伐的好机会，并且「诚以扶黎灭郑为名，天下莫不响应」，整场北伐战争都将会因名正言顺而顺利进行。阮有整还骄傲地说「北河人才，惟整一人，整去便为空」。而阮惠最关心的，是自己只奉命攻打富春，不应矫诏继续进兵，阮有整郤说「矫小而功大为有功，何矫之有？」阮惠最后都服从了阮有整的意见。

郑主方面，则视富春为旧阮领地，因此对于阮惠的攻占并不太关心，只派遣郑自权率领27奇的军队前去防守乂安。但阮惠军队向北方逐步深入，西山军经过乂安、清化一带时，乂安镇守裴世遂、清化镇守谢名垂皆不敢抗拒，望风而溃，阮惠得以到达渭潢江。渭潢江为于现今的南定，是进攻郑主政治中心升龙的跳板。郑自权行军缓慢，中途得知阮惠进驻渭潢江的消息，遂据守金洞一带。山南镇守杜世胤率军进驻东安县的扶沙社，郑军老将丁锡壤则驻守噜江。阮惠决定采取奇袭战。

两军交锋前，一天夜里，阮惠命以木像置于船上，然后击鼓摇旗，放船顺水漂流。丁锡壤见此情形，以为是阮惠军来袭，下令战船摆成一字形的阵势，用炮施射。射了很久，才知船上的是木像，但郑军已经弹药耗尽。阮惠乘机进攻，丁锡壤被迫弃船逃跑，郑自权、杜世胤也都溃败。阮惠因而攻取了渭潢江附近的山南城。

其后，阮惠一面进军，一面宣传自己是以「扶黎灭郑」为名。郑主还未调动兵力抗击，阮惠已率军接近郑主、后黎朝朝廷所在的升龙。郑主郑棕急召山西镇守黄冯基率军前来防御，但黄冯基在万春湖（在今河内市青池县万富社）又被阮惠军所击溃。郑棕亲自出阵，骑战象迎敌，但最终败于阮惠军，郑棕在逃亡中被擒，自杀而死。北方的郑主统治集团至此灭亡。阮惠以王礼葬之，并入城参谒黎显宗。（当时仍是1786年，阮岳泰德九年）

对后黎朝的处置

阮惠攻克帝都升龙后，便觐见黎显宗，获封为「元帅扶正翊运威国公」，娶黎显宗之幼女黎氏玉昕为妻。而阮岳亦得悉阮惠擅自北征郑主，派人前去顺化阻止。后来得知阮惠攻陷升龙，担心阮惠据升龙自立，便率部星夜北上，与黎皇、阮惠一同会面。此时黎显宗逝世，黎昭统帝继位。昭统帝将阮岳迎入城中，住在郑主之府。数日后，阮岳请黎昭统帝、阮惠一起来府中，承认黎昭统帝对北河的统治权，阮惠、阮岳率军一同南返。由于阮惠厌恶阮有整的为人，故意在出发时不通知阮有整。阮有整在得知西山军撤退之后，抛弃了所有家产追上了西山军。阮岳不忍再抛弃他，命阮有整协助阮文睿镇守乂安。又命都督武招远守河中、武文任镇守洞海，以为犄角之势。

兄弟阋墙

当阮惠消灭郑主后，1787年（阮岳泰德十年），阮惠获阮岳封为「北平王」（），居于富春；阮岳则自称中央皇帝，居于归仁府；阮侣为「东定王」，居于嘉定地区。但很快，阮惠、阮岳之间就爆发冲突，甚而兵戎相见。

根据《大南正编列传初集·伪西列传》记载，阮岳在称帝之后「日肆淫暴」，滥杀功臣，杀死阮桩，胡作非为。而在征讨郑主的战争中，郑主府邸中的财宝全被阮惠占有，阮岳向阮惠索取，但遭拒绝。而阮惠希望得到广南之地，阮岳也拒绝了这个要求。阮岳甚至奸淫了阮惠的妻妾，这更引起了阮惠的愤怒。于是兄弟二人反目成仇，阮惠发布檄文，列举了阮岳的罪状，并首先发兵攻打阮岳，包围归仁城。阮岳急召邓文真率嘉定之兵前来支援，但邓文真被阮惠击败俘虏。阮惠在归仁城外建造土山，把大炮放在土山上轰击归仁城。阮惠军的炮弹大如斗，阮岳见势力不敌，命人拾炮弹哭于太庙之中，亲自登上城楼对阮惠说：「皮锅煮肉，弟心何忍？」阮惠在这一刻亦深受感动，才撤兵解围。此后阮岳与阮惠达成和约，以板津为界，广义以南归阮岳，升华（今广南省升平县）、奠磐（今广南省奠磐县）以北归阮惠，双方各自为政。

灭亡后黎朝

在阮惠、阮岳不和相攻的同时，北河政局也发生了变化。就在西山军撤离北河后不久，图谋恢复郑主统治的郑槰纠集残馀势力进入升龙，乘机把持后黎朝的大权，黎昭统帝急召阮有整入京勤王。阮有整回到家乡组织乡兵，驱逐了郑主。但阮有整居心叵测，专权弄事，其权势拟于郑主。阮有整知镇守乂安的阮文睿是阮岳的部将，对阮惠不满，因此派人前去招诱。1787年（阮岳泰德十年），又派陈功灿前去富春，希望将乂安之地归还后黎朝，这使阮惠非常愤怒。吴文楚建议杀之，中书令陈文纪则认为不应该公开杀死使者，但绝不能让后黎朝知道西山朝发生内乱之事。阮惠采纳陈文纪的建议，派武文月礼送他处境，途中将船凿沉，将陈功灿一行全部溺死。

旋即阮惠派遣武文任北伐，击败并擒杀阮有整。黎昭统帝亦出逃到保禄山。武文任寻昭统帝不获，立崇让公黎维����为监国，管理事务。黎维����身边只有数名文臣武将侍奉，每当议事的时候，反要去武文任的军营里。

最初，阮惠虽然派武文任北伐，但事实上非常猜忌武文任。阮惠令心腹吴文楚、潘文璘为参赞军务，实际上是监视武文任的举动。此时吴文楚将武文任的所作所为报告给了阮惠，并声称武文任谋反。阮惠率军秘密驰往升龙，并趁夜色时分进入升龙，将睡梦中的武文任杀死。阮惠仍以黎维����为监国，任命大司马吴文楚管理北河事务，留内侯潘文璘、都督阮文雪辅佐，以学士吴时任为谋士。又任命亲信阮文用为掌府、陈顺言为户部尚书，大宴群臣，率军回到富春。

与清朝的交涉与交战

阮惠称帝及对抗清军

1788年（阮惠光中元年），以黎昭统帝为首的黎氏遗族，向中国清朝要求出兵援助。乾隆帝便派孙士毅率兵进入安南，声称这次出兵的目的是「兴灭继绝，灭阮扶黎，原非利其土地」，率军南下，进攻安南。西山军的将领潘启德投降，阮文艳则逃往京北（今北宁省），与京北留守阮文和并力守城。清军很顺利地进军至升龙附近，吴文楚以黎维����的名义，派阮衙等人前往孙士毅军营中求和，请求清军退兵。但行至京北遭到清军的阻拦。吴文楚接受了吴时任的建议，率军撤离升龙，来到三叠山（位于宁平省和清化省交界处）据守。西山朝的水道统领邓文真则率水军浮海守汴山（位于清化省），与吴文楚相呼应。吴文楚派遣阮文雪前往富春告急。

阮惠闻讯后，决定出兵北上抗清。部下们纷纷建议他登基以正位号。同年农历十一月二十五日，阮惠在御屏山登基称帝，改年号为「光中」。阮惠称帝的目的，是要在出兵抗清前，首先维系人心。阮惠率军来到自己的祖籍地乂安，积极备战，选出士兵十万，战象百馀后，便进行休整，以准备迎敌。

清军进入升龙后，拥立黎昭统帝复位，并在附近的河洄及玉洄两地驻扎重兵。阮惠派人前往升龙，向清朝卑辞谢罪。孙士毅上当，不以为备。阮惠则宣布西山军提早过春节，并与西山军将士相约在升龙度过开春日（正月初七）。西山军士气高昂，行军极为迅速。

阮惠出兵步步进迫后，到达涧水（今宁平省与河南省交界）时，击溃后黎朝山南镇守黄冯义率领的一支军队，并全数生擒了清军的斥候，无人能够逃脱报信，使清军对于阮惠进兵的军情懵然不知。1789年 （阮惠光中二年）农历正月初三，阮惠军秘密包围河洄军营，并用喇叭喊声劝降。该营清军全无迎战准备，唯有全数投降。初五日，阮惠军进军玉洄军营，遭到清军以炮火迎击。阮惠命令军士用木板三块紧拼在一起，外面裹以湿稻杆，然后由每二十人一组的敢死部队各扛一块，每人腰插尖刀，并有二十人手持武器紧随其后，阮惠自己则骑乘战象督师。这场战役，清人王之春在其所撰的《清朝柔远记》里亦记述：「（阮惠军）皆以象载大礮，官军（清军）仓卒御敌，衆寡不敌，遂溃。」阮惠军最终都冲陷玉洄军营，击溃清军。孙士毅正在升龙大宴诸将，欢度春节；得悉战败后，仓皇逃走，其随身的印信全被西山军缴获。许世亨、张朝龙等断后，皆阵亡。阮惠入据升龙，黎昭统帝则流亡中国，标志著后黎朝的正式灭亡。

※关于两军参战和伤亡数字，中越双方史料记载存在很大出入。据《大南正编列传初集·伪西列传》记载清军出兵人数为二十万，阵亡数万；西山军出兵十万，但郤没有提到阮惠军的敢死部队在作战中究竟有多少折损。由越南史家陈仲金所写的《越南史略》及越南社会科学委员会的《越南历史》里，也只提及清军死伤甚多，没有提到西山军的伤亡人数。但《清史稿·越南传》中各路清军的总人数为一万八千名士兵以及其他一些随军的民夫，孙士毅逃回境内的时候落水溺死的官兵和民夫总数有万馀名。而据中国学者郭振铎、张笑梅的考证，清军大约有两万左右。清军在征安南的战事里，死亡人数有七千多人，被俘获而得到遣返中国的有七百多人。

接受清朝册封

阮惠虽然获得大胜，但对清帝国的顾虑亦加深；而另一方面，西山朝与暹罗关系恶劣，阮惠担心西山朝受到清朝、暹罗这两大强邻的腹背夹击，因此阮惠有意讲和。而在清朝方面，乾隆帝接到孙士毅的败讯后，便徵孙士毅回京定罪，派福康安代替其职位。福康安听闻安南军队气势强大，在广西按兵不动，欲停止干戈。福康安指使左江兵备道汤雄业派人给阮惠送信，声称「黎维祈弃国而逃，天朝断不复以安南畀之」，暗示阮惠可以向清朝求和。阮惠于是派遣嘑虎侯出使清朝求和，声称西山朝完全没有与清朝作对的意思，把战争责任全部推在孙士毅的身上；又收留清军的俘虏，将其遣送归国；同时阮惠贿赂福康安，要求他协助自己向清帝议和。

阮惠把吴文楚留在北河，要求吴文楚与清朝议和，并给予吴文楚、潘辉益「便宜处置，是无关紧不必禀报」的权力。阮惠改名阮光平，派遗兄子阮光显、陪臣武辉瑨等人出使清朝，向清朝进献方物，并上表求封。在谒见乾隆帝的时候，阮光显声称阮惠将亲自来到京师觐见。乾隆帝认为安南国王亲自前来朝见有史以来尚属首次，因此大喜，当即册封阮惠为安南国王，又派遣广西候补成林前往安南，约阮惠次年入朝觐见。而对于失去政权的黎昭统帝，乾隆帝认为上天已经把他抛弃，因此不再给予他支持，下令将他与后黎朝遗臣一起迁到京师居住。

成林来到镇南关（今中越边境友谊关）的时候，阮惠邀请他来富春游玩，企图藉此机会拖延时间，但被成林拒绝。阮惠于是一直推称自己生病，不欲前往觐见。福康安一再催促，阮惠只得要求让儿子阮光垂代替自己前去觐见，但不被允许。不得已之下，阮惠最终选出与自己相貌相似的人冒充自己，并以吴文楚、邓文真、潘辉益、武辉瑨、武名标、阮进禄、杜文功为陪臣，除照例须携带的贡品之外，还向清朝进献雄象两匹。两广总督福康安、广西巡抚孙永清陪他们抵达京师。乾隆帝对这个亲自前来朝贡的「安南国王」的身份信以为真，下令在上京的路上给予安南使团极为隆重的待遇，沿途驿站皆苦之。到达京师之后，乾隆帝召至热河行宫相见，行抱膝礼，并赐宴与诸亲王同席；临行前，乾隆帝又命画师绘画其像以赠之，表示对他的厚待之情。事实上，清朝各地的官员都知道这个所谓的阮惠是假的，但由于乾隆帝好大喜功，没有一个官员敢戳穿这个谎言。

据《越南辑略》、《清史稿》、《大南实录》、《皇黎一统志》等中越文献记载，此次前往清朝的所谓「安南国王」是阮惠的替身，不过，关于这个替身的身份，各文献记载不一：徐延旭的《越南辑略》记载是其「弟」；《大南正编列传初集》的「伪西列传」则记载使者是阮惠的外甥范公治；陈仲金则表示范公治是阮惠部下。不过，《清高宗实录》及中国第一历史档案馆藏《乾隆朝上谕档》中并没有提到这位「安南国王」是阮惠的替身。「假冒说」长期被中越学者普遍接受；然而现代有部份学者提出新的观点，认为这位「安南国王」就是阮惠本人。

在接受清朝册封之后，阮惠完全巩固了自己的统治，册立黎氏玉昕为北宫皇后，嫡长子阮光缵为皇太子。阮惠于乂安的麒麟山下修筑凤凰中都，计划未来以之为都城。又重新制定了行政区划和官制；以次子阮光垂为康公，领北边节制水步诸军；三子阮光盘为宣公，领清化督镇总理军民事。

对外扩张的野心

阮惠希望将越南变成东南亚的一大强国。早在清越战争的时候，黎昭统帝的弟弟黎维祗欲逃往镇南关，被西山军阻止。黎维祗遂投奔宣光、高平一带的土酋侬福缙、黄文桐，举起反对西山朝的大旗。黎维祗联合永珍王国共抗西山朝，镇宁府（今寮国川圹省）郑皐归合等地的酋长举兵响应，威胁乂安府。阮惠派遣陈光耀为大都督、阮文琬（一说为黎文忠）为都督，率精兵五千自乂安出发，前去平定镇宁府的叛乱。西山军攻破镇宁，擒酋长昭矫、昭难，灭亡郑皐、归合部落。随后西山军入侵永珍。永珍国王南塔森弃城逃跑，西山军一直追击到暹罗边境一带，俘获大量财宝、大象、马匹而归。西山军清剿后黎朝的残馀势力，黎维祗、侬福缙、黄文桐皆被擒杀。阮惠派武永珹、陈玉视献捷于清廷，名义上是对清朝恭顺，事实上是向清朝夸耀西山朝的国威。

而据《大南正编列传初集·卷三十·伪西列传》的记载，阮惠也曾有意入侵清朝。早在后黎朝末期，安南就与清朝广西辖下的土司存在著边界纠纷。安南方面声称广西的土司侵占了原本属于安南领土的兴化镇六州和宣光镇三岗，并多次要求清朝归还这块土地，皆遭拒绝。为此，阮惠向两广总督福康安递交外交文书，要求「申明故疆」。福康安认为两国疆界早已确立，因此拒绝了阮惠的要求。阮惠因此甚为不平，积极备战，准备使用武力手段侵略两广之地。

虽然阮惠有侵略清朝的念头，但他认为此时西山朝的军事实力仍不足以与清朝抗衡，因此积极备战。阮惠对活跃于广西、四川一带的天地会、白莲教等反清复明组织加以资助，甚至任命这些组织的首领为将领。他还收容并赞助来自中国沿海的「乌艚海匪」，让他们在越南沿海一带设立据点，并命之骚扰中国的广东、福建、浙江一带沿海。对于华南海盗的主要首领，阮惠也都封以官职，例如陈添保被封为保德侯，梁贵兴受封为合德侯，谭阿招受封为平波王，莫官扶、郑七、樊文才、梁文庚等也分别被委以将军、千总、指挥等之职。阮惠也为他们提供官方的战船，这些战船比海盗船只更为高大而耐用。在西山朝支持下，华南海盗从小股势力一跃而成为有组织的数千人海盗集团，他们以越南为中心骚扰中国沿海一带，有时候甚至围攻炮台、杀死官军。由于清廷将防备重心放在了镇压和防备内陆的反清起义上，沿海守军薄弱，官军不能制。清朝边境的地方官员明知这些人的后台是西山朝，但畏于西山朝的强大，不敢对此加以诘责。

1792年，阮惠派遣阮招远出使清朝，向清朝求请和亲，并更加露骨地要求清朝以两广之地为礼物割让给西山朝。阮惠明知此要求定会遭致清廷的断然拒绝，但仍然派遣使者，其目的是为了制造事端，以构成攻打清朝的藉口，「恢复」历史上曾被「赵朝」统治的「北方故疆」。另一方面，阮惠早已做好了入侵清朝的准备。根据美国学者穆黛安（Dian H. Murray）的考证，阮惠有侵略清朝的两广地区甚至整个华南地区的企图，他积极建造兵船，纠集了国中精锐的大象兵团，计划渡海入侵广州。就当一切准备就绪的时候，阮惠突然身患顽疾，被迫打消了侵清念头。阮招远一行未至京师就被召回安南。而其求婚请地的之事也被两广的地方官员隐瞒，因此清廷对此事一无所知。

阮惠的政治措施

• 地方行政：阮惠把都城设在他的祖籍地乂安，于乂安的麒麟山下修筑新的都城，称之为「凤凰中都」，改称升龙为「北城」。另外，主要的地方建置，还有在每镇设镇守和协镇。每县中设有掌管诉讼的「分知」及掌管兵粮的「分率」等官职。

• 官制：阮惠建立起官僚系统，设三公、三少、大冢宰、大司徒、大司寇、大司马、大司空等职。

• 农业：1789年（阮惠光中二年）起，阮惠发布「劝农诏」，鼓励人民「复流移，垦荒闲」，让他们回到本乡耕作，并且修订均田制度，务求令农民分得足够的口分田。

• 徵税：男丁按年龄分为三种徵收赋税的对象，称为「项」，2岁至17岁未及格项，18至55岁为壮项，56至60岁为老项，61岁以上为老饶项。另外，在田税方面，不论是政府授或私有田地，也要按等按等级交纳粟粮。

• 学术：在位期间阮惠推广字喃，他试图让字喃逐步取代汉字，成为未来越南的官方文字。其在位期间字喃在公文中经常使用。阮惠甚至在科举中命考官出字喃试题。但由于当时读书人都是学习汉字的四书五经长大的，这项政策侵犯了读书人的利益，因此许多书生对西山朝甚为不满。

• 宗教：阮惠在每府每县修建佛教寺庙，选用有才德兼备的僧侣作住持，若不称职，便迫令还俗。

• 身份证明制度：阮惠下令各地重造丁册，人人都须编入簿籍，然后每人发一副刻有「天下大信」的牌，上面记有姓名，贯址，并押手指印为记，称为「信牌」，任何人都须携带，无牌的就被视为「漏民」，要予以惩罚。但当时官吏经常围捕平民查问信牌，致使民间受到甚大骚扰。

• 兵制：据陈仲金所说，阮惠由于要北攻中国，因而要选拔士兵。根据丁册，每三丁抽一人为兵，是为其主要兵源。军队分为「道」、「奇」、「队」三级，道管各奇，奇管各队，并经常实行演习。另外，在各地军队中又设有「前军」、「后军」、「中军」、「左军」、「右军」的编制。但是由于阮惠在军事上开支过大，导致了西山朝背负了沉重的财政负担。阮惠不得不支持华南海盗骚扰中国沿岸，帮助他们在越南贩卖掠夺的商品来赚取中介费，以缓和财政危机。

※不论是越南学者陈仲金的《越南史略》、越南社会科学委员会的《越南历史》，抑或中国学者郭振铎、张笑梅的《越南通史》，都只列出了阮惠的政策及措施，但郤均没有提到归仁朝廷的阮岳有甚么具体施政。

逝世

1787年（阮岳泰德十年），西山朝的「隐患」阮福映跟法国签订了《越法凡尔赛条约》，正式跟法国结盟，共抗西山。虽然法国没有派兵支援，但法国传教士百多禄利用自己的关系，招募了大量法国士兵，购买了法国先进战船和武器。对此，阮惠曾于1792年（阮惠光中五年）8月27日（农历七月十日）发出檄文，宣布要歼灭阮福映。但在9月16日（农历九月二十九日），阮惠去世，寿40岁。

《大南实录·大南正编列传初集》中的「伪西列传」记载，阮惠在攻占富春的时候，曾大肆发掘广南阮主的祖坟，后来阮惠死前不久一天晚上忽然眩晕，见一位穿著白衣的白头翁自空中来，持铁棒骂道：「尔之祖父，生居王土，世为王民，尔安敢犯至陵寝。」以铁棒击其额头，阮惠昏倒，过了很久才醒过来，自此病情转剧，现代越南学者认为阮惠患上中风而病危。阮惠召乂安镇守陈光耀来到富春，商议将都城迁到凤凰中都。但得知阮福映的军队攻破平顺、平康、延庆等地的时候，阮惠的病情加重。太子阮光缵年方10岁，而在外又有死敌阮福映的威胁，因此阮惠对西山朝的未来甚为担忧。阮惠在临终前要求陈光耀等大臣协力辅佐嗣皇，大臣们都拜泣受命，「刑白马盟誓」。

年方10岁的太子阮光缵继位，给阮惠上庙号太祖（）、諡号武皇帝（）。根据《大南正编列传初集·伪西列传》记载，阮惠在临终前命令务必在一个月内建成陵墓，并且要求薄葬。其陵墓位于香江之南，称丹阳陵（）。但阮光缵派遣阮文寀、吴时任、阮曰直前往清朝报丧，声称西山朝遵照阮惠的遗命，将其尸体葬于北城的西湖之侧，因为这片土地「近依天阙」。乾隆帝信之，赐諡忠纯，亲自为阮惠撰写墓志铭和祭文，并派广西按察使成林出使安南吊唁。阮光缵则在苓塘（地属今河内市青池县）一带建立阮惠的衣冠冢，接受清朝的吊唁。

阮惠死后，西山朝旋即陷入内讧之中，势力大大削弱。到1802年（阮朝嘉隆元年），阮光缵最终被阮福映所灭，西山朝亦至此告终。阮光缵及宗室、臣下都被押解到顺化处死。由于阮惠曾先后四次攻打嘉定，使得阮福映被迫逃亡，且又曾大肆挖掘历代阮主陵墓，因此阮福映对阮惠恨之入骨。阮福映即位后，声称「朕闻为九世而复雠」，下令将阮惠与阮岳发冢戮尸，捣弃其骸骨；并将阮岳、阮惠的头骨和阮惠夫妇的木主处以「幽禁外图家」的处罚。明命二年（1821年），改为「永禁监狱室」。

家族

兄弟姐妹

根据现有的史料可知，阮惠为胡丕福的幼子，其排行之上有三位哥哥、一位姐姐。

后宫

载于史册的阮惠妻妾共有如下六人：

子女

评价

• 阮惠在阮朝时期一直被当作叛逆，其统治的西山朝被称为「伪朝」，不被朝廷正史所承认。直到陈仲金撰写《越南史略》时，才开始出现对阮惠较为客观的评价。

• 越南阮朝历史学家陈仲金认为，西山朝的阮惠既然是阮朝的死敌，在处理他在越南政治史里的正伪问题时，陈仲金抱著务实客观的看法，认为他有能力结束郑阮纷争的乱局，抵抗过中国清朝的进犯，并又获得了清朝皇帝依例册封为安南国王，因而是堪与丁先皇、黎太祖相媲美的人物，亦令西山朝也像丁、黎各朝一样是正统王朝。在提到他的品行时，陈仲金又盛赞其文武兼备：「西山阮朝光中皇帝是一位英勇的君主，以武力建立帝业。但他颇有肚量，善于治国，深知重视文学贤才。」

• 越南社会科学委员会：1970年代越共的学术机关越南社会科学委员会，亦一面倒地盛赞阮惠是越南的民族英雄：「光中是一个聪明而坚毅的人，他无限忠诚于人民和民族，在敌人和艰难危险面前他从不退缩。他不但是一位战无不胜的、屡建奇功的天才的军事家，而且还在政治、经济、文化、外交各个领域中也显示了他的卓越的才能。」

• 中国学者戴可来认为，阮惠率领西山军反抗清朝对越南农民起义的干涉「无疑是正义的」。但是阮惠成为皇帝之后，「不仅开始侵略扩张，而且还压迫人民」，俨然已经「蜕变为新的封建统治者」。戴可来认为陈仲金对阮惠的评价较为客观，并且批评越南社会科学委员会，称其一味颂扬其抗清事迹，刻意回避其侵略扩张和压迫人民的事实，不是严肃的治史态度。

• 中国学者郭振铎、张笑梅指出，阮惠在短短五年的在位时间里，作出了不少善政，「实行了有利于巩固政权、提高生产促进社会进步的政策和改善人民生活的措施。」但同时亦指出，阮惠需要对西山朝的覆亡负上一定的责任，由于阮氏三兄弟始终未能兑现「分配财产归农民所有和打富济贫的口号」，加上兄弟相残，阮惠竟不顾及兄弟之情而南下攻打阮岳，因而导致西山朝自身元气大伤。

纪念

• 阮岳、阮侣、阮惠三兄弟，被越南人并称为「西山三杰」。

• 1960年代，南越的越南国家银行发行印有阮惠肖像及出征图画的200元越南盾钞票，以作纪念。

• 越南人对阮惠甚为尊崇，阮惠的雕像遍布越南全国。越南各地都有以阮惠命名的街道。