Etymology

The name "Goryeo", which is the source of the name "Korea", was originally used by Goguryeo of the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning in the early 5th century. Other attested variants of the name have also been recorded as Gori (高离/槀离/稾离) and Guryeo (句丽). There have been various speculations for the breakdown of Goguryeo as a name, the most common being go meaning "high", "noble" and guri meaning "castle", related to the word gol used during medieval Goryeo meaning "place". In 918, Goryeo was founded as the successor to Goguryeo and inherited its name. Historically, Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD), Later Goguryeo (901–918), and Goryeo (918–1392) all used the name "Goryeo". Their historiographical names were implemented in the Samguk sagi in the 12th century. Goryeo also used the names Samhan and Haedong, meaning "East of the Sea".

History

Founding

In the late 7th century, the kingdom of Silla unified the Three Kingdoms of Korea and entered a period known in historiography as "Unified Silla" or "Later Silla". Later Silla implemented a national policy of integrating Baekje and Goguryeo refugees called the "Unification of the Samhan", referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Silla organized a new central army called the Guseodang that was divided into 3 units of Silla people, 3 units of Goguryeo people, 2 units of Baekje people, and 1 unit of Mohe people. However, the Baekje and Goguryeo refugees retained their respective collective consciousnesses and maintained a deep-seated resentment and hostility toward Silla. Later Silla was initially a period of peace, without a single foreign invasion for 200 years, and commerce, as it engaged in international trade from as distant as the Middle East and maintained maritime leadership in East Asia. Beginning in the late 8th century, Later Silla was undermined by instability because of political turbulence in the capital and class rigidity in the bone-rank system, leading to the weakening of the central government and the rise of the "hojok" regional lords. The military officer Kyŏn Hwŏn revived Baekje in 892 with the descendants of the Baekje refugees, and the Buddhist monk Kung Ye revived Goguryeo in 901 with the descendants of the Goguryeo refugees; these states are called Later Baekje and Later Goguryeo in historiography, and together with Later Silla form the Later Three Kingdoms.

Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions of Later Silla, which, along with its capital located in modern-day Kaesong, North Korea, were the strongholds of the Goguryeo refugees. Among the Goguryeo refugees was Wang Kŏn, a member of a prominent maritime hojok based in Kaesong, who traced his ancestry to a great clan of Goguryeo. Wang Kŏn entered military service under Kung Ye at the age of 19 in 896, before Later Goguryeo had been established, and over the years accumulated a series of victories over Later Baekje and gained the public's confidence. In particular, using his maritime abilities, he persistently attacked the coast of Later Baekje and occupied key points, including modern-day Naju. Kung Ye was unstable and cruel: he moved the capital to Cheorwon in 905, changed the name of his kingdom to Majin in 904 then Taebong in 911, changed his era name multiple times, proclaimed himself the Maitreya Buddha, claimed to read minds, and executed numerous subordinates and family members out of paranoia. In 918, Kung Ye was deposed by his own generals, and Wang Kŏn was raised to the throne. Wang Kŏn, who would posthumously be known by his temple name of Taejo or "Grand Progenitor", changed the name of his kingdom back to "Goryeo", adopted the era name of "Heaven's Mandate", and moved the capital back to his home of Kaesong. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo and laid claim to Manchuria as its rightful legacy. One of Taejo's first decrees was to repopulate and defend the ancient Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang, which had been in ruins for a long time; afterward, he renamed it the "Western Capital", and before he died, he placed great importance on it in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants.

Unification

In contrast to Kung Ye, who had harbored vengeful animosity toward Silla, Taejo (Wang Kŏn) was magnanimous toward the weakened kingdom. In 927, Kyŏn Hwŏn, who had vowed to avenge the last king of Baekje when he founded Later Baekje, sacked the capital of Later Silla, forced the king to commit suicide, and installed a puppet on the throne. Taejo came to Later Silla's aid but suffered a major defeat at the hand of Kyŏn Hwŏn near modern-day Daegu; Taejo barely escaped with his life thanks to the self-sacrifices of Generals Sin Sung-gyŏm and Kim Nak, and, thereafter, Later Baekje became the dominant military power of the Later Three Kingdoms. However, the balance of power shifted toward Goryeo with victories over Later Baekje in 930 and 934, and the peaceful annexation of Later Silla in 935. Taejo graciously accepted the capitulation of the last king of Silla and incorporated the ruling class of Later Silla. In 935, Kyŏn Hwŏn was removed from his throne by his eldest son over a succession dispute and imprisoned at the temple Geumsansa, but he escaped to Goryeo three months later and was deferentially received by his former archrival. In 936, upon Kyŏn Hwŏn's request, Taejo and Kyŏn Hwŏn conquered Later Baekje with an army of 87,500 soldiers, bringing an end to the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo proceeded to incorporate a major portion of the Balhae people whose links to Goguryeo were shared with Goryeo, accepting most of their royalty and nobility in their fold.

Following the destruction of Balhae by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 927, the last crown prince of Balhae and much of the ruling class sought refuge in Goryeo, where they were warmly welcomed and given land by Taejo. In addition, Taejo included the Balhae crown prince in the Goryeo royal family, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo and, according to Korean historians, achieving a "true national unification" of Korea. According to the Goryeosa jeolyo, the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related. Taejo felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country", and protected the Balhae refugees. This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae. Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident". Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jin that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian. Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against.

Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong. Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeoic population in Goryeo is speculated to have become dominant in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. By the end of the Later Three Kingdoms, territories populated by the original Silla people and considered that of "Silla proper" (原新罗) were reduced to Gyeongju and bits of the vicinity. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region and Balhae. Nonetheless, Goryeo proceeded to peacefully absorbing the ruling class of both countries and incorporated them under its bureaucracy; conducting political marriages and distributing positions according to their previous status in their respective countries. In contrast to Silla's bone-rank system, these open policies implemented by Wang Kŏn enabled Goryeo to enjoy a larger pool of highly skilled bureaucrats and technicians with the addition of those coming from Silla and Baekje; later on instilling a single agenda in terms of identity amongst its people. During the time of its existence, Goryeo also accepted a large amount of skilled workers from Medieval China and Tamna as well.

Political reformation

Although Goryeo had unified the Korean Peninsula, the hojok regional lords remained quasi-independent within their walled domains and posed a threat to the monarchy. To secure political alliances, Taejo married 29 women from prominent hojok families, siring 25 sons and 9 daughters. His fourth son, Gwangjong, came to power in 949 to become the fourth ruler of Goryeo and instituted reforms to consolidate monarchical authority. In 956, Gwangjong freed the prisoners of war and refugees who had been enslaved by the hojok during the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period, in effect decreasing the power and influence of the regional nobility and increasing the population liable for taxation by the central government. In 958, advised by Shuang Ji, a naturalized Chinese official from the Later Zhou dynasty, Gwangjong implemented the gwageo civil service examinations, based primarily on the imperial examination of the Tang dynasty. This, too, was to consolidate monarchical authority. The gwageo remained an important institution in Korea until its abolition in 1894. In contrast to Goryeo's traditional "dual royal/imperial structure under which the ruler was at once king, emperor and Son of Heaven", according to Remco E. Breuker, Gwangjong used a "full-blown imperial system". All those who opposed or resisted his reforms were summarily purged.

Gwangjong's successor, Gyeongjong, instituted the "Stipend Land Law" in 976 to support the new central government bureaucracy established on the foundation of Gwangjong's reforms. The next ruler, Seongjong, secured centralization of government and laid the foundation for a centralized political order. Seongjong filled the bureaucracy with new bureaucrats, who as products of the gwageo civil service examinations were educated to be loyal to the state, and dispatched centrally-appointed officials to administrate the provinces. As a result, the monarch controlled much of the decision making, and his signature was required to implement important decisions. Seongjong supported Confucianism and, upon a proposal by the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Sŭng-no, the separation of government and religion. In addition, Seongjong laid the foundation for Goryeo's educational system: he founded the Gukjagam national university in 992, supplementing the schools already established in Kaesong and Pyongyang by Taejo, and national libraries and archives in Kaesong and Pyongyang that contained tens of thousands of books.

Goryeo–Khitan War

Following the "Manbu Bridge Incident" of 942, Goryeo prepared itself for a conflict with the Khitan Empire: Jeongjong established a military reserve force of 300,000 soldiers called the "Resplendent Army" in 947, and Gwangjong built fortresses north of the Chongchon River, expanding toward the Yalu River. However an attempt to control the Yalu River basin in 984 failed due to conflict with the Jurchens. The Khitans considered Goryeo a potential threat and, with tensions rising, invaded in 993. The Jurchens warned Goryeo of the invasion twice. At first Goryeo did not believe the information but came around upon the second warning and took up a defensive strategy. The Koreans were defeated in their first encounter with the Khitans, but successfully halted their advance at Anyung-jin (in modern Anju, South Pyongan Province) at the Chongchon River. Negotiations began between the Goryeo commander, Sŏ Hŭi, and the Liao commander, Xiao Sunning. In conclusion, Goryeo entered a nominal tributary relationship with Liao, severing relations with Song, and Liao recognized Goryeo sovereignty to the land east of the Yalu River. Goryeo was left free to deal with the Jurchens south of the Yalu and in 994-996, Sŏ Hŭi led an army into the area and built forts. Afterward, Goryeo established the "Six Garrison Settlements East of the River" in its new territory. In 994, Goryeo proposed to Song a joint military attack on Liao, but was declined; previously, in 985, when Song had proposed a joint military attack on Liao, Goryeo had declined. For a time, Goryeo and Liao enjoyed an amicable relationship. In 996, Seongjong married a Liao princess.

As the Khitan Empire expanded and became more powerful, it demanded that Goryeo cede the Six Garrison Settlements, but Goryeo refused. In 1009, Kang Cho staged a coup d'état, assassinating Mokjong and installing Hyeonjong on the throne. Goryeo sent an envoy to the Khitans telling them that the previous king had died and a new king had ascended the throne. In the following year, some Jurchen tribesmen who had been in conflict with Goryeo fled to the Khitans and told them of the coup. Under the pretext of avenging Mokjong, Emperor Shengzong of Liao led an invasion of Goryeo with an army of 400,000 soldiers. Meanwhile, Goryeo tried to establish relations with Song but was ignored, as Song had agreed to the Chanyuan Treaty in 1005. Goryeo gathered a 300,000 strong army under Kang Cho. In the first battle, the Goryeo forces led by Yang Kyu won a victory against the Liao. The Liao decided to split up their forces with one part heading south. The Goryeo army under the leadership of Kang Cho lost the second battle and suffered heavy casualties. The army was dispersed and many commanders were captured or killed, including Kang Cho himself. Later, Pyongyang was successfully defended, but the Liao army marched toward Kaesong.

Hyeonjong, upon the advice of Kang Kam-ch'an, evacuated south to Naju. Shortly afterward, the Liao won a pitched battle outside Kaesong and sacked the city. He then sent and Ko Yŏnggi to sue for peace, with a promise that he would pay homage in person to the Liao emperor. The Khitans, who were sustaining attacks from previously surrendered districts and the regrouped Korean army which disrupted their supply lines, accepted and began their withdrawal. The Liao army became bogged down in the mountains during the winter and had to abandon much of their armour. The Khitans were ceaselessly attacked during their withdrawal; Yang Kyu rescued from over 10,000 to over 30,000 prisoners of war, but died in battle. According to the Goryeosa, due to continued attacks and heavy rain, the Khitan army was devastated and lost its weapons crossing the Yalu. They were attacked while crossing the Yalu River and many drowned. Afterward, Hyeonjong did not fulfill his promise to pay homage in person to the Liao emperor, and when demanded to cede the Six Garrison Settlements, he refused.

The Khitans built a bridge across the Yalu River in 1014 and attacked in 1015, 1016, and 1017: victory went to the Koreans in 1015, the Khitans in 1016, and the Koreans in 1017. Goryeo lost the Poju (Uiju) region. In 1018, Liao launched an invasion led by Xiao Paiya, the older brother of Xiao Sunning, with an army of 100,000 soldiers. The Liao army tried to head straight for Kaesong. Goryeo gathered an army of 208,000 under Kang Kam-ch'an and ambushed and Liao army, which suffered heavy casualties. The Goryeo commander Kang Kam-ch'an had dammed a large tributary of the Yalu River and released the water on the unsuspecting Khitan soldiers, who were then charged by 12,000 elite cavalry. The Liao army pushed on toward Kaesong under constant enemy harassment. After arriving within the vicinity of the well-defended capital, a contingent of 300 cavalry sent as scouts was annihilated, upon which the Liao army decided to withdraw. The Liao troops soldiered on and headed toward the capital, but were met with stiff resistance and constant attacks, and were forced to retreat back north. During the retreat, 10,000 Liao army troops were annihilated by the Goryeo army under of Goryeo. The retreating Liao army was intercepted by Kang Kam-ch'an in modern-day Kusong and suffered a major defeat, with only a few thousand soldiers escaping.

Shengzong intended to invade again and amassed another large expeditionary army in 1019 but faced internal opposition. In 1020, Goryeo sent tribute and Liao accepted, thus resuming nominal tributary relations. Shengzong did not demand that Hyeonjong pay homage in person or cede the Six Garrison Settlements. The only peace treaty stipulations formalized in 1022 were a "declaration of vassalage" and the release of a detained Liao envoy. A Liao envoy was sent in the same year to formally invest the Goryeo king and upon his death in 1031, his successor Wang Hŭm was also invested as king by the Liao. After 1022, Goryeo did not have diplomatic relations with the Song until 1070, with the exception of an isolated embassy in 1030. The sole embassy was probably related to the rebellion of Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the Khitans, who returned to enforce Goryeo's tributary obligations. Goryeo adopted the reign title of the Liao in the fourth month of 1022. The History of Liao claims that Hyeonjong "surrendered" and Shengzong "pardoned" him, but according to Hans Bielenstein, "shorn of its dynastic language, this means no more than that the two states concluded peace as equal partners (formalized in 1022)". Bielenstein claims that Hyeonjong kept his reign title and maintained diplomatic relations with the Song dynasty.

Kaesong was rebuilt, grander than before, and, from 1033 to 1044, the Cheolli Jangseong, a wall stretching from the mouth of the Yalu River to the east coast of the Korean Peninsula, was built for defense against future invasions. Liao never invaded Goryeo again.

Golden age

Following the Goryeo–Khitan War, a balance of power was established in East Asia between Goryeo, Liao, and Song. With its victory over Liao, Goryeo was confident in its military ability and no longer worried about a Khitan military threat. Fu Bi, a grand councilor of the Song dynasty, had a high estimate of Goryeo's military ability and said that Liao was afraid of Goryeo. Furthermore, regarding the attitude of the Koreans, he said: "Among the many tribes and peoples which, depending on their power of resistance, have been either assimilated or made tributary to the Khitan, the Koreans alone do not bow their heads." Song regarded Goryeo as a potential military ally and maintained friendly relations as equal partners. Meanwhile, Liao sought to build closer ties with Goryeo and prevent a Song–Goryeo military alliance by appealing to Goryeo's infatuation with Buddhism, and offered Liao Buddhist knowledge and artifacts to Goryeo. During the 11th century, Goryeo was viewed as "the state that could give either the Song or Liao military ascendancy". When imperial envoys, who represented the emperors of Liao and Song, went to Goryeo, they were received as peers, not suzerains. Goryeo's international reputation was greatly enhanced. Beginning in 1034, merchants from Song and envoys from various Jurchen tribes and the Tamna kingdom attended the annual Palgwanhoe in Kaesong, the largest national celebration in Goryeo; the Song merchants attended as representatives of China while the Jurchen and Tamna envoys attended as members of Goryeo's tianxia. During the reign of Munjong, the Heishui Mohe and Japan, among many others, attended as well. The Tamna kingdom of Jeju Island was incorporated into Goryeo in 1105.

Goryeo's golden age lasted about 100 years into the early 12th century and was a period of commercial, intellectual, and artistic achievement. The capital was a center of trade and industry, and its merchants developed one of the earliest systems of double-entry bookkeeping in the world, called the sagae chibubeop, that was used until 1920. The Goryeosa records the arrival of merchants from Arabia in 1024, 1025, and 1040, and hundreds of merchants from Song each year, beginning in the 1030s. There were developments in printing and publishing, spreading the knowledge of philosophy, literature, religion, and science. Goryeo prolifically published and imported books, and by the late 11th century, exported books to China; the Song dynasty transcribed thousands of Korean books. The first Tripitaka Koreana, amounting to about 6,000 volumes, was completed in 1087. The private academy was established in 1055 by Ch'oe Ch'ung, who is known as the "Haedong Confucius", and soon afterward there were 12 private academies in Goryeo that rivaled the Gukjagam national university. In response, several Goryeo rulers reformed and revitalized the national education system, producing prominent scholars such as Kim Pu-sik. In 1101, the Seojeokpo printing bureau was established at the Gukjagam. In the early 12th century, local schools called were established. Goryeo's reverence for learning is attested to in the , or , a book by an envoy from the Song dynasty who visited Goryeo in 1123. The reign of Munjong, from 1046 to 1083, was called a "Reign of Peace" and is considered the most prosperous and peaceful period in Goryeo history. Munjong was highly praised and described as "benevolent" and "holy" (贤圣之君) in the Goryeosa. In addition, he achieved the epitome of cultural blossoming in Goryeo. Munjong had 13 sons: the three eldest succeeded him on the throne, and the fourth was the prominent Buddhist monk Uicheon.

Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture, such as Koryŏ celadon, which was highly praised in the Song dynasty, and the Tripitaka Koreana, which was described by UNESCO as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world", with the original 81,258 engraved printing blocks still preserved at the temple Haeinsa. In the early 13th century, Goryeo developed movable type made of metal to print books, 200 years before Johannes Gutenberg in Europe.

Goryeo-Jurchen War

The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje. The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens.

The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of the Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region.

As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Im Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Im Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan, but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace.

Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (别武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. It existed apart from the main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch'ong set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue, the Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan. It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of the region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju (Uiju), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain.

Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). When the Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The Jin went on to conquer the Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 (Jingkang incident). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyŏm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself a Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable.

Power struggles

The Inju Yi clan married women to the kings from the time of Munjong to the 17th King, Injong. Eventually the Inju Yi clan gained more power than the monarch himself. This led to the coup of Yi Cha-gyŏm in 1126. It failed, but the power of the monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility.

In 1135, Myocheong argued in favor of moving the capital to Seogyeong (now Pyongyang). This proposal divided the nobles. One faction, led by Myocheong, believed in moving the capital to Pyongyang and expanding into Manchuria. The other one, led by Kim Pu-sik (author of the Samguk sagi), wanted to keep the status quo. Myocheong failed to persuade the king; he rebelled and established the state of Daebang, but it failed and he was killed.

Military regime

Although Goryeo was founded by the military, its authority was in decline. In 1014, a coup occurred but the effects of the rebellion did not last long, only making generals discontent with the current supremacy of the civilian officers.

In addition, under the reign of King Uijong, military officers were prohibited from entering the Security Council, and even at times of state emergency, they were not allowed to assume commands. After political chaos, Uijong started to enjoy traveling to local temples and studying sutra, while he was almost always accompanied by a large group of civilian officers. The military officers were largely ignored and were even mobilized to construct temples and ponds.

Beginning in 1170, the government of Goryeo was de facto controlled by a succession of powerful families from the warrior class, most notably the Ch'oe family, in a military dictatorship akin to a shogunate.

In 1170, a group of army officers led by Chŏng Chung-bu, Yi Ŭi-bang and Yi Ko launched a coup d'état and succeeded. King Uijong went into exile and King Myeongjong was placed on the throne. Effective power, however, lay with a succession of generals who used an elite guard unit known as the Tobang to control the throne: military rule of Goryeo had begun. In 1179, the young general Kyŏng Tae-sŭng rose to power and began an attempt to restore the full power of the monarch and purge the corruption of the state.

However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by Yi Ŭi-min, who came from a nobi (slave) background. During this period, despite nearly three centuries of Goryeo rule, loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. There were multiple rebellions by the Silla restoration movement to overthrow Goryeo's rule over the Sillan people. Yi's unrestrained corruption and cruelty led to a coup by general Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn, who assassinated Yi Ui-min and took supreme power in 1197. For the next 61 years, the Ch'oe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining the Kings as puppet monarchs; Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was succeeded in turn by his son Ch'oe U, his grandson Ch'oe Hang and his great-grandson Ch'oe Ŭi.

When he took control, Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with King Sinjong. What was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister Yi Kyu-bo who was a Confucian scholar-official.

After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to the throne as Huijong. After 7 years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable King Gojong instead.

Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by the Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and also the power of the military regime waned.

Mongol invasions and Yuan domination

Fleeing from the Mongols, in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and defeated the Korean armies multiple times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were defeated by Korean General Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ who pushed them back north to Pyongan, where the remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219.

Tension continued through the 12th century and into the 13th century, when the Mongol invasions started. After nearly 30 years of warfare, Goryeo swore allegiance to the Mongols, with the direct dynastic rule of Goryeo monarchy.

In 1231, Mongols under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against the Khitans in 1219. The royal court moved to Ganghwado in the Bay of Gyeonggi in 1232. The military ruler of the time, Ch'oe U, insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259.

Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla. There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under Möngke Khan's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions against Korea at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula.

Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol invasions caused havoc, loss of human lives and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered the recreation of the Tripitaka Koreana, which was destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day.

In March 1258, the dictator Ch'oe Ŭi was assassinated by Kim Chun. Thus, dictatorship by his military group was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent Crown Prince Wonjong to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Khubilai, who became khan of the Mongols and emperor of China in 1260, did not impose direct rule over most of Goryeo. Goryeo Korea, in contrast to Song China, was treated more like an Inner Asian power. The dynasty was allowed to survive, and intermarriage with Mongols was encouraged, even with the Mongol imperial family, while the marriage between Chinese and Mongols was strictly forbidden when the Song dynasty was ended. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean Peninsula.

Late period

After 1270 Goryeo became a semi-autonomous client state of the Yuan dynasty. The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo tied with marriages and Goryeo became khuda (marriage alliance) vassal of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years and monarchs of Goryeo were mainly imperial sons in-law (khuregen). The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty, Empress Gi, was a daughter of a Goryeo lower-ranked official; Empress Gi was sent to Yuan as one of the many kongnyŏ (贡女; lit. 'tribute women', who were in effects slaves sent over as a sign of Goryeo submission to the Mongols) and became empress in 1365. Empress Gi had great political influence both the Yuan and the Goryeo court, and even manage to significantly increase the status and influence of her family members, including her father who was formally made into a king in the Yuan and her brother Gi Cheol who at some point manage to get more authority than the Goryeo king. In 1356, King Gongmin purged the family of Empress Gi. The kings of Goryeo held an important status like other important families of Mardin, the Uyghurs and Mongols (Oirats, Khongirad, and Ikeres). It is claimed that one of Goryeo monarchs was the most beloved grandson of Kublai Khan.

The Goryeo dynasty survived under the Yuan until King Gongmin began to push the Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back in the 1350s. By 1356 Goryeo regained its lost northern territories.

Last reform

When King Gongmin ascended to the throne, Goryeo was under the influence of the Mongol Yuan China. He was forced to spend many years at the Yuan court, being sent there in 1341 as a virtual prisoner before becoming king. He married the Mongol princess Princess Noguk (also known as Queen Indeok). But in the mid-14th century the Yuan was beginning to crumble, soon to be replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. King Gongmin began efforts to reform the Goryeo government and remove Mongolian influences.

His first act was to remove all pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officers from their positions. Mongols had annexed the northern provinces of Goryeo after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as the Ssangseong and Dongnyeong Prefectures. The Goryeo army retook these provinces partly thanks to defection from Yi Cha-ch'un, a minor Korean official in service of Mongols in Ssangseong, and his son Yi Sŏng-gye. In addition, Generals Yi Sŏng-gye and Chi Yong-su led a campaign into Liaoyang.

After the death of Gongmin's wife Noguk in 1365, he fell into depression. In the end, he became indifferent to politics and entrusted that great task to the Buddhist monk Sin Ton. But after six years, Sin Ton lost his position. In 1374, Gongmin was killed by Hong Ryun, Ch'oe Man-saeng, and others.

After his death, a high official Yi In-im assumed the helm of the government and enthroned eleven-year-old, King U, the son of King Gongmin.

During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Ch'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Mongol tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Ch'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.

Fall

In 1388, King U (son of King Gongmin and a concubine) and general Ch'oe Yŏng planned a campaign to invade now Liaoning of China. King U put the general Yi Sŏng-gye (later Taejo) in charge, but he stopped at the border and rebelled.

Goryeo fell to General Yi Sŏng-gye, who put to death the last three Goryeo kings, usurped the throne, and established in 1392 the Joseon dynasty.

Government

Goryeo positioned itself at the center of its own "world" called "Haedong". Haedong, meaning "East of the Sea", was a distinct and independent world that encompassed the historical ___domain of the "Samhan", another name for the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The rulers of Goryeo, or Haedong, used the titles of emperor and Son of Heaven. Imperial titles were used since the founding of Goryeo, and the last king of Silla addressed Wang Geon as the Son of Heaven when he capitulated. Posthumously, temple names with the imperial characters of progenitor and ancestor were used. Imperial designations and terminology were widely used, such as "empress", "imperial crown prince", "imperial edict", and "imperial palace".

The rulers of Goryeo donned imperial yellow clothing, made sacrifices to Heaven, and invested sons as kings. Goryeo used the Three Departments and Six Ministries imperial system of the Tang dynasty and had its own "microtributary system" that included Jurchen tribes outside its borders. The military of Goryeo was organized into 5 armies, like an empire, as opposed to 3, like a kingdom. Goryeo maintained multiple capitals: the main capital "Gaegyeong" (also called "Hwangdo" or "Imperial Capital") in modern-day Kaesong, the "Western Capital" in modern-day Pyongyang, the "Eastern Capital" in modern-day Gyeongju, and the "Southern Capital" in modern-day Seoul. The main capital and main palace were designed and intended to be an imperial capital and imperial palace. The secondary capitals represented the capitals of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

The Song, Liao, and Jin dynasties were all well informed of, and tolerated, Goryeo's imperial claims and practices. According to Henry Em, "at times Song reception rituals for Koryŏ envoys and Koryŏ reception rituals for imperial envoys from Song, Liao, and Jin suggested equal rather than hierarchical relations". In 1270, Goryeo capitulated to the Mongols and became a semi-autonomous "son-in-law state" of the Yuan dynasty, bringing an end to its imperial system. The Yuan dynasty demoted the imperial titles of Goryeo and added "chung", meaning "loyalty", to the temple names of Goryeo kings, beginning with Chungnyeol. This continued until the mid-14th century, when Gongmin declared independence.

Military

The military comprises both the army and the navy. Military leaders were appointed by Kings/Emperors.

Regional administration

Foreign relations

Goryeo affiliated itself with the successive short-lived Five Dynasties beginning with the Shatuo Later Tang dynasty in 933, and Taejo was acknowledged as the legitimate successor to Dongmyeong of Goguryeo.

In 962, Goryeo entered relations with the nascent Song dynasty. Song did not have real suzerainty over Goryeo, and Goryeo sent tribute mainly for the sake of trade. Later, Goryeo entered nominal tributary relations with the Khitan Liao dynasty then the Jurchen Jin dynasty while maintaining trade and unofficial relations with the Song dynasty. The Korean missions to China were intended to seek knowledge on fields such as Confucianism, Buddhism, history, and other subjects, conduct diplomacy, and trade. Missions to the Song in 976, 986, and after 1105 stayed there for study. Goryeo requested texts from the Song in 991, 993, 1019, 1021, 1073, 1074, 1092, and after 1105. They also brought texts to China. Diplomatic missions were conducted to announce birthdays, deaths, and successions. Trade, in particular, was an important aspect of all the missions. Annual tribute was expected to be exchanged for proper payment. In 1093, Su Shi suggested that Goryeo envoys should stick to trade in commercial products such as silk and hair instead of books. Sometimes missions were sent even though they would not be received to conduct trade.

The Five Dynasties, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty pretended that Goryeo was a tributary vassal. However this was a fiction. The Five Dynasties and the Song did not share a border with Goryeo and had no way to assert supremacy over it. The Liao invasions of Goryeo from 993 to 1020 were successfully repelled. The Jin made no similar effort against Goryeo. Goryeo was not a vassal to these powers and successfully stood up to Liao and Jin through clever diplomacy and minimal appeasement. Goryeo was autonomous until Mongol rule. Sinologist Hans Bielenstein described the nature of Goryeo's nominal tributary relations with the dynasties in China:

In 1270, Goryeo capitulated to the Yuan dynasty, which exercised a powerful influence over Goryeo affairs and the succession of Goryeo kings. Goryeo remained under the Yuan dynasty until the mid-14th century.

Goryeo used multiple calendars. In 938, it used the Later Jin calendar, in 948 Later Han, in 952 Later Zhou, in 963 Song, in 994 Liao, in 1016 Song, and in 1022 Liao. In 1136, Goryeo was presented with a Jin calendar. It is possible that Goryeo used different calendars simultaneously depending on which country they dealt with.

Society

Nobility

At the time of Goryeo, Korean nobility was divided into 6 classes.

• Gukgong, duke of a nation

• Gungong, duke of a county

• Hyeonhu, marquis of a town

• Hyeonbaek, count of a town

• Gaegukja or hyeonja, viscount of a town

• Hyeonnam, baron of a town

Also the title taeja was given to sons of monarch. In most other east Asian countries this title meant crown prince. Taeja was similar to daegun or gun of Joseon.

Religion

Buddhism

Buddhism in medieval Korea evolved in ways which rallied support for the state.

Initially, the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various "nine mountain" monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court of the Gyo schools. The struggles which ensued continued for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand. The position that was generally adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the efforts of Jinul, did not claim clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, but rather declared the intrinsic unity and similarities of the Seon and Gyo viewpoints. Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward the end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a "religion of the state," receiving extensive support and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful members of the court. Although Buddhist predominated, taoism was practiced in some temples, as was shamanism.

Although most of the scholastic schools waned in activity and influence during this period of the growth of Seon, the Hwaeom school continued to be a lively source of scholarship well into the Goryeo, much of it continuing the legacy of Uisang and Wonhyo. In particular the work of Gyunyeo (均如; 923–973) prepared for the reconciliation of Hwaeom and Seon, with Hwaeom's accommodating attitude toward the latter. Gyunyeo's works are an important source for modern scholarship in identifying the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom.

Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was Uicheon. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with the Hwaeom school. He later traveled to China, and upon his return, actively promulgated the Cheontae (天台宗, or Tiantai in Chinese) teachings, which became recognized as another Seon school. This period thus came to be described as "five doctrinal and two meditational schools". Uicheon himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died at a relatively young age without seeing a Seon-Gyo unity accomplished.

The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (知讷; 1158–1210). In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefore, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period.

Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the "samādhi and prajñā society", whose goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye (曹溪山). Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chinese Seon, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Zongmi (780–841) and Dahui (大慧; 1089–1163), Jinul created a "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa (观话) method into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism.

The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produce some of Korea's most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were contemporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baeg'un (景闲白云; 1298–1374), Taego Bou (太古普愚; 1301–1382) and Naong Hyegeun (懒翁慧勤; 1320–1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the Linji (临济 or Imje in Korean) gwanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned, and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti-scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional Tongbulgyo tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of confucianism and taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the foundation of official education. From this time, a marked tendency for Korean Buddhist monks to be "three teachings" exponents appeared.

A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, called the Tripitaka Koreana. Two editions were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by Mongol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years.

Confucianism

Gwangjong created the national civil service examinations. Seongjong was a key figure in establishing confucianism. He founded Gukjagam, the highest educational institution of the Goryeo dynasty. This was facilitated by the establishment in 1398 of the Sungkyunkwan – an academy with a Confucian curriculum – and the building of an altar at the palace, where the king would worship his ancestors.

Islam

According to Goryeosa, Muslims arrived in the peninsula in the year 1024 in the Goryeo kingdom, a group of some 100 Muslims, including Hasan Raza, came in September of the 15th year of Hyeonjong of Goryeo and another group of 100 Muslim merchants came the following year.

Trading relations between the Islamic world and the Korean peninsula continued with the succeeding Goryeo kingdom through to the 15th century. As a result, a number of Muslim traders from the Near East and Central Asia settled down in Korea and established families there. Some Muslim Hui people from China also appear to have lived in the Goryeo kingdom.

With the Mongol armies came the so-called Saengmokin (Semu), or "colored-eye people", this group consisted of Muslims from Central Asia. In the Mongol social order, the Saengmokin occupied a position just below the Mongols themselves, and exerted a great deal of influence within the Yuan dynasty.

It was during this period satirical poems were composed and one of them was the Sanghwajeom, the "Colored-eye people bakery", the song tells the tale of a Korean woman who goes to a Muslim bakery to buy some dumplings.

Small-scale contact with predominantly Muslim peoples continued on and off. During the late Goryeo period, there were mosques in the capital Kaesong, called Ye-Kung, whose literary meaning is a "ceremonial hall".

One of those Central Asian immigrants to Korea originally came to Korea as an aide to a Mongol princess who had been sent to marry King Chungnyeol of Goryeo. Goryeo documents say that his original name was Samga but, after he decided to make Korea his permanent home, the king bestowed on him the Korean name of Jang Sun-nyong. Jang married a Korean and became the founding ancestor of the Deoksu Jang clan. His clan produced many high officials and respected Confucian scholars over the centuries. Twenty-five generations later, around 30,000 Koreans look back to Jang Sunnyong as the grandfather of their clan: the Jang clan, with its seat at Toksu village.

The same is true of the descendants of another Central Asian who settled down in Korea. A Central Asian named Seol Son fled to Korea when the Red Turban Rebellion erupted near the end of the Mongol's Yuan dynasty. He, too, married a Korean, originating a lineage called the Gyeongju Seol that claims at least 2,000 members in Korea.

Soju

Soju was first distilled around the 13th century, during the Mongol invasions of Korea. The Mongols had acquired the technique of distilling Arak from the Muslim world during their invasion of Central Asia and the Middle East around 1256, it was subsequently introduced to Koreans and distilleries were set up around the city of Kaesong. Indeed, in the area surrounding Kaesong, Soju is known as Arak-ju. Under the reign of King Chungnyeol, soju quickly became a popular drink, while the stationed region of Mongolian troops came to produce high-quality soju, for instance in Andong.

Culture

Literature

The official histories of early Korea such as the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa, written in Classical Chinese, remain some of the most important historical works in Korean historiography.

Various writing systems that utilized the phonetic value of Hanja characters were used to transcribe Old Korean, Idu being the most notable of them as it was used for administrative purposes and recordkeeping. This script originates in Goguryeo and was designed for a very specific sort of syntax that made use of postpositional particles, such as the Old Korean accusative marker *-ul/*-ur ending represented by 尸 'corpse' and 乙 '2nd Heavenly stem'. It was eventually phased out once it became too impractical upon the invention of Hangeul.

Gugyeol was used to gloss Middle Chinese poems so Koreans could read them, with two versions having been used limited by their timeframes. Interpretative Gugyeol was predominant up to the 12th century and was supposed to tell the reader the meaning of the text and was meant to be read in Old Korean. The later form of Gugyeol appearing in the 13th century was meant to make it possible to spell out the Middle Chinese poem for the average reader, who would not know how Chinese sounded, by inferring the Koreanized pronunciation on it instead.

Hyangga poetry, which made use of Hyangchal, another writing system used to write Old Korean, was contrary to common belief still widespread during Goryeo and a number of the surviving poems that were attributed to the Unified Silla period have been revealed to have been created during Goryeo. The Cheoyongga is one of these examples, a story about a man and his unfaithful wife.

The Goryeo aristocracy emphasized engaging with high literature and court poetry in Classical Chinese. Learning Chinese poetry as well as composing poetry in Classical Chinese was a popular leisure activity for the aristocracy.

Tripitaka Koreana

Tripitaka Koreana is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka of approximately 80,000 pages. The wooden blocks that were used to print it are stored in Haeinsa temple in South Gyeongsang Province. The second version was made in 1251 by Gojong in an attempt invoke the power of Buddhism to fend off the Mongol invasion. The wooden blocks are kept clean by leaving them to dry outside every year. The Tripiṭaka Koreana was designated a National Treasure of South Korea in 1962, and inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 2007.

Art

Goryeo celadon

The ceramics of Goryeo are considered by some to be the finest small-scale works of ceramics in Korean history. Key-fret, foliate designs, geometric or scrolling flowerhead bands, elliptical panels, stylized fish and insects, and the use of incised designs began at this time. Glazes were usually various shades of celadon, with browned glazes to almost black glazes being used for stoneware and storage. Celadon glazes could be rendered almost transparent to show black and white inlays.

While the forms generally seen are broad-shouldered bottles, larger low bowls or shallow smaller bowls, highly decorated celadon cosmetic boxes, and small slip-inlaid cups, the Buddhist potteries also produced melon-shaped vases, chrysanthemum cups often of spectacularly architectural design on stands with lotus motifs and lotus flower heads. In-curving rimmed alms bowls have also been discovered similar to Korean metalware. Wine cups often had a tall foot which rested on dish-shaped stands.

Lacquerware with mother of pearl inlay

During the Goryeo period, lacquerware with mother-of-pearl inlay reached a high point of technical and aesthetic achievement and was widely used by members of the aristocracy for Buddhist ritual implements and vessels, as well as horse saddles and royal carriages. Inlaid lacquers combine texture, color, and shape to produce a dazzling effect in both large and small objects. Although Korean lacquerware of the Goryeo period was highly prized throughout East Asia, fewer than fifteen examples are known to have survived, one of which is this exquisite box in the Museum's collection. This paucity of material is largely attributable to the fragility of lacquer objects and, to a certain extent, to wars and raids by foreign powers, notably those launched from Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598) in the late sixteenth century.

More info on Goryeo lacquerware

Construction techniques

These ceramics are of a hard porcellaneous body with porcelain stone as one of the key ingredients; however, it is not to be confused with porcelain. The body is low clay, quartz rich, high potassia and virtually identical in composition to the Chinese Yueh ceramics which scholars hypothesize occasioned the first production of celadon in Korea. The glaze is an ash glaze with iron colourant, fired in a reduction atmosphere in a modified Chinese-style 'dragon' kiln. The distinctive blue-grey-green of Korean celadon is caused by the iron content of the glaze with a minimum of titanium contaminant, which modifies the color to a greener cast, as can be seen in Chinese Yueh wares. However, the Goryeo potters took the glaze in a different direction than their Chinese forebears; instead of relying solely on underglaze incised designs, they eventually developed the sanggam technique of inlaying black (magnetite) and white (quartz) which created bold contrast with the glaze. Scholars also theorize that this developed in part to an inlay tradition in Korean metalworks and lacquer, and also to the dissatisfaction with the nearly invisible effect of incising when done under a thick celadon glaze.

Modern celadon

A revival of Goryeo celadon pottery began in the early 20th century. Playing a leading role in its revival was Yu Geun-hyeong, a Living National Treasure whose work was documented in the 1979 short film, Koryo Celadon.

Technology

It is generally accepted that the world's first metal movable type was invented in Goryeo during the 13th century by Ch'oe Yun-ŭi. The first metal movable type book was the Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun that was printed in 1234. Technology in Korea took a big step in Goryeo and strong relation with the Song dynasty contributed to this. In the dynasty, Korean ceramics and paper, which come down to now, started to be manufactured.

Cotton was introduced in the 1370s.

During the late Goryeo Dynasty, Goryeo was at the cutting edge of shipboard artillery. In 1356 early experiments were carried out with gunpowder weapons that shot wood or metal projectiles. In 1373 experiments with incendiary arrows and "fire tubes" possibly an early form of the Hwacha were developed and placed on Korean warships. The policy of placing cannons and other gunpowder weapons continued well into the Joseon dynasty and by 1410, over 160 Joseon warships had cannons on board. Ch'oe Mu-sŏn, a medieval Korean inventor, military commander and scientist who introduced widespread use of gunpowder to Korea for the first time and creating various gunpowder based weapons.

国号

高丽国号取自高句丽的简称，成宗时期的大臣徐熙曾明确表示：「我国即高勾丽之旧也，故号高丽。」高丽经阿拉伯人介绍，为西方世界所知。今日朝鲜半岛国家的外文名称，如英文名「」等，就是「高丽」韩语发音的变形。在一些场合，高丽国号前会冠中国名号，如「有唐高丽国」、「有晋高丽国」、「有（大）宋高丽国」、「有（大）元高丽国」等，但臣事辽、金时则无此习惯，向单称「高丽国」。

历史

早期历史

建国

9世纪以后，新罗国日益腐朽，再加上贵族及农民起义，国家统治机构趋向衰落，地方封建集团乘机扩张势力范围。公元900年，新罗海防军裨将甄萱在完山州（今全罗北道全州）割地自立，建立后百济国。 901年，新罗王族弓裔在铁圆（今江原道铁原）成立以复兴高句丽为目的的后高句丽政权，904年改国号「摩震」，年号「武泰」。朝鲜半岛形成新罗、后百济和后高句丽三国鼎立的「后三国」。

918年，弓裔手下的几位大将拥立王建推翻弓裔，改国号为「高丽」，年号「天授」，次年迁都至松岳（今开城）。后百济与新罗都遣使到高丽与其建交。920年，后百济攻打新罗，高丽出兵相救。后百济从此与高丽断交，于924年和925年两次攻打高丽，双方后相互以亲戚为人质议和。926年，后百济人质甄萱外甥在高丽病故。甄萱认为是被高丽所杀，于是杀死了高丽在后百济的人质王建的堂弟。927年，高丽联合新罗与后百济大战。同年9月，甄萱攻进新罗国都庆州，逼迫新罗景哀王自杀后，立金傅为王，是为敬顺王。931年，太祖王建应敬顺王之邀访问新罗共商征讨后百济之策。934年高丽太祖大败后百济后，后百济发生王子争夺王位的内乱，甄萱被其子软禁于金山寺，脱逃后归顺高丽。935年，敬顺王主动将新罗江山让给太祖王建，并娶王建长女为妻，成为高丽驸马。936年9月，高丽灭后百济 ，实现朝鲜半岛统一。930年和938年，芋陵（郁陵岛）和耽罗（济州岛）先后主动臣服于高丽。

巩固中央集权

高丽建国后开始致力于中央集权的巩固。为了遏制地方贵族的势力，高丽太祖一方面鼓励地方贵族移居开京，另一方面修复已经荒芜的昔日高句丽国都平壤，希望将其建成高丽王室独占的西京。王建强化中央集权的建国理念可见于其留给继承人的《训要十条》、《政戒》一卷和《戒百僚书》八篇中。

光宗时期，高丽为消弱地方贵族势力于956年颁布《》，释放了地方贵族势力所占有的大量奴婢。958年，光宗开始推行科举制度，两年后改革官服和品级体制，通过文治压制贵族势力。景宗时期，高丽对太祖以来实行的「役分田」制进行了改革，开始推行根据官位高低分配田租的田柴科制，为中央集权的进一步巩固提供了经济基础。成宗时期，崔承老上《时务策二十八条》，中央集权体制得到强化。983年，高丽在全国设置12牧，由中央派遣官员出任地方官。中央政府建立起三省六部和中枢院，并设立国子监。成宗15年（996），高丽发行铸币乾元重宝，整治货币流通秩序。此外，成宗还开始在西京平壤建立与开京一样的官僚机构为副都，以摆脱贵族势力的牵制。

中期历史

高丽契丹战争

成宗十二年（993），契丹辽灭定安国后，开始攻打高丽。辽驸马萧逊宁率80万大军攻下蓬山郡。高丽上下惊恐。前去营救蓬山郡的高丽大将徐熙察觉辽只想让高丽臣服而非为扩张领土而来，于是返程与成宗商议与辽议和。与此同时，辽军在安州受阻。高丽以少胜多，大败萧逊宁。徐熙请命与萧逊宁谈判。萧逊宁认为高丽以新罗建国。鉴于辽已攻占高句丽旧土，高丽应交出所占高句丽旧土，臣服于辽，否则兵戎相见。徐熙则反驳说高丽都高句丽旧都平壤，以高丽为国号，高句丽旧土为高丽所有。他表示高丽并非不愿臣服，只是两国被女真相隔。经过谈判，萧逊宁在得到辽圣宗的批准后与高丽最终达成协议。辽将鸭绿江左岸女真之地让给高丽，高丽与宋断交，奉辽为正朔，使用辽的年号统和。此后，高丽在鸭绿江东修筑了兴化、龙州、通州、铁州、郭州、龟州6城。

1009年，高丽发生康兆政变。高丽将军康肇杀死高丽穆宗，拥立王询为王，是为显宗。1010年，高丽尙书、左司郞中河拱辰攻击东女真，兵败后怀恨在心，与和州防御郞中柳宗一起杀死了95名来高丽朝贡的女真人。女真后求契丹为其出气。同年11月，辽圣宗耶律隆绪趁机以为穆宗报仇为由，率40万契丹大军攻打高丽。辽的入侵遭到高丽顽强抵抗，但耶律隆绪最终于1011年1月1日攻克高丽开京，并放火焚烧了开京。不过显宗早已南下。由于后方兴化、龟州、通州和西京的高丽军民仍在奋力反击辽军，耶律隆绪无力南下追杀显宗，于1月11日撤兵。后退之时，「所降诸城皆叛」，龟州、通州和郭州等地高丽军民对撤退的辽军发起猛烈攻击，辽军伤亡甚重。

1011年，高丽遣使谢辽班师，但耶律隆绪要显宗亲自来朝觐。高丽以「王病不能亲朝」为由拒绝。此后，辽开始要求高丽归还鸭绿江南岸的6城。之前耶律隆绪从高丽撤军时遭到6城猛烈袭击，险些全军覆没。高丽拥有这6城后，东北女真各部纷纷来高丽朝贡与高丽建立友好关系。耶律隆绪因此决意收回6城。几番外交周旋无果后，辽先后于1014年10月、1016年1月、1017年8月和1018年10月四次大规模入侵高丽，企图以武力夺取6城，但都被高丽击退。耶律隆绪原本打算发动一次更大规模的战争，但双方都疲惫于常年征战，最终议和。1022年，辽册封显宗为高丽国王，送食邑万户、食实封千户，以及很多礼品。1029年，兴辽国谋求联合高丽攻打契丹。高丽并未响应。1031年，显宗和辽圣宗相继去世。1033到1044年，高丽德宗下令在朝鲜半岛北部修建千里长城。

中期繁荣

辽圣宗耶律隆绪去世后，辽国开始逐渐走向衰弱。文宗时期，宋与辽的实力几近相当，辽、宋、高丽三国和平相处。高丽同时与辽和宋保持著良好的关系。1071年，高丽与宋恢复了高丽契丹战争后中断的外交关系。文宗统治前后，高丽经济、文化等各方面出现繁荣复兴的局面。

贵族政治的瓦解与武臣当政

高丽仁宗即位之初，高丽外戚当道。自文宗中书令李子渊三女嫁文宗为妃后，李氏家族7代历80馀年权倾高丽朝野。1122年，李子渊之孙睿宗的国舅李资谦在睿宗升遐后，拥立其外孙睿宗之子高丽仁宗为王，并逼迫仁宗娶其三女和四女为后妃。李资谦与及其党羽拓俊京把持高丽朝政，引起仁宗厌恶。1126年，仁宗近臣欲密谋诛杀李资谦党羽拓俊京的弟弟和儿子，以铲除李资谦势力。但李资谦和拓俊京得却藉机反叛，火烧王宫，杀死仁宗亲信，逼迫仁宗将王位让给李资谦。由于高丽大臣们的反对，李资谦并未得逞。之后，李资谦企图投毒杀死仁宗，但由于仁宗王妃的保护，也未成功。此后，李资谦与拓俊京之间出现矛盾。仁宗通过拉拢拓俊京，除掉李资谦势力，并将之流配至全罗道灵光。数个月后，李资谦病死于流配地。拓俊京在勤王有功后，却仗著功勋而日益嚣张跋扈，仁宗五年（1127年），被流配至岩堕岛（现今智岛）。

李资谦之乱后，开京残破。西京平壤贵族希望藉机让仁宗迁都。西京僧人妙清在郑知常的引荐下，以风水地理之说劝仁宗离开王气已尽的开京，到西京称元建帝，复兴王室，北伐金国。1129年2月，位于西京林原驿的宫殿正式落成。但是，迁都计划遭到了开京贵族的强烈反对。1135年1月，妙清与赵匡等人在西京起事，自立国号「大为」，年号「开天」，史称「」。同年，妙清之乱被金富轼平定。

毅宗时期，高丽重文轻武的政策达到极致。1170年8月，郑仲夫，李义方和李高等几位高丽武臣因不满毅宗和文臣的欺压发动政变，建立明宗傀儡政权, 史称「武人之乱」。高丽从此进入武人统治时代。1208年，以崔忠献为代表的武臣政权正式形成。

后期历史

蒙古入侵

高宗十八年（1231），攻打金国的窝阔台命撒礼塔率师攻打高丽。由于高丽军民奋力反击，蒙古军在龟州、忠州、慈州等地受阻后与高丽议和。蒙古人留下72名达鲁花赤后，于次年1月撤军。这72名达鲁花赤为掳掠钱财在高丽横徵暴敛。1232年7月，高丽武臣政权统治者崔瑀处死了达鲁花赤。利用蒙古人不善水战的弱点，崔瑀将高宗及其王室转移到江华岛，将其设为战时国都（江都），并发表「入保山城，入避海岛」的全国令，备战蒙古再次入侵。1232至1259年，蒙古又先后5次大规模入侵高丽，使高丽经济、文化遭到极大破败。保存于大邱符仁寺的《高丽大藏经》初版，庆州的皇龙寺都在战火中被蒙古人烧毁。但在高宗在位的40馀年间，蒙古人始终未能攻下江都。

高宗四十五年（1258），主张继续抵抗蒙古入侵的武臣政权统治者崔竩被杀。蒙古人趁机再度入侵高丽。次年3月，高丽与蒙古议和。1260年高宗去世后，倾向附元的元宗即位，高丽正式成为蒙古藩属国。不过武臣政权的三别抄部队仍然继续反击蒙古入侵，直到1273年4月被元朝和高丽的联合讨伐所灭。忠烈王即位后，高丽开始与元朝联姻。高丽君主娶元朝公主为王后，元朝则通过嫁到高丽的公主控制、干涉高丽朝政。1275年，元朝联合高丽攻打日本，兵败。1280年，元朝为再度攻打日本在高丽设征东行省，次年再度联合饱受倭寇侵扰的高丽攻打日本，但再度失败。

灭亡

1382年，明朝命故元降将胡拔都深入到东女真地区，招抚当地的女真人等。翌年八月，胡拔都又率部进抵端州（今端川市），女真首领金同不花降附，高丽命令其大将李成桂率兵出击，双方战于吉州平，女真败退。

明洪武二十一年（1388年），明朝在原双城总管府之地设置铁岭卫，移文告知高丽。高丽国王王禑、门下侍中崔莹密议进攻辽东，守门下侍中李成桂反对无效。是年四月，王禑派左军都统使曹敏修、右军都统使李成桂出兵攻辽东。五月，曹敏修、李成桂渡过鸭绿江后，发觉行军困难、粮饷不济，上书要求班师，王禑不听。于是在威化岛回军，回师松都，流放崔莹。六月，王禑退位，其子王昌即位。以李成桂为东北面朔方、江陵道都统使，赐忠勤亮节宣威同德安社功臣之号；八月，都总中外诸军事；十月，兼判尚瑞司事。明洪武二十二年（1388年）十一月，王禑意图复辟，事败，李成桂以明朝称王昌非恭愍王之后而不许入朝为藉口，废王昌为庶人，改立高丽宗室王瑶，是为恭让王。王禑流放江陵，王昌流放江华，十二月被诛。恭让王以李成桂为奋忠定难匡复燮理佐命功臣，爵和宁君、开国忠义伯，食邑一千户，食实封三百户，田二百结、奴婢二十口，称中兴功臣，父母妻封爵，子孙荫职。

明洪武二十五年（1392年）七月十二日，右侍中裴克廉等胁迫恭愍王妃废黜恭让王。十七日丙申，在右侍中裴克廉、判三司事赵浚、奉化郡忠义君郑道传、同知密直司事南訚等亲信的劝进下，权知高丽国事李成桂在松都寿昌宫即位，时年五十八岁。高丽王朝灭亡。

政治制度

高丽国刚成立时，采用了「外王内帝」政策，在国内自称「皇帝」，受中原王朝册封「高丽国王」。高丽光宗十一年称首都为皇都，高丽成宗十四年又改成开城府，首都的皇宫被称为「皇城」。同时采用了与中国近似的皇室制度，皇帝的命令称为「诏」；皇帝的继任人被称为「皇太子」； 皇帝的母亲被称为「皇太后」。与中国不同的是高丽君主除了被称为「皇帝」，也被称为「海东天子」，敬称「陛下」。1275年高丽向元朝称臣后，高丽忠烈王从元大都返回开城即位，不再以皇帝自称，改称国王，敬称「殿下」。政府机关的尚书省和中书门下省改为佥议府，枢密院改为密直司，御史台改为检察司，吏部和礼部改为典理司，刑部改为典法司。宰相头衔的侍中改为中赞，平章事改为赞成事，高丽的庙号制度也从元宗后废止。

高丽的官员分为不同的班，文班任文职，武班任武职，南班任宫中差役，军班任军中官职。

高丽前期仿效宋朝的政治体制，设立了主管行政的三省六部，主管军事的枢密院和主管财政的三司。其中三省的中书省和门下省合称中书门下省，尚书省亦称「尚书都省」。三省长官为尚书令、中书令、侍中，品秩均为从一品，地位仅次虚位三师和三公。尚书令和中书令不常设，多以门下侍中为宰相，加「平章事」衔者亦为宰相。高丽忠烈王时期，将都兵马使改制成「都评议使司」，成员包括佥议府和密直司的高级官员，成为最高权力机关。

1280年，元朝为攻打日本在高丽建立征东行省。在王京（今朝鲜开城）设达鲁花赤管理征东事务及监管高丽国政；高丽忠烈王王椹后成为第一个在元朝机构里兼任达鲁花赤的高丽国王。

对外关系

与辽朝

契丹于926年灭渤海国后，高丽太祖吸纳渤海遗民并打算北伐。942年，契丹送给高丽50匹骆驼，但遭高丽太祖拒绝。 契丹来使被放逐到孤岛，所送骆驼也都被饿死（万夫桥事件）。以后的高丽国王都对契丹采取敌对的政策并与宋朝结盟。为了防止高丽与宋联合对付契丹，契丹先后于983年，985年，989年小规模偷袭高丽。 993年，80万契丹大军越过鸭绿江大举入侵高丽西北部。高丽军队与契丹在凤山郡展开激烈的斗争，最终将契丹大军阻挡在清川江。 契丹意识到以武力征服朝鲜半岛的代价较大，于是契丹开始与高丽进行谈判。在高丽同意断绝与宋的联盟并臣服契丹后，契丹军撤退。1009年高丽发生军变。主张抗辽的大将康肇杀死高丽穆宗，拥立高丽显宗为王。 契丹趁机以平叛为由，发动40万大军再次入侵高丽。康肇率军奋力抵抗，但最终不敌契丹而战死沙场。显宗逃离皇城。契丹军占领开城后，由于战线拉的太长担心会受到高丽反击，开始撤退。高丽趁势反攻，给予契丹沉重打击。1018年，契丹派10万大军卷土重来。双方之后议和，以后契丹再也没有入侵高丽。

与女真

朝鲜半岛东北部的一些女真部落曾为高丽的臣属，向高丽朝贡。 女真氏族首领接受高丽授予的武官官职有将军、宁塞将军、归德将军、柔远将军、怀化将军等；文官官职有大相、大匡、元甫、正甫、大丞等。 由于这些女真部落位于高丽东北部而称为「东女真」或「东北女真」。

完颜部统一了女真后，女真变得强大，开始向高丽挑衅并最终入侵高丽。面对女真的入侵，高丽肃宗下令让高丽所有军人上阵抵抗侵略，但却不敌入侵的女真。不过在尹瓘的说服下，女真后来撤退。女真撤退后，尹瓘感到高丽缺乏一支精实的部队，于是重组高丽军队并培训一支精锐部队。1107年，尹瓘率领一支1万7千人的重组部队攻打女真并最终取胜。胜利后尹瓘在朝鲜半岛东北部修建了9座城堡（九城）。1108年，高丽宫廷大臣争斗。高丽新君主睿宗令尹瓘撤兵。1115年，女真建立起金国，不久灭了辽国。金国的崛起，割断了高丽与中国宋朝和其它邻国的联系。由于受到孤立，高丽国力开始削弱。

与蒙古

1231年蒙古军进攻高丽，高丽王室从松都（今开城）迁往江华岛，其后蒙古数征高丽，进行掳掠，但仍对江华岛没有办法。高丽三别抄义军抵抗蒙古和元朝军队至1273年。蒙古入侵高丽期间，高丽大藏经被蒙古人破坏。高丽高宗下令重新修复大藏经，以期待佛祖能够保佑高丽的平安。

高丽内部对蒙古的入侵存在两派。文派反对与蒙古交战，而以崔氏家族为首的武派则坚持继续抗蒙。1258年崔氏政权首领被文派杀害后，蒙古与高丽达成和平协议，同意保留高丽的国家主体，高丽首都则迁回开城。忽必烈即位后，高丽成为其藩属，后设征东行省，高丽国王兼任行省达鲁花赤。高丽君主从忠烈王开始娶蒙古公主为妻，高丽君主继承人按照约定，必须在元大都（今北京）长大成人后，方可回高丽。

文化

教育

高丽官学由国子监、学堂和乡校构成。太祖十三年（930年），西京平壤和一些地区出现了乡校。成宗六年（987年），高丽开始向地方十二州派经学博士和义学博士，高丽中央开始管理地方教育。乡校作为高丽官学的地方教育机构也在这一时期在高丽得到普及。958年，高丽开始建立科举制度，把儒学经典列为考试科目。成宗十一年（992年），高丽将国学改称为国子监。文宗时期（1047-1083年），国子监除设有国子学、太学、四文学等儒家学部外，还增设了书学、算学、律学等技术学部，拥有完善的「京师六学」。睿宗四年（1109年），国子监增设了「七斋」。一到六斋为儒学斋，即学习《周易》的丽泽斋、学习《尚书》的待聘斋、学习《毛诗》的轻德斋、学习《周礼》的求仁斋、学习《戴礼》的服膺斋、学习《春秋》的养正斋。第七斋为武学斋（讲艺斋）。忠烈王时期国子监被改名为「成均馆」。学堂是高丽中期在开京设立的中等教育机构，主要向私学书堂的进修者传授经典、技术、宗教等。

高丽私学兴起于文宗时期（1047-1083年），由高丽重臣崔冲首创。文宗七年，崔冲辞去官职，后在松岳山下创建以九经三史为中心的九斋私学堂。其弟子在高丽科举考试表现不凡，颇具影响。文宗九年（1055年），开京先后又出现了11个由出身官僚文人设立的私学。这十二家私学被称为「十二功道」或「十二公徒」除了十二功道，高丽私学还有在高丽中期仁宗时出现的书堂。书堂是面对平民子女设立的初等教育机构，专注于教育大众化。朝鲜王朝时期书堂得到了巨大的发展。

文学

三国时期出现的乡歌在高丽前期得到继续发展。僧人均如为了用通俗语言向民众解说佛理，在光宗十八年以《华严经》中的「普贤十愿」为基础创作了乡歌《普贤十愿歌》。宋朝君臣见其汉文译诗后称「愿王歌主必是一佛出世。」高丽时期还出现了一种形式更为灵活的国语诗歌体裁「长歌」（「俗谣」、「别曲」）。现存的高丽长歌有《西京别曲》、《青山别曲》、《双花店》、《动动》（咚咚）、《处容歌》、《满殿春》、《履霜曲》、《郑石歌》、《思母曲》、《嘎西里》、《井邑词》11首。武臣当权时期，高丽文人开始尝试融合国语诗歌和汉诗，从而出现了「景几体」歌。在其影响下，高丽文人最终创作出了具有朝鲜民族代表性的正统诗歌体裁「时调」。时调是朝鲜文学史上存在时间最长的国语诗歌形式，其地位相当于中国诗歌中的近代诗地位。

高丽前期汉文诗歌的代表人物主要有朴寅亮、金富轼、郑知常等。金富轼与郑知常是高丽最早写七律的人。金富轼的诗歌一般较为凝重，带有说教色彩。郑知常的诗歌则唐诗韵味十足，风格独特。他的七律是高丽近体诗成熟的标志。武臣专政，高丽诗坛出现了文学史上的第一个汉诗流派「海左七贤」。高丽后期的李奎报与李齐贤并称高丽汉诗双壁。李奎报早期作有长篇叙事诗《东明王篇》，做官后创作了许多反映农民疾苦，批评腐败政治的现实主义作品，晚年蒙古入侵高丽期间创作了一些爱国主义抒情诗，留有《东国李相国集》41卷和《东国李相国集后集》12卷。李奎报曾是忠宣王在元大都的侍臣，广交中国名士，是朝鲜文学史上为数很少的词人。他在元朝创作的诗词不仅在朝鲜文学史上创作出新的高度，而且在元朝诗坛、词坛也占有重要地位。李齐贤留有文集《益斋乱稿》和稗说集《栎翁稗说》 。

高丽散文体裁丰富，有传记、赋、古文、骈文、应用文、拟传体、稗说体等。高丽官修正史《三国史记》在写法上与中国的《史记》一样，通过塑造人物，以达到教化的目的，有著其它一般正史所不能及的文学价值。其「本纪」部分塑造了仁义的赫居世、儒雅的真兴王、先知的善德王等性格丰满、层次丰富的君主形象。列传部分更具文学价值，其中以《金庾信传》最具代表性。赋是高丽科举考试的主要内容之一。最为流行的赋体是骈赋。崔滋的《三都赋》是篇爱国大赋，通过描绘开京、西京和蒙古入侵高丽时期临时国都江华岛（江都），批判高丽统治者依仗江华岛天险消极应战，不顾民生疾苦横徵暴敛以满足自己享乐的腐败行径，与中国西晋左思的名篇《三都赋》相比具有更为复杂的内涵。武臣执政时期，高丽文人对政治敢怒不敢言，拟体散文作为文人表达对社会不满的一种方法得到蓬勃发展。高丽后期还出现了类似笔记文学的稗说体散文，为后世小说的出现起到了推动作用。

艺术

高丽青瓷

统一新罗时期从中国引进的制瓷技术，特别是青瓷的制作在高丽时期得到长足发展并形成高丽独特风格。12世纪初，高丽纯色青瓷发展到顶峰，出现了釉色接近翡翠色的「翡色青瓷」。北宋徽宗年间到访高丽的使臣随员徐兢在其《宣和奉使高丽图经》卷三十二器皿条如是赞赏翡色高丽青瓷：「陶器色之青者，丽人谓之翡色。近年以来制作工巧，色泽尤佳……狻猊出香，亦翡色也。上为蹲兽，下有仰莲以承之。诸器为此物最精绝。」宋代太平老人所著的《袖中锦》将高丽青瓷称为「高丽秘色」，并将其列为天下第一的物品之一：「监书、内酒、端砚、徽墨、洛阳花、建州茶、蜀锦、定瓷、浙漆、吴纸、晋铜、西马、东绢、契丹鞍、夏国剑、高丽秘色……皆为天下第一，他处虽效之，终不及。」

12世纪中叶，高丽青瓷的发展出现了第二个高峰。镶嵌青瓷随著高丽镶嵌技法的日趋成熟开始进入全盛时期。这一时期的高丽青瓷釉色透亮，并出现开片。器形方面显示出流畅、柔和的高丽风格，摆脱了棱角犀利的中国陶瓷的影响。12世纪后半期，镶嵌青瓷已发展成为高丽代表性陶瓷，被大量批量生产。与此同时，高丽青瓷的镶嵌方法与纹样也日趋繁多，主纹与从属纹开始一起使用，传统的印花云鹤纹、折枝纹以及牡丹唐草纹等纹样也镶嵌得更加精巧，从而形成高丽青瓷独有的风格。

绘画

高丽绘画在统一新罗的基础上得到进一步的发展，题材与风格更加多样化，佛教、人物、山水、花鸟等一应俱全。高丽设有掌管绘画的机构「绘画院」，王室、贵族、僧侣都热衷于绘画，出现了诸如、、、徐九方等画家。李宁在出使北宋时曾得到宋徽宗的高度评价。宋徽宗还令翰林待诏向李宁学习绘画。李宁之子李光弼亦是位深受高丽明宗褒奖的画家。高丽山水画代表作品主要有李宁的《礼成江图》和《天寿寺南门图》，无名氏的《金刚山图》、《晋阳山水图》、《松都八景图》，恭愍王的《狩猎图》，李齐贤的《骑马渡江图》等。高丽的佛教绘画一般以大山大水为背景，主要代表作包括鲁英的《地藏菩萨图》，慧虚的《杨柳观音图》等。人物画和肖像画在高丽时期也很盛行，并出现了用于悬挂王族肖像画的建筑物。代表性肖像画作品是《安珦肖像画》。传入中国的高丽绘画得到了很高的评价。宋代绘画评论家郭若虚在其《图画见闻录》中称：「惟高丽国敦尚文雅，渐染华风，至于技巧之精，他国罕比。故有丹青之妙。」元人汤厚所著的《古今画鉴》说：「高丽画观音像甚工」。

宗教

宋朝版本的《大藏经》传入高丽后，促进了高丽佛教文化的发展。在高丽显王时，开始雕印《高丽大藏经》，至宋仁宗赵祯天圣七年(1029年)完成，其内容主要根据宋朝《开宝藏》复刻。

高丽大藏经，是13世纪高丽高宗用16年时间雕刻成的世界上最重要和最全面的大藏经之一。 高丽大藏经内容全面、准确，做工精美，为韩国第32号国宝。其保存地韩国海印寺为联合国教科文组织指定的世界遗产。

科技

金属活字印刷术

高丽从中国引进毕升发明的泥活字印刷术后，研制了金属活字印刷术，先后用铜活字印刷术印制了《详定古今礼文》（1234年），《南明和尚颂证道歌》（1239-1242年）。1377年青州牧（今韩国忠清北道清州市）兴德寺印制的《白云和尙抄录佛祖直指心体要节》是2001年联合国教科文组织认定的现存世界上最古老的金属活字本，并被其列入世界记忆遗产名录。

医学

建国初期，高丽设立了医学教育与行政机关体系。太医监主管全国医疗行政和医生教育及任用，尚药局负责王室的医疗事务，此外还有东宫医官、翰林医官、食医、军医、兽医、狱医等以及东西大悲院、济危宝、恵民局、救济都监等救疗机构。在医学教育方面，高丽在建国初设有医学院，主要邀请宋医教授医生。958年，高丽开始通过科举考试任用医官。成宗和穆宗时期，高丽医疗制度得到进一步的完善。

高丽中期在继承唐宋医学和综合印度及阿拉伯医学的知识后，高丽医学开始创立。宋医带来的《太平圣恵方》、《圣济总录》、《证类本草》、《神医普救方》、《太平惠民和剂局方》等医学典籍得到普及。受宋医的影响，高丽改变了原始的治疗方法，开始以阴阳五行为中心展开医学理论探讨，辩证论治的思想开始发展。在本草方面，宋《本草要括》、《证类本草》的传人使高丽新药的知识更加丰富。高丽《乡草救急方*方中乡药目草部》记载有180馀种药物。高丽与中国的医学交流达到空前水平。高丽使节来华大多有医官相随。中国医事制度、医药著作、药材大量输出到高丽。中国医生到高丽也不绝于途。1078年，翰林医官邢等去高丽带去100种药材，并赠送了龙脑、朱砂、麝香、牛黄等。1118年，曹谊率医官杨宗立、蓝茁、徐竞等7人携带药材赴高丽教授内外科。此后，高丽设立药局，置太医、医学、局生之职。

高丽中后期的医学自主性得到增强，虽然依然遵循中医理、法、方，但在药物的使用上形成了使用乡药的风气。乡药的理论基础是「在本国发生的疾病应以本国药材进行治疗」的宜土性理论。相对于「乡药」，从中国输入的药材被称为「唐药」。高丽代表性的医学著作有金永锡的《济众立效方》（约1146-1166年）、崔宗俊的《御医撮要方》（1226年）。脉诊在高丽很被重视，但辨证论还不成熟，仍处于对症治疗的阶段，以药物治疗为主。《乡药救急方》、《三和子乡药方》、《乡药古方》、《东方经验方》、《乡药惠民经验方》、《乡药简易方》等许多乡药方书的出现，显示高丽自主医学已经过渡到以唐宋医学为基础，适当结合经验医术的阶段。高丽末期，由于战乱，高丽内忧外患，但高丽的自主医学却有了飞跃的发展，逐渐扩充了乡药的医药知识。在医学理论方面，高丽医学对《黄帝内经》、《甲乙经》、《难经》等有了新的理解与诠释，并整理编撰了《黄帝八十一难经注义图序论》，对《难经》各条文进行注解，并对全部理论辅以图表加以解释。

注释

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