Biography

Nguyễn Quang Toản was the eldest son of Nguyễn Huệ (Emperor Quang Trung). According to Đại Nam chính biên liệt truyện, he was born to the Empress Consort Phạm Thị Liên. After Nguyễn Huệ crowned the emperor, Nguyễn Quang Toản was designated as Crown Prince. In 1790, Toản received the title An Nam quốc vương thế tử ("Crown Prince of Annam") from China. The title indicated that his heirship was also recognized by China.

Quang Trung died in 1792. On the deathbed, Quang Trung described Nguyễn Quang Toản as "a clever boy but too young". Toản ascended the throne and changed the era name to "Cảnh Thịnh" (景盛) in the same year, when he was only nine years old. He granted his stepmother Bùi Thị Nhạn the title Empress dowager. Bùi Đắc Tuyên was granted the position thái sư ("Grand Preceptor"). Bùi Đắc Tuyên was favoured by the young emperor, and became the de facto ruler of the country. Tuyên banished one of important ministers, Trần Văn Kỷ (陈文纪), from the capital Phú Xuân (mordern Huế). His behavior had aroused the anger of many ministers and generals.

In 1793, Nguyễn Nhạc was attacked by Nguyễn lord, asked for Nguyễn Quang Toản's help. Toản repulsed the attack, then annexed Nhạc's territory. Nhạc died soon after suffering from vomiting blood. Nhạc's eldest son, Nguyễn Văn Bảo, was granted the title Hiếu công by Toản. Bùi Đắc Trụ (裴得宙) and Nguyễn Văn Huấn (阮文训) were left in Quy Nhơn to watch Bảo.

Tây Sơn launched a powerful offensive in 1794. Two Tây Sơn generals, Trần Viết Kết (陈曰结) and Nguyễn Văn Huấn, laid siege to Diên Khánh. in 1794, but Nguyễn lord's forces were able to keep them out. Several months later, Trần Quang Diệu and Nguyễn Văn Tứ (阮文赐) were sent to attack Diên Khánh again. However, a coup d'état occurred in the next year, forcing Diệu to withdraw. One night, Nguyễn Quang Toản was in Bùi Đắc Tuyên's house. Vũ Văn Dũng, Phạm Công Hưng and Nguyễn Văn Huấn, besieged house, forcing Cảnh Thịnh to hand over Tuyên. Later, Tuyên was executed together with Bùi Đắc Trụ and his right hand Ngô Văn Sở. Toản could do nothing but weep. As a niece-in-law of Tuyên, general Trần Quang Diệu was not trusted by the three generals. Diệu quickly marched north and stayed at An Cựu. In the same time, an army under Vũ Văn Dũng and Nguyễn Văn Danh (阮文名) also marched there. A civil war might break out at any moment, which made the young emperor afraid. Finally, Diệu was reconciled with the three generals.

Nguyễn Quang Toản started to rule the country directly; he appointed Trần Quang Diệu, Vũ Văn Dũng, Nguyễn Văn Huấn, Nguyễn Văn Danh (or Nguyễn Văn Tứ) as his assistants. This arrangement proved to be unsatisfactory. Not long after, Diệu was removed from military leadership. Diệu was fearful and anxious, from then on, he refused to attend the imperial court.

The power struggle destabilized the regime, which provided Nguyễn lord an opportunity to launch an offensive attack in 1797. What was worse, Nguyễn Văn Bảo occupied Quy Nhơn and planned to surrender to Nguyễn lord. Fortunately, the rebellion was put down in 1798. However, many ministers were accused of getting involved in the incident, including Lê Trung (黎忠) and Nguyễn Văn Huấn. They were arrested and executed. Tây Sơn generals felt themselves imperilled, they were at odds with the emperor.

In 1799, Quy Nhơn was besieged by Nguyễn Ánh. Trần Quang Diệu and Vũ Văn Dũng was sent to reinforce, but was ambushed by Nguyễn army in Thạch Tân. Hearing the news of defeat, governor Lê Văn Thanh (黎文清) surrendered to Nguyễn Ánh. Quy Nhơn was captured by Nguyễn lord, its name was changed to Bình Định. Trần Viết Kết and Hồ Công Diệu (胡公曜), spoke evil of Trần Quang Diệu. Nguyễn Quang Toản ordered Dũng to kill Diệu. But, Dũng showed the letter to Trần Quang Diệu. Trần Quang Diệu marched to Phú Xuân. Hồ Công Diệu was chosen as scapegoat; he was arrested and transferred to Trần Quang Diệu.

In 1800, Trần Quang Diệu and Vũ Văn Dũng were sent south to besiege Quy Nhơn. Nguyễn Ánh led a large number of army to reinforce Bình Định. However, Võ Tánh, the governor of Bình Định, suggested that he would pin the main Tây Sơn force down there so that Nguyễn Ánh could attack their capital Phú Xuân. Ánh agreed, and then he marched north.

In this time, Nguyễn Quang Toản had to deal with several internal rebellions. Hà Công Thái (何功泰), a Degar leader, revolted in Thanh Hóa Province and pledged loyalty to Nguyễn lord; a Christian-inspired revolt broke out in Tonkin. To make matters worse, Vientiane and Muang Phuan attacked Nghệ An Province, cooperating with Nguyễn forces.

Nguyễn Quang Toản had to ask Nguyễn Thiếp for advice. Thiếp said it was impossible to deal with current affairs; however, if the capital could be relocated in Phượng Hoàng trung đô (凤凰中都, in present-day Vinh), the lifetime of the dynasty might be prolonged. Toản vacillated for too long and the opportunity to accept was lost. In 1801, Nguyễn Ánh's army reached Tư Dung estuary (present-day Tư Hiền estuary), defeated Nguyễn Văn Trị in Quy Sơn Hill. A naval battle broke out in Nộn estuary (present-day Thuận An estuary); both Nguyễn Quang Toản and Nguyễn Ánh directed the battle personally. Many Chinese pirates were hired by Tây Sơn to fight against Nguyễn lord. In Nguyễn lord side, several Western adventurers joined the battle, including Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau, Philippe Vannier and Laurent André Barisy. Chaigneau described that it was the fiercest battle between Tây Sơn dynasty and Nguyễn lord. The battle ended with a near annihilation of both Tây Sơn navy and Chinese pirates. Three famous pirates, Mo Guanfu, Liang Wengeng (梁文庚, Lương Văn Canh) and Fan Wencai (樊文才 Phàn Văn Tài), were captured by Nguyễn lord.

Nguyễn army soon occupied the capital Phú Xuân. Nguyễn Quang Toản fled to Đồng Hới, with a dozen men, then to Thăng Long. In there, he was supported by his brother Nguyễn Quang Thùy. Nguyễn Quang Toản changed the era name to "Bảo Hưng" (宝兴). He made efforts to gain popularity among Northern Vietnamese. In foreign affairs, he sent an envoy to seek aid from the Jiaqing Emperor of Qing China. Meanwhile, Nguyễn Ánh also sent an envoy, extraditing Mo Guanfu, Liang Wengeng and Fan Wencai to China. Three pirates confessed that they were supported by Tây Sơn dynasty. It proved that Tây Sơn dynasty had shielded many Chinese pirates. Before this incident, Chinese government had captured two pirates Wang Guili (王贵利, Vương Quý Lợi) and Fan Guangxi (范光喜, Phạm Quang Hỉ); in their vessels, Chinese found two Tây Sơn official seals. The irate Jiaqing rejected to help Nguyễn Quang Toản, and deported his envoy.

In 1802, Nguyễn Quang Thùy was sent to attack Lũy Thầy (in present-day Quảng Bình Province). Later, Nguyễn Quang Toản led 30 thousand men marched to Linh River (modern Gianh River) to attack Nguyễn Ánh. Both of their armies were beaten. Toản fled to Nghệ An, in there he met Nguyễn Quang Thùy. They fled back to Thăng Long together.

Nguyễn Ánh's army marched further north. In June, they captured Thăng Long. Nguyễn Quang Toản fled across the Nhị River (present day Red River) along with Nguyễn Quang Thùy, Nguyễn Quang Thiệu (阮光绍), Nguyễn Văn Dụng (阮文用), Nguyễn Văn Tứ and the Empress dowager Bùi Thị Nhạn. In Phượng Nhãn (Lạng Giang), They were captured alive by local villagers. Nguyễn Quang Thùy and Bùi Thị Nhạn committed suicide; the others were transferred to Phú Xuân and executed by Nguyễn Ánh. According to Đại Nam thực lục, Nguyễn Quang Toản and his three brothers, Nguyễn Quang Duy (阮光维), Nguyễn Quang Thiệu and Nguyễn Quang Bàn (阮光盘), were executed by slow slicing, then their bodies were dismembered by five elephants (五象分尸).

生平

初期

阮光缵是光中帝阮惠的嫡长子，根据《大南正编列传初集·伪西列传》的记载，阮光缵为正宫皇后范氏莲所生。1789年，阮惠被清朝册封为安南国王时，清朝误以为居于升龙（今河内市）的北河节制阮光垂是阮惠的长子，册封阮光垂为安南王世子。次年，阮惠派范公治出使清朝，清廷始知阮光垂是庶子，阮光缵才是嫡长子，因此改封阮光缵为安南王世子。阮惠也正式册立阮光缵为皇太子。

大越之末帝

1792年，阮惠逝世，遗命由阮光缵继位，让陈文纪、陈光耀辅政。阮光缵登基称帝，改元景盛，当时年仅十岁。阮光缵遣吴时任前往清朝请求册封，清朝派遣广西按察使成林册封其为安南国王。以阮光垂镇守北河、阮光盘镇守清化，黎忠镇守乂安，由太师裴得宣、太尉范公兴、中书令陈文纪、太子少保陈光耀、大司寇武文勇、上将军阮文训、工部尚书阮文名、大司马吴文楚等并执朝政。

阮光缵继位后废除了阮惠的信牌制度，停止搜捕没有佩戴信牌的漏民。阮光缵年幼徒事嬉游，政权由太师裴得宣把持。裴得宣恣行威福，遭致众多文臣武将的不满。陈文纪被罢官外放为渼川驿（一作黄江驿、汉江驿）驿丞，武文勇出镇守北河，范公兴、阮文训、阮文名等也都不得志。

1792年，旧阮君主阮福映率军包围了归仁，归仁朝廷的君主阮岳遣人向阮光缵求救。阮光缵派遣范公兴、阮文训、黎忠、吴文楚率步兵一万七千人、战象八十匹自陆路前去支援，又派邓文真率水军分乘三十馀艘战船入援归仁。阮福映见势强大，率兵撤回延庆府（今庆和省延庆县），辗转回到嘉定（今胡志明市）。范公兴等在击退旧阮之后率军进入归仁，封锁了所有府库。阮岳气愤而死，其子阮文宝被阮光缵封为孝公，号称小朝，食邑一邑，并派裴得宙、阮文训监视其举动。

自阮光缵兼并归仁之地后，西山朝对旧阮采取主动攻势。1794年，阮光缵派护驾将军阮文训、点检陈曰结攻打延庆城，又袭击富安府。当时延庆城由旧阮太子阮福景以及百多禄、范文仁、宋福溪、阮文诚镇守，旧阮军队奋力将其击退。但陈光耀、阮文赐再度将延庆包围，双方相持数月之久。

翌年，西山朝发生内乱。太师裴得宣削去武文勇的兵权，遣吴文楚前去北河接替，并召武文勇回富春（今顺化）。武文勇回京途中，恰巧在渼川驿住宿，遇上了陈文纪。在陈文纪的煽动下，武文勇决定发动政变。武文勇到达富春之后，与范公兴、阮文训合谋，以祭旗为名包围裴得宣的府邸。裴得宣当时有事宿于宫中，于是武文勇等人包围了皇宫，迫使阮光缵交出裴得宣。一方面派人矫诏前往北河，使阮光垂将吴文楚执送富春；另一方面派阮文训前往归仁，逮捕了裴得宣之子裴得宙。武文勇声称他们谋反，全部溺杀于香江。阮光缵不能制，唯有垂泣而已。

西山衰微

正在围攻延庆的陈光耀回军富春，与武文勇、阮文赐对峙。武文勇认为陈光耀是裴得宣的姻亲，害怕发生变乱，委托范公兴前去调停；阮光缵也派人调停，双方方才和解。范公兴不久病死，自此阮光缵开始亲政，以陈光耀为少傅、阮文训为少保、武文勇为大司徒、阮文名（一作阮文赐）为大司马，人称四柱大臣。阮文训辞去归仁镇守之职，以黎忠代之。不久陈光耀因谮言而被阮光缵夺去兵权。陈光耀心怀疑惧，自此称病不上朝。

经过这次内乱，西山朝元气大伤。1797年，旧阮趁机北伐，阮福映御驾亲征攻打归仁城，但久攻不下，因此转而攻打广南府沱㶞港（今岘港市）。阮文训、陈光耀率军击退了旧阮军。

孝公的背叛

1798年，归仁城的孝公阮文宝献城于旧阮，阮福映派阮文诚前去接应，但旧阮兵未至，阮光缵即派大总管黎文清攻破归仁，擒杀阮文宝。这就是历史上的「小朝之变」。阮光缵留黎文清守归仁。太府黎文应认为黎忠该为此负责，因此阮光缵召黎忠回朝杀之。又听信刑部尚书胡公曜的谮言，杀少保阮文训。至此西山朝诸将人人自危，离心离德。

阮福映的攻击

1799年，阮福映再次进攻归仁。阮光缵派陈光耀、武文勇前去救援，但武文勇在广义遭旧阮阮文诚部的袭击，大败而归。陈光耀隐匿了其战败的消息，此后陈光耀与武文勇成为生死之交。黎文清久等不到援军，在弹尽粮绝的状态下，不得不献城投降。阮福映改归仁城为平定城，留武性、吴从周守城。阮光缵得知归仁失守的消息后亲自率军前来救援，驻兵于茶曲（地属广义）；但因当时逆风水战不便，便采纳陈曰结的建议率军班师，留阮文甲守茶曲，陈光耀、武文勇守广南。而在朝中，陈曰结、陈文纪、胡公曜一直很厌恶陈光耀，此时以归仁失守、救援无功为罪名，矫诏令武文勇诛杀陈光耀。武文勇将诏书拿给陈光耀看，陈光耀遂率军回京，陈兵于香江南岸，声言要清君侧。阮光缵不得已，把罪责完全推在胡公曜一人身上，将其执送陈光耀军中，陈光耀方才入城觐见。阮光缵以好言抚慰之，陈光耀痛哭拜谢，自请与武文勇一起收复归仁城，阮光缵准奏。

首都失守

陈光耀、武文勇率军迅速占领了包括施耐港在内的归仁城堡附近的城镇并以围而不攻的策略，试图迫使归仁城投降。1801年，阮福映率军北上支援，虽然占领了归仁的门户施耐港，大破武文勇部，又破广南、广义之地，但始终冲破西山军对归仁的包围圈，因此遣人密令武性、吴从周弃城逃出。但武性拒绝了，声称西山军的主力全在归仁城，建议阮福映放弃支援，攻取西山朝的都城富春。阮福映最终采纳了武性的建议，留阮文诚与陈光耀对抗，自己则率大军攻打富春。

而当时西山朝的政局动荡不安，政变频繁，导致百姓的不满。与之相对地，阮福映则在南方励精图治，制定土地法律并劝课农桑。1793年，英国外交官斯当东随马戛尔尼使团出使清朝，途经西山朝统治下的安南。斯当东看到了一片久经战火洗劫而民不聊生的土地，朝廷经常举行军事演习，百姓们饥不择食。斯当东甚至听说首都富春的市场上曾公开出卖人肉。相对于旧阮对西洋人的欢迎，西山朝对西洋人非常警惕。

正因为政局动荡，阮光缵的统治不得民心。每当旧阮军队北伐，沿途的百姓都争相庆祝。何功泰在清化起义，潘伯奉在兴化造反，北河各镇的天主教徒们也被煽动起兵，他们都宣布支持旧阮。阮福映又派人借道于暹罗，徵调永珍王国之兵，遣阮文瑞、刘福祥率永珍之兵攻打乂安。阮光缵不得已，派人找来名士阮浃，问以国事。阮浃认为西山朝败局已定，无法挽回。阮光缵默然不语。阮浃又建议阮光缵退守永都（地属乂安），还可能缓和局势，但阮光缵犹豫不决。

阮福映攻至思容海口，阮光缵派驸马阮文治（原名范文治）驻守龟山（今灵蔡山），竖立木栅栏对抗。黎文悦、黎质率旧阮军大破之，阮文治逃走，在澄河被俘。阮福映攻至渜海口（顺安海口），阮光缵亲率西山军抵抗，根据西方史料的记载，这是旧阮与西山朝之间爆发的最为惨烈的一战，战场上尸横遍野。西山军大败溃散，支持西山朝的华南海盗也遭到旧阮军队的沉重打击，重要海盗首领东海王莫官扶、千总梁文庚、指挥樊文才被旧阮俘虏。阮光缵率太宰阮光绍、元帅阮光卿、大司马阮文赐等人，经洞海垒渡过江，逃往北河，印章玺绶全被旧阮军缴获。皇后黎氏玉评也被旧阮俘虏。

此时陈光耀、武文勇已攻破归仁，得知富春失守，遣张福凤、司寇定前去支援，被旧阮击败。

北河节制阮光垂得知阮光缵前来投奔后，将阮光缵迎至升龙（今河内市）。阮光缵以阮光垂的府邸为宫殿，五月下旬至阮光垂府后连旬积雨，以为不祥，因之改元宝兴。以吴时任为兵部尚书，阮辉瓑为吏部尚书，潘辉益为礼部尚书。此时的阮光缵试图整顿朝政，亲临国子监监考学生，优秀者给予赏赐。八月阮光缵派阮光垂前往乂安防守。阮光缵还希望藉助清朝的力量对抗旧阮，派遣阮登为使者，前往清朝求援。但阮福映已在其之前派遣郑怀德出使清朝，献上缴获的西山朝印绶，并将被俘虏的海盗首领莫官扶、梁文庚、樊文才三人移交清廷。两广总督吉庆将三人的供词送呈嘉庆帝。嘉庆帝得知西山朝包庇华南海盗之事后大怒，逐出了西山朝使者，于是西山朝向清朝求援的计划就此告吹。

溃败与灭族

1802年，阮光缵命阮光垂攻打镇宁垒（即洞海垒，在今广平省洞海市），陈光耀之妻裴氏春率五千人自愿从军。阮光缵留阮光绍、阮光卿守升龙，亲自率三万南下讨伐旧阮，但遭阮福映大败。阮光缵向北逃跑。阮福映趁机率水陆之兵北伐，以摧枯拉朽之势占领升龙。阮光缵率阮光垂、阮光绍、阮文用、阮文赐等，渡珥河（今红河）北逃，途经凤眼县时被村民逮捕。阮光垂、太后裴氏雁自杀，阮光缵及其他大臣武将都被押往升龙。肃直营都统制阮文谦、参知阮登佑将阮光缵一行关在木笼子里，押解至顺化，并在顺化游街示众。随后阮光缵及阮光绍、阮光维、阮光盘等西山朝宗室被淩迟处死，五象分尸。其党羽陈光耀、武文勇等被斩首示众。阮福映又将阮岳、阮惠的尸体掘出捣毁，将阮岳、阮惠、阮光缵的首级关在监狱里永远监禁。阮福映对此行为的解释是「朕为九世而复仇」。

评价

• 阮光缵的父亲光中帝阮惠在临终前认为阮光缵「资质稍高，然年尚幼」，而当时「外有嘉定国雠」，因此阮惠对西山朝的未来甚为担忧。

• 西山朝将领陈光耀认为阮光缵过于优柔寡断，毫无君王之象：「主德不刚，大臣相杀，变之大也。内变不定，何以御人？」

• 得知西山朝包庇华南海盗后，嘉庆帝在下旨中谴责阮光缵「薮奸窝盗，肆毒海洋，负恩反噬，莫此为甚。」

• 越南历史学家陈仲金认为，阮光缵是个懦弱无能之人，而诸大臣之间互相猜忌倾轧，政治上无任何兴革可言。因此百姓对西山朝十分失望。

• 中国学者郭振铎、张笑梅认为，阮光缵在位期间内讧迭起，而阮光缵不能制，这使西山朝国力日渐衰微，最终导致西山朝的覆亡。

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