Historical sources

The authoritative historical source on Cao Cao's life is his official biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms written by Chen Shou in the third century. His sources for his work on the Wei portion of his book (魏志; Wei Zhi) included the Dongguan Ji (东观记; now lost), the Book of Wei, and possibly other records. Chen Shou worked in the history bureau and had access to a variety of sources, but followed the traditional method of incorporating information into a single synthesis without citing his sources, so it is not clear how broad a pool of documentation he drew upon.

In the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary, as well as commentary from other historians.

One of the major sources for information on Cao Cao's life employed by Pei Songzhi was the official history of the Wei dynasty, the Book of Wei, largely composed during the Wei dynasty itself by Wang Chen, Xun Yi, and Ruan Ji. It was completed by Wang Chen and presented to the court during the opening years of the succeeding Western Jin dynasty. This work is understandably typically very favourable to Cao Cao as the founding figure of the dynasty under which the initial compilation was performed.

As a counterpoint, another significant source for Cao Cao's life as cited by Pei Songzhi was the Cao Man zhuan (曹瞒传), an anonymous collection of anecdotes said to have been compiled by a person from Eastern Wu, a rival kingdom to Cao Cao's own. This work is overall very hostile to Cao Cao, depicting him as cruel and untrustworthy, although not every anecdote is negative. Cao Man zhuan has been characterised as "hostile propaganda", and certain contents as "slanderous". Such a work cannot be considered a reliable source, but informs an exaggerated perspective contraposed to the glowing portrait painted by his own dynasty's official history.

For much of his career, Cao Cao hosted and controlled the final Han emperor, whose doings and correspondence it was standard to record. Especially useful for noting things like official appointments, three titles of this type were used by Pei Songzhi to add detail to Chen Shou's account: Xiandi Ji (献帝记; Records of Emperor Xian) compiled by Liu Ai (刘艾), Xiandi Qiju zhu (献帝起居注; Notes on Emperor Xian's Daily Life), and Shanyang Gong zaiji (山阳公载记; Records of the Duke of Shanyang Xian's post-usurpation title) by Yue Zi

Other early sources for Pei Songzhi included Yu Huan's privately composed histories Dianlüe (典略; Authoritative Account) and Weilüe, written prior to Chen Shou's own work; and Sima Biao's Annals of the Nine Provinces (九州春秋), also from the 3rd century.

Later sources included works by the moralistic historian Sun Sheng, most saliently his Chronicles of the Clans of Wei (魏氏春秋), but also his more critical Yitong Ping (异同评; Commentary on Similarities and Differences) and Yitong Zayu (异同杂语; Miscellaneous Words on Similarities and Differences), which may have been parts of the same work. Although Pei Songzhi sometimes pointed out flaws in Sun Sheng's methods, he often cites him as an authority. Other Jin dynasty historians he gave less credence to, while still including parallel passages from their work, such as Jiangbiao zhuan (江表传), by and Wei Jin Shiyu (魏晋世语; Tales of the Worlds of Wei and Jin) by a work which Pei Songzhi denigrated in very strident terms.

The official standard history of the Eastern Han dynasty, the Book of the Later Han by Fan Ye, was not available to Pei Songzhi. He and Fan Ye were contemporaries, but Fan Ye did not begin work on his history until a few years after Pei Songzhi completed his. The Book of the Later Han does not contain a full biography of Cao Cao, but records of him and his actions can be found scattered in disparate locations in the book.

Some of Cao Cao's own writing – both literary and in the form of government edicts – has been preserved in later collectanea. His commentary on The Art of War is extant, but offers little insight into his life.

Background and early life (155–184)

Cao Cao's ancestral home was in Qiao County (谯县), Pei State, which is present-day Bozhou, Anhui. He was purportedly a descendant of Cao Shen, a statesman of the early Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 9 CE). His father, Cao Song, served as the Grand Commandant during the reign of Emperor Ling, buying his way into high government office for an exorbitant sum, and serving less than half a year. Cao Song was a foster son of Cao Teng, a eunuch who served as a Central Regular Attendant and the Empress's Chamberlain under Emperor Huan, and held the peerage of Marquis of Fei Village (费亭侯).

In his youth, Cao Cao was known to be perceptive and manipulative. He liked to hunt, idle, roam about freely, and play vigilante so he was not as highly regarded as his more studious peers. From the time Cao Cao was fifteen until he turned thirty, widespread epidemic diseases ravaged China on average one out of every three years.

Despite Cao Cao's loafing ways and unimpressive behaviour, there were two persons – Qiao Xuan and He Yong – who recognised his potential and extraordinary talents. Upon visiting the famous commentator and character evaluator Xu Shao, Cao Cao was assessed as being "a treacherous villain in times of peace, and a hero in times of chaos". Another source recorded that Xu Shao told Cao Cao, "You will be a capable minister in times of peace, and a jianxiong in times of chaos."

Early career (184–189)

As the Commandant of the North District in Luoyang

Cao Cao started his career as a civil service cadet after he was nominated as a xiaolian around the age of 19. He was later appointed as the Commandant of the North District (北部尉) of the imperial capital Luoyang and put in charge of maintaining security in that area. Later that year, he was transferred to the position of Prefect of Dunqiu County (顿丘县; near present-day Qingfeng County, Henan). This represented a horizontal career move to a position of greater authority in a smaller jurisdiction with less political importance.

As a Consultant

Cao Cao's cousin married Song Qi (宋奇), a relative of Empress Song. In 178, when Emperor Ling deposed Empress Song in the aftermath of a political scandal, the empress's family and relatives got into trouble as well. Because of his relationship with Song Qi, Cao Cao was implicated in the scandal and dismissed from office. However, he was pardoned later and recalled to Luoyang to serve as a Consultant (议郎) under the Minister of the Household because of his expertise in history. The general Dou Wu and senior minister Chen Fan plotted to get rid of the Ten Attendants, a eunuch faction— their plan failed and they lost their lives. Cao Cao wrote a memorial to Emperor Ling to defend Dou Wu and Chen Fan, and point out that the imperial court was full of corrupt officials and that advice from loyal officials had been ignored. Emperor Ling did not listen to him.

Emperor Ling later issued a decree, ordering the Three Ducal Ministers to report and dismiss commandery and county officials who performed badly in office. However, the Ministers protected the under-performing officials and accepted bribes, resulting in a situation where evildoers were not punished while the poor and weak were oppressed. Cao Cao felt frustrated when he saw this. When natural disasters occurred, Cao Cao was summoned to the imperial court to discuss the problems in the administration. During this time, he wrote another memorial to Emperor Ling, accusing the Three Ducal Ministers of siding with the nobles and elites, and helping them to cover up their misdeeds. Emperor Ling was stunned after reading the memorial. He admonished the Ministers for their conduct, reinstated the officials who had been wrongly dismissed, and appointed them as Consultants. However, corruption worsened over time and became rampant throughout all levels of the government. Cao Cao stopped speaking up when he realised that his efforts to restore order were futile.

As Chancellor of Jinan

In 184, when the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, the Han central government commissioned Cao Cao as a Cavalry Commandant (骑都尉) and ordered him to lead imperial forces to attack the rebels in Yingchuan Commandery (颍川郡; around present-day Xuchang, Henan). He was later appointed as the Chancellor of (济南郡; around present-day Jinan, Shandong), a principality in Qing Province which had over 10 counties under its jurisdiction. Many senior officials in Jinan State had connections with the nobles and engaged in corrupt practices, so Cao Cao proposed to the imperial court to dismiss about 80 percent of them. As Cao Cao had a reputation for being a strict law enforcer, when news of his arrival reached these corrupt officials, they were so fearful that they fled to nearby commanderies. Cao Cao governed Jinan State well and maintained peace in the area.

In the early days of the Western Han, nearly four hundred years previously, Liu Zhang (刘章), the Prince of Chengyang State (城阳国; around present-day Ju County, Shandong), felt that he had made great contributions to the Han Empire so he built temples in his principality for the people to worship him. Many other commanderies in Qing Province also followed this practice. In Jinan State alone, there were over 600 such temples. Wealthy merchants could even borrow the servants and personal carriages of officials for their own leisure activities. This resulted in greater inequality between the rich and poor. The senior officials did not dare to interfere. When Cao Cao assumed office in Jinan State, he destroyed all the temples and banned such idolatrous practices. He upheld the laws sternly and eliminated unorthodox customs and cult-like activities.

Brief resignation

After serving as chancellor for a brief time, Cao Cao was reassigned to be the Administrator of Dong Commandery (东郡; around present-day Puyang County, Henan), but he declined the appointment on the grounds of poor health, and resigned and went home. The Book of Wei recorded that around the time, corruption had deteriorated to the point where influential officials dominated the imperial court and blatantly abused their powers. Cao Cao was unable to stop them and feared that he might bring trouble to his family because he had been interfering with their activities, so he requested to serve in the Imperial Guards. His request was rejected and he was appointed as a Consultant (议郎) instead. He then claimed that he was ill and resigned and went home. He built a house outside the city and lived there, spending his time reading in spring and summer, and going on hunting excursions in autumn and winter.

Wang Fen (王芬), the Inspector of Ji Province, along with Xu You, Zhou Jing (周旌) and others, plotted to overthrow Emperor Ling and replace him with the Marquis of Hefei (合肥侯). They contacted Cao Cao and asked him to join them but he refused. Wang Fen's plan ultimately failed.

When Bian Zhang, Han Sui and others started a rebellion in Liang Province, Cao Cao was appointed as Colonel Who Arranges the Army (典军校尉) and summoned back to Luoyang to serve in the Army of the Western Garden.

Campaign against Dong Zhuo (189–191)

Background

Emperor Ling died in 189 and was succeeded by his son, Liu Bian, who is historically known as Emperor Shao. As Emperor Shao was still young, his mother Empress Dowager He and maternal uncle He Jin ruled as regents on his behalf. He Jin plotted with Yuan Shao and others to eliminate the eunuch faction, and shared their plan with his sister. When the empress dowager was reluctant to kill the eunuchs, He Jin thought of summoning generals stationed outside Luoyang to lead their troops into the imperial capital to put pressure on the empress dowager. Cao Cao strongly objected to He Jin's idea as he believed that the best way to deal with the eunuchs was to eliminate their leaders. He also argued that summoning external forces into Luoyang would only increase the risk of their plan being leaked out. He Jin – the highest-ranking officer in the government – understandably ignored him.

As Cao Cao predicted, the eunuchs got wind of He Jin's plot and assassinated him before the generals and their troops arrived. Yuan Shao and He Jin's followers led their forces to storm the imperial palace and slaughter the eunuchs in revenge. Emperor Shao and his younger half-brother, Liu Xie, escaped during the chaos. They were eventually found and brought back to the palace by Dong Zhuo, who took advantage of the power vacuum to seize control of the central government. Later that year, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with Liu Xie, who is historically known as Emperor Xian. The deposed Emperor Shao became the Prince of Hongnong.

Dong Zhuo wanted to appoint Cao Cao as a Colonel of Valiant Cavalry (骁骑校尉) and recruit him as an adviser. However, Cao Cao adopted a fake identity, escaped from Luoyang, and returned to his home in Chenliu Commandery (陈留郡; near present-day Kaifeng). He had two encounters along the way. The first was with the family of Lü Boshe, an old acquaintance. The second incident occurred when he passed by Zhongmu County, where a village chief suspected that he was a fugitive and arrested him. However, another official recognised Cao Cao and believed he could act as a positive influence, so he released Cao Cao.

The campaign

Dong Zhuo murdered the Prince of Hongnong and Empress Dowager He later. When Cao Cao returned to Chenliu Commandery, he spent his family fortune on raising an army to eliminate Dong Zhuo. In the winter of 189, Cao Cao assembled his forces in Jiwu County (己吾县; southwest of present-day Ningling County, Henan) and declared war on Dong Zhuo.

In early 190, several regional officials and warlords formed a coalition army numbering some tens of thousands, and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. They declared that their mission was to free Emperor Xian and the central government from Dong Zhuo's control. Yuan Shao was elected as the coalition chief while Cao Cao served as acting General of Uplifting Martial Might (奋武将军). The coalition scored some initial victories against Dong Zhuo's forces and reached Luoyang within months. Dong Zhuo, alarmed by his losses, ordered his troops to forcefully relocate Luoyang's residents to Chang'an and burn down the imperial capital, leaving behind nothing for the coalition.

While Dong Zhuo was retreating to Chang'an, Cao Cao led his own army to pursue the enemy, but was defeated by Xu Rong, a general under Dong Zhuo, at the Battle of Xingyang. This was the first military action Cao Cao commanded, and he barely escaped alive, with help from his cousin Cao Hong. He returned to the coalition base in Suanzao County (酸枣县; southwest of present-day Yanjin County, Henan) and was disgusted to see that the other coalition members were making merry instead of thinking how to make progress. He presented his plan on how to continue the war against Dong Zhuo and chided them for their lacklustre attitudes towards their initial goals. They ignored him.

Aftermath

As Cao Cao had few troops left with him after the Battle of Xingyang, he travelled to Yang Province with Xiahou Dun to recruit soldiers. Chen Wen, the Inspector of Yang Province, and Zhou Xin, the Administrator of Danyang Commandery (丹杨郡), gave him over 4,000 troops. On the way back, when they passed by Longkang County (龙亢县; in present-day Huaiyuan County, Anhui), many soldiers started a mutiny and set fire to Cao Cao's tent at night, but he was able to escape. When Cao Cao reached Zhi (銍; west of present-day Suzhou, Anhui) and Jianping (建平; southwest of present-day Xiayi County, Henan) counties later, he managed to regroup over 1,000 soldiers and lead them to a garrison in Henei Commandery (河内郡; around present-day Wuzhi County, Henan).

Yuan Shao and Han Fu thought of installing Liu Yu, the Governor of You Province, on the throne to replace Emperor Xian. When they sought Cao Cao's opinion, Cao Cao refused to support them and reaffirmed his allegiance to Emperor Xian. Yuan Shao's plan turned out to be unsuccessful because Liu Yu himself did not want to be emperor.

Yuan Shao once invited Cao Cao to sit beside him and showed him a jade seal, indicating his imperial ambition, and a tacit request for Cao Cao's support. Finding this despicable, Cao Cao laughed at him.

Military exploits in central China (191–199)

Pacifying Yan Province

Between 191 and 192, Yuan Shao appointed Cao Cao Administrator of Dong Commandery (东郡 in Yan Province; near present-day Puyang, Henan. This position allowed him to exact taxes and conscript soldiers. His first territorial command in that respect marks the beginning of his career as a warlord. During this time, he defeated the Heishan bandits, who were causing trouble in the region, and some Southern Xiongnu forces led by Yufuluo in Neihuang County.

Around the time, remnants from the Yellow Turban Rebellion swarmed into Yan Province from Qing Province. Liu Dai, the Governor of Yan Province, was killed in a battle against the rebels. Bao Xin, Chen Gong and others invited Cao Cao to replace Liu Dai as the Governor of Yan Province. Cao Cao defeated the rebels in battle and received the surrender of over 300,000 rebels and hundreds of thousands of civilians (the rebels' family members). From among them, he recruited the more battle-hardened ones to form a new military unit known as the Qingzhou Corps (青州兵).

Conflict between Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu

Yuan Shu had disagreements with Yuan Shao so he contacted Gongsun Zan, Yuan Shao's rival in northern China, for help in dealing with Yuan Shao. Gongsun Zan instructed Liu Bei, Shan Jing (单经) and Tao Qian to garrison at Gaotang, Pingyuan and Fagan (发干; east of present-day Guan County, Shandong) counties respectively to put pressure on Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao allied with Cao Cao and defeated all the opposing forces. In the spring of 193, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu at the Battle of Fengqiu and returned to Dingtao County by summer.

Conflict with Tao Qian

Between 193 and 194, Cao Cao came into conflict with Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province, and attacked Xu Province three times. The first attack took place in the autumn of 193, when Cao Cao attacked Tao Qian after the latter supported Que Xuan (阙宣), who had committed treason by declaring himself emperor. The second and third invasions were triggered by the murder of Cao Cao's father, Cao Song, in Xu Province, which occurred when Cao Song was en route to Qiao County (谯县; present-day Bozhou, Anhui) after his retirement. Although Tao Qian's culpability in the murder was questionable, Cao Cao nonetheless held him responsible for his father's death. During the invasions, Cao Cao conquered several territories in Xu Province and massacred thousands of civilians. Cao Cao's assault on Xu Province was so brutal that after one massacre the corpses of his victims stoppered up the nearby Si river (泗水). His army tore down villages in its wake, ensuring refugees could not return, and ate all the chickens and dogs. Cao Cao only turned back when he received news that his base in Yan Province had fallen to Lü Bu.

War with Lü Bu

In 194, Cao Cao's subordinates Zhang Miao, Chen Gong and others rebelled against him in Yan Province and defected to the rival warlord Lü Bu. Many commanderies and counties in Yan Province responded to Lü Bu's call and defected to his side except for a few. Cao Cao aborted his campaign in Xu Province and returned to attack Lü Bu. In one battle at Puyang County, he fell into an ambush and suffered some burns but managed to survive and escape. Cao Cao and Lü Bu were locked in a stalemate at Puyang County for over 100 days until Lü Bu left the county when his supplies ran out due to natural disasters such as locust plagues and droughts. Grain supplies were so limited that Cao Cao strongly considered an offer to serve under Yuan Shao, but was persuaded against it and ceased recruitment instead. He sent his army to collect food, but his numerically inferior forces were able to turn back an attack by Lü Bu that summer using deceptive tactics.

From 194 to late 195, Cao Cao attacked the territories in Yan Province and managed to retake them from Lü Bu. Lü Bu fled east to Xu Province and took refuge under Liu Bei, who had succeeded Tao Qian as the Governor of Xu Province earlier in 194. In the winter of 195, the central government officially designated Cao Cao as the Governor of Yan Province.

In 196, Lü Bu turned against his host and seized control of Xu Province from Liu Bei, but still allowed Liu Bei to remain in Xiaopei (小沛; present-day Pei County, Jiangsu). Although he agreed to an alliance with Yuan Shu earlier, he broke his promise and severed ties with Yuan Shu when the latter declared himself emperor in early 197. Throughout 197, Lü Bu joined Cao Cao and others in a campaign against Yuan Shu, who had become a public enemy because of his treasonous actions. However, in 198, Lü Bu sided with Yuan Shu again and attacked Liu Bei, who lost and fled to join Cao Cao. In the winter of 198, Cao Cao and Liu Bei combined forces to attack Lü Bu and defeated him at the Battle of Xiapi. Lü Bu was captured and executed after his defeat. Cao Cao also pacified the eastern parts of Xu and Qing provinces along the coast.

Receiving Emperor Xian

Emperor Xian had been held hostage in Chang'an by Li Jue, Guo Si and other former followers of Dong Zhuo. Around 195, when internal conflict broke out between Li Jue and Guo Si, Emperor Xian escaped from Chang'an and after a harrowing journey returned to the ruins of Luoyang, which Dong Zhuo had ordered to be destroyed by fire in 190 when moving the capital to Chang'an. In Luoyang, Emperor Xian came under the protection of Dong Cheng, former bandit Yang Feng, and other petty strongmen who have been characterised as "ragtag gangsters". The emperor sought refuge under Yuan Shao, but was rebuffed. In February or March 196, acting on the advice of Xun Yu and Cheng Yu, Cao Cao sent Cao Hong west to fetch Emperor Xian but was blocked by Dong Cheng and Yuan Shu's subordinate Chang Nu (苌奴). Between March and April 196, Cao Cao defeated Yellow Turban remnants in Runan (汝南) and Yingchuan (颍川) commanderies and was appointed General Who Establishes Virtue (建德将军). In July or August 196, Cao Cao was promoted to General Who Garrisons the East (镇东将军) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Fei Village (费亭侯) – the peerage previously held by his adoptive grandfather Cao Teng.

Sometime between August and September 196, Cao Cao led his forces to the ruins of Luoyang and received Emperor Xian. The emperor granted Cao Cao a ceremonial axe and appointed him Manager of the Affairs of the Imperial Secretariat (录尚书事) and Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隷校尉). As Luoyang was in bad shape, Dong Zhao and others advised Cao Cao to move the imperial capital to Xu (许; present-day Xuchang, Henan). So, in October or early November 196, Cao Cao and his forces escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, which became the new imperial capital. Cao Cao had himself appointed General-in-Chief (大将军) and promoted from a village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Wuping" (武平侯), later characterised as ten thousand households. Since Dong Zhuo moved the capital from Luoyang to Chang'an in 190, the imperial court had been in a state of disorder. However, after Cao Cao received Emperor Xian and established the new imperial capital in Xuchang, order was restored, although Cao Cao did have the emperor's confidante Zhao Yan (赵彦) killed for secretively keeping the emperor updated on the great affairs of state.

Cao Cao sent an imperial decree to Yuan Shao in Emperor Xian's name to appoint him as Grand Commandant (太尉). Yuan Shao was unhappy because Grand Commandant ranked below Cao Cao's position, General-in-Chief, so he rejected the appointment. When Cao Cao heard about it, he gave up his position as General-in-Chief and offered it to Yuan Shao. Emperor Xian reappointed Cao Cao as Minister of Works (司空) and acting General of Chariots and Cavalry (车骑将军). Struck by the difficulties Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu had faced in supplying their armies, as well as his own struggles with food supply in recent years, Cao Cao followed Zao Zhi and Han Hao's suggestion to implement the tuntian system of agriculture to produce a sustainable supply of grain for his growing army. The tuntian agricultural colonies gave Cao Cao an advantage over his adversaries, allowing him to resettle internally displaced refugees, redevelop abandoned arable lands, shorten his supply lines, reduce the amount of defensive assets tasked to defend farms and granaries, and increase the area and productivity of lands held directly by the state.

Battles with Zhang Xiu

In early 197, Cao Cao led his forces to Wancheng (宛城; present-day Wancheng District in Nanyang, Henan) to attack a rival warlord, Zhang Xiu. Zhang Xiu initially surrendered without a fight, but due to ill treatment changed his mind and attacked Cao Cao and caught him off guard. Cao Cao lost his eldest son Cao Ang, nephew Cao Anmin (曹安民) and close bodyguard Dian Wei in the battle. He returned to Xuchang after his defeat, but attacked Zhang Xiu again later that year and pacified Huyang (湖阳; southwest of present-day Tanghe County, Henan) and Wuyin (舞阴; southeast of present-day Sheqi County, Henan) counties. In early 198, he led another campaign against Zhang Xiu and besieged him in Rangcheng (穰城; present-day Dengzhou, Henan) but withdrew his forces about two months later. Before retreating back to Xuchang, he set up an ambush and defeated Zhang Xiu's pursuing forces. In late 199, acting on Jia Xu's advice, Zhang Xiu voluntarily surrendered to Cao Cao, who accepted his surrender.

Campaign against Yuan Shu

In early 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor in Shouchun (寿春; present-day Shou County, Anhui) – an act regarded as treason against Emperor Xian. He soon came under attack by Cao Cao and various forces, including his former ally Lü Bu. In the autumn of 197, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu in battle, captured several of his officers, and had them executed. By 199, some months after Lü Bu's defeat at the Battle of Xiapi, Yuan Shu, who was already in dire straits, wanted to abandon his lands in the Huainan region and head north to join Yuan Shao. Cao Cao sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to lead forces to intercept and block Yuan Shu in Xu Province. Yuan Shu died of illness while under siege by Liu Bei and Zhu Ling.

War with Yuan Shao (199–202)

Background

While Cao Cao was waging wars throughout central China in the 190s, Yuan Shao defeated his rival Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing in 199, after which he controlled four provinces in northern China (Ji, Bing, Qing and You) and gained command of thousands of troops. A power struggle between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao became inevitable by early 199. In the autumn of 199, Cao Cao dispatched troops to Liyang County (黎阳县; present-day Xun County, Henan) and sent Zang Ba and others to capture some territories in Qing Province while leaving Yu Jin to guard the southern bank of the Yellow River. In winter, he mobilised his forces and deployed them at Guandu (官渡; present-day Guandu Town, Zhongmu County, Henan).

Campaign against Liu Bei in Xu Province

Around this time, Cheng Yu and Guo Jia had warned Cao Cao against allowing Liu Bei to leave Xuchang but it was too late because Cao Cao had already sent Liu Bei to intercept and block Yuan Shu. Earlier, when he was still in Xuchang, Liu Bei had secretly joined a plot initiated by Dong Cheng and others to get rid of Cao Cao. After leaving Xuchang, Liu Bei headed to Xu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (车胄), and seized control of Xu Province. Cao Cao sent Liu Dai (刘岱) and Wang Zhong to attack Liu Bei but they were defeated.

In February 200, Cao Cao got wind of Dong Cheng's plot and had all the conspirators arrested and executed. He then led a campaign to retake Xu Province from Liu Bei, defeated him, and captured his family. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, who was guarding Xu Province's capital, Xiapi (下邳; present-day Pizhou, Jiangsu), surrendered and temporarily served Cao Cao. Liu Bei fled north to join Yuan Shao after his defeat. Some of Cao Cao's subordinates initially expressed worries that Yuan Shao might attack them while Cao Cao was away in Xu Province, but, as Cao Cao accurately predicted, Yuan Shao did not make any advances throughout this period of time, possibly due to Cao Cao's general Yu Jin's raiding in the south of Yuan Shao's territory.

Early stages

From early to mid 200, the forces of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed in two separate engagements at Boma (白马; present-day Hua County, Henan) and Yan Ford (延津; near present-day Yanjin County, Henan). At Boma, Yuan Shao sent Guo Tu, Chunyu Qiong and Yan Liang to besiege Cao Cao's general Liu Yan (刘延), but the siege was lifted after about two months when Cao Cao personally led an army to relief Liu Yan. Guan Yu slew Yan Liang in the midst of battle. While Cao Cao and his troops were evacuating Boma's residents, Yuan Shao's forces led by Wen Chou and Liu Bei caught up with them at Yan Ford, but were defeated and Wen Chou was killed in battle. Cao Cao returned to his main camp at Guandu while Yuan Shao moved to Yangwu County (阳武县; southwest of present-day Yuanyang County, Henan). Around this time, Guan Yu left Cao Cao and returned to Liu Bei.

Stalemate at Guandu and the raid on Wuchao

In late 200, Yuan Shao led his forces to attack Cao Cao at Guandu. Both sides were locked in a stalemate for months and Cao Cao's supplies were gradually running out and his men were growing weary. During this time, Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact a rebel chief, Liu Pi (刘辟), in Runan Commandery (汝南郡; near present-day Xinyang, Henan) and join Liu Pi in making a sneak attack on Cao Cao's base in Xuchang while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. However, Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated and driven back by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren. During this time, Sun Ce, a warlord based in the Jiangdong region, also contemplated attacking Xuchang and taking Emperor Xian hostage. However, he was assassinated before he could execute his plan.

In the winter of 200, following the advice of Xu You, a defector from Yuan Shao's side, Cao Cao left Cao Hong behind to defend his main camp at Guandu while he personally led 5,000 riders to raid Yuan Shao's supply depot at Wuchao (乌巢; southeast of present-day Yanjin County, Henan), which was guarded by Chunyu Qiong. Cao Cao succeeded in destroying Yuan Shao's supplies. When Yuan Shao heard that Wuchao was under attack, he sent Zhang He and Gao Lan to attack Cao Cao's main camp in the hope of diverting Cao Cao's attention away from Wuchao. However, Zhang He and Gao Lan, already frustrated with Yuan Shao, destroyed their own camps and led their troops to defect to Cao Cao's side. The morale of Yuan Shao's army fell drastically and they were utterly defeated by Cao Cao's forces, after which Yuan Shao hastily crossed the Yellow River and retreated back to northern China. Much of his supplies and many of his soldiers were captured by Cao Cao. Cao Cao also obtained several letters written by spies from his side to Yuan Shao, but he refused to conduct an investigation to find out who the spies were, and instead ordered all the letters to be burnt. Many commanderies in Ji Province surrendered to Cao Cao.

Aftermath

In the summer of 201, Cao Cao led his forces across the Yellow River and attacked Yuan Shao again, inflicting another crushing defeat on him at the Battle of Cangting and pacifying the territories in the area. In autumn, Cao Cao returned to Xuchang and sent Cai Yang (蔡扬) to attack Liu Bei, who had left Yuan Shao and allied with another rebel chief, Gong Du (共都), in Runan Commandery. Liu Bei defeated and killed Cai Yang in battle. Cao Cao personally led his forces to attack Liu Bei, who fled south upon learning Cao Cao himself was in command. He took shelter under governor Liu Biao in Jing Province. The following spring, while in his hometown, Cao Cao issued a proclamation characterising his military actions as a righteous uprising.

Unification of northern China (202–207)

Battle of Liyang

Yuan Shao died of illness in the early summer of 202 and was succeeded by his third son, Yuan Shang. In autumn, Cao Cao attacked Yuan Shang and his eldest brother Yuan Tan and defeated them, forcing them to retreat and hold up inside their fortresses. In the spring of 203, Cao Cao attacked the Yuan brothers again and defeated them. In summer, he advanced towards Ye (present-day Handan, Hebei) and returned to Xuchang later, leaving behind Jia Xin (贾信) to defend Liyang County (黎阳县; present-day Xun County, Henan). Afterwards, Cao Cao issued an order establishing schools in each of his counties with 500 or more households.

Defeating Yuan Shaos heirs

Some months after Cao Cao left northern China and returned to the south, internal conflict broke out between Yuan Shang and Yuan Tan as the brothers started fighting over Ji Province. Yuan Tan, who lost to Yuan Shang, surrendered to Cao Cao and sought his help in dealing with his third brother. Cao Cao agreed to assist Yuan Tan, so, in the winter of 203, he returned to northern China. Between spring and autumn in 204, Cao Cao attacked Yuan Shang in his base at Ye and conquered the city. Yuan Shang fled further north to Zhongshan Commandery (中山郡; around present-day Dingzhou, Hebei). After capturing Ye, Cao Cao visited Yuan Shao's tomb, weeping for his childhood friend-turned-rival, and spared no effort assuaging Yuan Shao's widow. To the delight of the people in Hebei, Cao Cao issued an order exempting them from paying taxes for that year and clamped down on the power of influential landlords in the area. When Emperor Xian offered to appoint Cao Cao as the Governor of Ji Province, Cao Cao declined, preferring to stick to his appointment as the Governor of Yan Province.

While Cao Cao was attacking Yuan Shang in Ye, Yuan Tan, who had previously allied with Cao Cao against his third brother, took over some of Yuan Shang's territories and troops for himself. Cao Cao wrote to Yuan Tan to reprimand him for not adhering to their earlier agreement. Yuan Tan became afraid so he retreated to Nanpi County. In the spring of 205, Cao Cao attacked Yuan Tan, defeated him, and executed him along with his family. Ji Province was completely pacified. Around the same time, Yuan Shang had fled to join his second brother Yuan Xi but Yuan Xi was betrayed by his subordinates Jiao Chu (焦触) and Zhang Nan (张南), who surrendered to Cao Cao. The Yuan brothers had no choice but to head further north to take shelter under the Wuhuan tribes.

In the spring of 206, Cao Cao attacked Yuan Shao's maternal nephew Gao Gan, who had surrendered to him initially but rebelled later, and defeated Gao Gan at Hu Pass (壶关; in present-day Huguan County, Shanxi). In autumn, Cao Cao started a campaign against the pirates led by Guan Cheng. He sent Yue Jin and Li Dian to attack Guan Cheng and pacified the eastern coast.

Campaign against the Wuhuan

In the summer of 206, Cao Cao received the surrender of thousands of Heishan bandits led by Zhang Yan. Around the time, Zhao Du (赵犊) and Huo Nu (霍奴) killed the Inspector of You Province and the Administrator of Zhuo Commandery (涿郡; around present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei), while the Wuhuan tribes from three commanderies attacked Xianyu Fu (鲜于辅) at Guangping County (犷平县; west of present-day Miyun District in Beijing). In early autumn, Cao Cao personally led a campaign against them and defeated Zhao Du and Huo Nu, after which his army crossed the Lu River (潞河; in present-day Tongzhou District, Beijing) to help Xianyu Fu by attacking the Wuhuan. They succeeded in driving the Wuhuan away. Cao Cao returned to Ye by winter.

Throughout the period of civil wars during the late Eastern Han dynasty, the Wuhuan tribes in northern China had been taking advantage of the situation to invade You Province, capture and enslave thousands of people living in the area. When Yuan Shao had been in power in northern China, he maintained friendly ties with the Wuhuan, so Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi found refuge under the Wuhuan chieftains. In 207, Cao Cao led a campaign against the Wuhuan and the Yuan brothers and scored a decisive victory over them at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain later that year. The campaign was difficult and dangerous, and Cao Cao rewarded his counselors who had advised him against undertaking it. Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled further northeast to Liaodong to take shelter under the warlord Gongsun Kang. When Cao Cao's generals were preparing for an invasion of Liaodong, Cao Cao stopped them and predicted that Gongsun Kang would kill the Yuan brothers. Cao Cao was right, as Gongsun Kang arrested and executed the Yuan brothers because he sensed that they posed a threat to him. He then sent their heads to Cao Cao as a gesture of goodwill. Northern China was basically pacified and unified under Cao Cao's control by then.

In the spring of 207, Cao Cao announced he would be distributing his wealth amongst those who had aided him, and enfeoffed over twenty of his followers as marquises, with lesser emoluments for the remainder.

Red Cliffs campaign (207–211)

Background

Cao Cao returned to Ye (present-day Handan, Hebei) in the spring of 208 after pacifying northern China. He ordered the construction of Xuanwu Pool (玄武池) to train his troops in naval warfare. He also implemented changes to the political system by abolishing the Three Ducal Ministers and replacing them with the offices of the Imperial Chancellor (丞相) and Imperial Counsellor (御史大夫). He was officially appointed as Imperial Chancellor in July 208. Around this time he had the famous scholar Kong Rong – later listed by Cao Cao's own son Cao Pi as one of the foremost literary talents of the age – put to death for insouciance, along with his family.

In August 208, Cao Cao launched a southern campaign to attack Liu Biao, the governor of Jing Province. Liu Biao died of illness in the following month and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong. Liu Cong was stationed at Xiangyang while Liu Bei moved from Xinye County to Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District in Xiangyang, Hubei). Liu Cong surrendered in late September or October 208 when Cao Cao and his forces reached Xinye County. Liu Bei and his followers fled towards Xiakou (夏口; in present-day Wuhan) to join Liu Biao's elder son, Liu Qi. Cao Cao sent 5,000 riders to pursue Liu Bei and after covering in twenty-four hours they caught up with him and defeated him at the Battle of Changban. Liu Bei managed to escape and retreat safely to Xiakou with a few followers, but lost most of his supplies and equipment to the enemy. Liu Bei later formed an alliance with the warlord Sun Quan, who controlled the territories in the Wuyue region in southern China.

Meanwhile, Cao Cao advanced towards Jiangling County and reformed Jing Province's administration. He also rewarded those who helped him gain Jing Province, including those from Liu Cong's side who persuaded Liu Cong to surrender to him. Cao Cao appointed Wen Ping, a former general under Liu Biao, as the Administrator of Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei) and put him in command of some of his troops. He also recruited members of the scholar-gentry in Jing Province, such as Han Song (韩嵩) and Deng Yi, to serve under him.

Battle of Red Cliffs

Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province (present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), had received orders to help Cao Cao recruit soldiers from his province, so he sent the new conscripts to Jiangling County. In late December 208 or January 209, Sun Quan helped Liu Bei by attacking Cao Cao's garrison at Hefei. Around the same time, Cao Cao led his forces from Jiangling County to attack Liu Bei. When they reached Baqiu (巴丘; present-day Yueyang, Hunan), Cao Cao ordered Zhang Xi (张憙) to lead a separate army to reinforce Hefei, and Sun Quan withdrew his forces from Hefei upon receiving news of Zhang Xi's arrival. Cao Cao's forces advanced to Red Cliffs (赤壁) and engaged the allied forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, but lost the battle. Around that time, an epidemic disease had broken out in Cao Cao's army and many had died, so Cao Cao ordered a retreat. Liu Bei then went on to conquer the four commanderies in southern Jing Province.

After his defeat at Red Cliffs, Cao Cao led his remaining forces through Huarong Trail (华容道; near present-day Jianli County, Hubei) as they were retreating. The area was very muddy and inaccessible and there were strong winds. Cao Cao ordered his weaker soldiers to carry straw and hay to lay out the path ahead so that his horsemen could proceed. The weaker soldiers ended up being stuck in the mud and many were trampled to death by the riders. Cao Cao expressed joy after he and his surviving men managed to get out of Huarong Trail safely, albeit suffering much losses. His generals were puzzled so they asked him why. Cao Cao remarked: "Liu Bei, my friend, doesn't think fast enough. If he had set fire earlier, we wouldn't have been able to get out alive." Liu Bei did think of setting fire but it was too late as Cao Cao had already escaped.

After the Red Cliffs campaign

In the spring of 209, Cao Cao reached Qiao County (谯县; present-day Bozhou, Anhui), where he ordered small boats to be built and staged a naval drill. In autumn, he sailed along the Huai River to the garrison at Hefei, where he issued an order for local officials to provide relief to the families of soldiers who had died in battle. He then established an administration in Yang Province and started a tuntian system in Quebei (芍陂; south of present-day Shou County, Anhui). He returned to Qiao County in winter.

In the winter of 210, Cao Cao had a Bronze Sparrow Platform (or Bronze Sparrow Terrace) constructed in Ye. In January 211, Cao Cao wrote a long memorial – to the throne as well as to a more general audience including his detractors – declining to accept three counties awarded to him by Emperor Xian to be part of his marquisate, in which he also wrote at length about his life and ambitions.

In the spring of 211, Emperor Xian appointed Cao Cao's son, Cao Pi, as General of the Household for All Purposes (五官中郎将). Cao Pi had his own office and served as an assistant to his father, the Imperial Chancellor. At the same time, in accordance with Cao Cao's wishes in the essay he wrote earlier, Emperor Xian reduced the number of taxable households in Cao Cao's marquisate by 5,000, and granted the three counties to three of Cao Cao's sons – Cao Zhi, Cao Ju and Cao Lin – who were enfeoffed as marquises.

Sometime in early 211, Shang Yao (商曜) from Taiyuan Commandery started a rebellion in Daling County (大陵县; north of present-day Wenshui County, Shanxi). Cao Cao sent Xiahou Yuan and Xu Huang to lead an army to suppress the revolt and they achieved success.

Battle of Tong Pass (211–213)

In early 211, Cao Cao ordered Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. They were due to pass through the Guanzhong region along the way. The warlords in Guanzhong thought that Cao Cao was planning to attack them, so they, under the leadership of Ma Chao and Han Sui, formed a coalition known as the Guanxi Coalition (关西军; "coalition from the west of Tong Pass") and rebelled against the Han imperial court.

A few months later, Cao Cao personally led a campaign against the rebels and engaged them in battle in the areas around Tong Pass (in present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi) and the banks of the Wei River. The first engagement took place when Cao Cao's forces were crossing the Wei River to the north bank, during which they suddenly came under attack by Ma Chao. Cao Cao and his forces headed back to the south bank later, where they constructed sand walls to keep the enemy at bay.

After some time, the rebels offered to cede territories and send a hostage to Cao Cao's side in exchange for peace. Acting on Jia Xu's suggestion, Cao Cao pretended to accept the offer to put the enemy at ease and make them lower their guard. Cao Cao later had talks with Han Sui (an old acquaintance of his) on at least two different occasions. The first time was a private conversation between them about old times, while the second time probably took place in the presence of Ma Chao and the other coalition members. Ma Chao and the others started to doubt Han Sui's allegiance, especially after Han Sui received a letter from Cao Cao which contained several blotted-out words, making it seem as though the recipient had deliberately edited the letter's contents to cover up something. Cao Cao took advantage of the mutual suspicion between the rebels to launch an attack on them and defeated them. Some of the warlords were killed in battle while Han Sui and Ma Chao retreated back to Guanzhong.

Aftermath

Cao Cao returned to Ye (present-day Handan, Hebei) in late 211 after receiving the surrender of one of the remaining warlords, Yang Qiu. He left Xiahou Yuan behind to defend Chang'an, a major city in the Guanzhong region. Ma Chao, who had the support of the Qiang, Di and other tribal peoples in western China, continued to ravage Guanzhong and attack Cao Cao's territories. In 213, he killed Wei Kang, the Inspector of Liang Province, seized control of the province, and forced Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. In late 213, Zhao Qu (赵衢), Yin Feng (尹奉) and several other officials in Liang Province rebelled against Ma Chao and drove him out of Guanzhong. With aid from Zhang Lu, Ma Chao returned and struck back at his enemies, but was defeated when Xiahou Yuan led reinforcements from Chang'an to assist Zhao Qu and his allies. Xiahou Yuan later attacked the remnants of the Guanxi Coalition (including Han Sui) and the various tribes in western China and forced them to surrender. He also eliminated Song Jian (宋建), who had rebelled against the Han government and set up a small kingdom in Fuhan County (枹罕县; southwest of present-day Linxia County, Gansu).

Wars with Sun Quan (213–217)

In early 213, Cao Cao led an army to attack Sun Quan at Ruxu (濡须; north of present-day Wuwei County, Anhui, along the Yangtze River). During the battle, Cao Cao's forces destroyed Sun Quan's camp on the west bank of the Yangtze and captured Gongsun Yang (公孙阳), an area commander under Sun Quan. However, overall, both sides did not make any significant gains in the battle.

In mid-214, Cao Cao launched another campaign against Sun Quan against the advice of Fu Gan, one of his advisers. Just like in the previous campaign, he did not make any significant gains so he retreated. In the following year, Sun Quan led his forces to attack Hefei, a heavily fortified city guarded by Cao Cao's generals Zhang Liao, Li Dian and Yue Jin, leading to the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford. Zhang Liao and the defenders inflicted a devastating defeat on Sun Quan and his forces.

In the winter of 216, Cao Cao staged a military drill in Ye (present-day Handan, Hebei), during which he personally beat a war drum to direct his troops' movements and boost their morale. After the drill, he launched another campaign against Sun Quan and arrived in Juchao (居巢; in present-day Chaohu, Anhui) by spring in the following year. In late March or April 217, he ordered his troops to make camp at the Hao Gorge (郝溪) on the west bank of the Yangtze. Sun Quan had constructed a dock and stationed defences at Ruxu. Both sides clashed at Ruxu and the battle ended with an inconclusive result. Cao Cao withdrew his forces in late April or May 217, leaving behind Xiahou Dun, Cao Ren, Zhang Liao and others to defend Juchao.

Campaign against Zhang Lu (215)

In early 215, Cao Cao launched a campaign against Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. He first sent Zhang He, Zhu Ling and others to lead an army to attack the Di tribes blocking the way in Wudu Commandery (武都郡; around present-day Longnan, Gansu). They defeated and massacred the Di population in Hechi County (河池县; northwest of present-day Pingliang, Gansu).

By mid 215, Cao Cao's army reached Yangping Pass (阳平关; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi) after making a long and arduous journey across mountainous terrain. When his soldiers started complaining, Cao Cao announced that he would remember them for their contributions to encourage them to move on. Zhang Lu ordered his younger brother Zhang Wei (张卫) and subordinate Yang Ang (杨昂) to lead troops to defend the pass, making use of the mountainous terrain to counter Cao Cao's advances. Cao Cao was unable to overcome the enemy after launching assaults so he withdrew to put them off guard. One night, Cao Cao secretly ordered Xie Biao (解忄剽) and Gao Zuo (高祚) to lead a sneak attack on Yangping Pass. Zhang Lu retreated to Bazhong, when he heard that Yangping Pass had been taken. Cao Cao proceeded to occupy Nanzheng County, the capital of Hanzhong Commandery.

After taking control of Hanzhong Commandery, Cao Cao made some administrative changes to the commandery, such as redrawing boundaries and appointing some administrators to govern the newly formed commanderies. In late 215, Zhang Lu led his followers out of Bazhong and voluntarily submitted to Cao Cao, who accepted his surrender and granted him a marquis title. Around the time, Liu Bei had recently seized control of Yi Province (present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) from its governor Liu Zhang and occupied Bazhong after Zhang Lu left. Cao Cao ordered Zhang He to lead a force to attack Liu Bei, but Zhang He lost to Liu Bei's general Zhang Fei at the Battle of Baxi. About a month after Zhang Lu's surrender, Cao Cao left Nanzheng County and headed back to Ye (present-day Handan, Hebei), leaving behind Xiahou Yuan to guard Hanzhong Commandery.

War with Liu Bei in Hanzhong (217–219)

In the winter of 217, Liu Bei sent Zhang Fei, Ma Chao, Wu Lan (吴兰) and others to garrison at Xiabian (下辩; northwest of present-day Cheng County, Gansu). Cao Cao ordered Cao Hong to lead an army to resist the enemy. In the spring of 218, Cao Hong defeated Wu Lan and killed his deputy Ren Kui (任夔). In April or May 218, Zhang Fei and Ma Chao retreated from Hanzhong Commandery while Wu Lan was killed by Qiangduan (强端), a Di chieftain from Yinping Commandery (阴平郡; around present-day Wen County, Gansu).

In August or early September 218, Cao Cao staged a military drill and launched a campaign against Liu Bei. His army reached Chang'an in October. In the meantime, Liu Bei's forces had already engaged Cao Cao's forces, under Xiahou Yuan's command, in Hanzhong Commandery. In early 219, Xiahou Yuan was killed in action at the Battle of Mount Dingjun against Liu Bei's general Huang Zhong. In April 219, Cao Cao led his forces from Yangping Pass (阳平关; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi) towards Hanzhong via Xie Valley (斜谷). Liu Bei made use of the geographical advantage he had – mountainous terrain – to hold off Cao Cao. That July, Cao Cao withdrew his forces back to Chang'an.

Battle of Fancheng (219–220)

In the autumn of 219, Cao Cao ordered Yu Jin to lead seven armies to reinforce Cao Ren, who was under siege by Guan Yu at Fancheng. However, due to heavy rains, the Han River burst its banks and the seven armies were destroyed in the flood. Guan Yu captured Yu Jin, executed his subordinate Pang De, and continued to press on the attack on Cao Ren. Cao Cao ordered Xu Huang to lead another army to help Cao Ren. At the same time, Cao Cao also contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xuchang further north into Hebei to avoid Guan Yu, but Sima Yi and Jiang Ji told him that Sun Quan would become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and enlist his help in hindering Guan Yu's advances. In return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories in Jiangdong. In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion.

Cao Cao arrived in Luoyang early in the winter of 219 after returning from campaign in Hanzhong. He later led an army from Luoyang to relieve Cao Ren, but turned back before reaching his destination upon receiving news that Xu Huang had defeated Guan Yu and lifted the siege on Fancheng. In the spring of 220, Cao Cao returned to Luoyang and remained there. In the meantime, Sun Quan had sent his general Lü Meng and others to launch a stealth assault on Liu territories in Jing Province while Guan Yu was on the Fancheng campaign, and they succeeded in conquering Guan Yu's key bases in Gong'an County and Jiangling County. Guan Yu, having lost his bases and forced to withdraw from Fancheng, was eventually surrounded by Sun Quan's forces and captured in an ambush and executed. Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan Yu and had his head buried with full honours.

Titles of nobility (213–220)

Duke of Wei

Cao Cao returned to Ye in the spring of 212 after the Battle of Tong Pass. Emperor Xian granted him special privileges similar to those awarded to Xiao He by Emperor Gao. Cao Cao did not have to have his name announced, did not have to walk in quickly, and had permission to carry a ceremonial sword and wear shoes when he entered the imperial court. Fourteen counties from five different commanderies were segregated from their respective commanderies and placed under the jurisdiction of Wei Commandery (魏郡; around present-day Handan, Hebei).

In 213, after Cao Cao returned from the Battle of Ruxu against Sun Quan, Emperor Xian issued a decree abolishing the fourteen provinces system and replacing it with an older nine provinces system. About a month after Cao Cao returned to Ye, Emperor Xian sent Chi Lü as an emissary to enfeoff Cao Cao as the Duke of Wei (魏公). After Cao Cao refused the customary three times, the emperor sent a thirty-person delegation of officials to make a fourth offer of enfeoffment, which was accepted. In August 213, an ancestral temple and the sheji (altars for worshipping the gods of soil and grain) were built in Cao Cao's dukedom. Later, Emperor Xian sent a six-person delegation led by high ranking government minister Wang Yi (王邑) to present betrothal gifts of jade, silk, and other precious items to Cao Cao as part of an arrangement for three of Cao Cao's daughters to become the emperor's concubines: Cao Jie, Cao Hua, and Cao Xian. It is to be understood that these grants of honours, titles, prerogatives, and imperial marriage arrangements were not of the emperor's own initiative, but orchestrated by Cao Cao and his staff, who controlled the Imperial Secretariat. As early as the Book of the Later Han, few historians offer Cao Cao the veneer of legitimacy in his appointments and enfeoffments, forgoing mention of the emperor and instead describing the actions as a personal decision.

In October 213, Cao Cao ordered the construction of the Golden Tiger Platform (金虎台) and a watercourse linking the Zhang River and White Canal (白沟). A month later, he divided Wei Commandery into the east and west divisions, each governed by a Commandant. In December, he established a ducal secretariat in his fief along with the offices of Palace Attendants and the Six Ministers.

In late January or February 214, Cao Cao attended a ceremony, known as ji li (籍礼), to promote agriculture. In late March or April, Emperor Xian sent Yang Xuan (杨宣) and Pei Mao (裴茂) as emissaries to present Cao Cao with a golden official seal with a red ribbon and a yuanyou guan (远游冠), placing Cao (who was still only a duke then) in a position above other nobles.

In December 214 or January 215, Empress Fu Shou wrote a secret letter to her father Fu Wan (伏完) to tell him that Emperor Xian resented Cao Cao for the execution of Dong Cheng. The contents of the letter were hateful. The incident was exposed and Empress Fu was deposed and executed, her family exiled.

In January or February 215, Cao Cao went to Meng Ford (孟津), a historically important spot near the site of the ancient Battle of Muye. Emperor Xian allowed him to make a maotou (旄头; a banner decorated with animals' tails, typically reserved for the emperor) and erect a zhongju (锺虡; a bell pendant stand) in his ducal palace. Cao Cao later issued two official statements and established a licaoyuan (理曹掾; a justice ministry).

In the spring of 215, Emperor Xian instated Cao Cao's daughter, Cao Jie, as the new empress. Cao Cao visited four commanderies and merged them into a new commandery – Xinxing Commandery (新兴郡, literally The Newly Rising Commandery) – with one of the counties as the commandery capital. In winter, while he was away in Hanzhong Commandery, Cao Cao created the titles of the Five Counsellors and nominal marquis titles for the first time, alongside the original six grades of marquis ranks. These new titles were awarded to Cao Cao's men who had made contributions in battle during the campaign against Zhang Lu, as Cao Cao had promised them earlier.

In February or early March 216, Cao Cao returned to Ye (present-day Handan, Hebei) after a successful campaign against Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. Two months later, he attended another ji li (籍礼) ceremony.

King of Wei

In June 216, Emperor Xian promoted Cao Cao from a duke to a vassal king under the title "King of Wei" (魏王). Cao Cao summoned Sima Fang, who had recommended him to be the Commandant of the North District in Luoyang early in his career, to meet him in Ye, where they had a chat. Later, the Wuhuan chanyu Pufulu (普富卢) from Dai Commandery (代郡; northwest of present-day Yu County, Hebei) led his various subjects to Ye to pay tribute to Cao Cao. Around the same time, Emperor Xian instated one of Cao Cao's daughters as a princess and granted her a fief with some taxable households. In August 216, the Southern Xiongnu chanyu Huchuquan brought along his subjects to pay tribute to Cao Cao, who treated them like guests. Huchuquan remained in Cao Cao's vassal kingdom while the former Southern Xiongnu ___domain in Bing province was reorganized into the "Five Divisions" (五部) and placed under the supervision of Huchuquan's uncle, Qubei. In September, Cao Cao promoted Zhong Yao from the position of Grand Judge (大理) under the Han central government to the Royal Chancellor (相国) of his vassal kingdom. He also established the offices of the Minister of Ancestral Ceremonies (奉常) and Minister of the Royal Clan (宗正) in his vassal kingdom.

In late May or June 217, Emperor Xian allowed Cao Cao to have his personal jingqi (旌旗; a banner) and have imperial guards clear the path when Cao travelled around. In late June or July, Cao Cao had a pangong (泮宫) constructed. In July or August, Hua Xin was appointed as Imperial Counsellor (御史大夫). Cao Cao also established the office of the Minister of the Guards (衞尉) in his vassal kingdom. In November or December, Emperor Xian granted more ceremonial privileges to Cao Cao: have twelve fringes of pearls on his crown; ride in a golden carriage pulled by six horses; have five other carriages to accompany his main carriage when he travelled around. Cao Cao's son, Cao Pi, who was serving as General of the Household for All Purposes (五官中郎将) in the Han imperial court, was designated as the Crown Prince (太子) of Cao Cao's vassal kingdom.

In February or early March 218, the imperial physician Ji Ben, along with Geng Ji (耿纪), Wei Huang (韦晃) and others, started a rebellion in the imperial capital Xuchang and attacked the camp of Wang Bi (王必), a chief clerk under Cao Cao. Wang Bi suppressed the revolt with the aid of Yan Kuang (严匡), an Agriculture General of the Household (典农中郎将).

In late July or August 219, Cao Cao designated his formal spouse, Lady Bian, as his queen consort. Some months later, Sun Quan wrote to Cao Cao, expressing his desire to submit to Cao Cao and urging Cao Cao to take the throne from Emperor Xian. Cao Cao showed Sun Quan's letter to his subordinates and remarked: "This kid wants me to put myself on top of a fire!" Chen Qun, Huan Jie and Xiahou Dun also urged Cao Cao to usurp the imperial throne from Emperor Xian, but Cao Cao refused.

Death (220)

Cao Cao died on 15 March 220 in Luoyang at the age of 66 (by East Asian age reckoning). He was granted the posthumous title "King Wu" (武王; "martial king") by Emperor Xian. His will instructed that he be buried near Ximen Bao's tomb in Ye without gold and jade treasures, and that his subjects on duty at the frontier were to stay in their posts and not attend the funeral as, in his own words, "the country is still unstable". He was buried on 11 April 220 in the Gaoling (高陵; "high mausoleum"). In December 220 or early January 221, after Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in his favour and established the state of Cao Wei, he granted his father the posthumous title "Emperor Wu" (武皇帝; "Martial Emperor") and the temple name "Taizu" (太祖; "Grand Ancestor").

Cao Cao Mausoleum

On 27 December 2009, the Henan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau reported the discovery of Cao Cao's tomb in Xigaoxue Village, Anyang County, Henan. The tomb, covering an area of 740 square metres, was discovered in December 2008 when workers at a nearby kiln were digging for mud to make bricks. Its discovery was not reported and the local authorities knew of it only when they seized a stone tablet carrying the inscription 'King Wu of Wei' – Cao Cao's posthumous title – from grave robbers who claimed to have stolen it from the tomb. Over the following year, archaeologists recovered more than 250 relics from the tomb. The remains of three persons – a man in his 60s, a woman in her 50s and another woman in her 20s – were also unearthed and are believed to be those of Cao Cao, one of his wives, and a servant.

Since the discovery of the tomb, there have been many sceptics and experts who pointed out problems with it and raised doubts about its authenticity. In January 2010, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage legally endorsed the initial results from research conducted throughout 2009 suggesting that the tomb was Cao Cao's. However, in August 2010, 23 experts and scholars presented evidence at a forum held in Suzhou to argue that the findings and the artefacts of the tomb were fake. In 2010, archaeologist Zhang Guo'an published a book positing that the tomb and the adjacent one actually belonged to Cao Huan (a grandson of Cao Cao) and his father Cao Yu.

In 2010, the tomb became part of the fifth batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in China. A museum was opened at the site in April 2023.

Family

According to historical records, Cao Cao had 15 wives and concubines, 25 sons, six daughters and two adopted sons. His first formal spouse was Lady Ding, who raised his eldest son Cao Ang (born to his concubine Lady Liu). She fell out with him after Cao Ang's death and effectively separated from him. After Lady Ding left him, Cao Cao designated Lady Bian, one of his concubines, as his new formal spouse and she remained in this position permanently. Among Cao Cao's sons (excluding Cao Ang), the more notable ones are Cao Pi, Cao Zhang, Cao Zhi and Cao Chong, who were, at different points in time, considered as potential candidates to succeed their father. Cao Chong, who was born to Lady Huan, was a child prodigy who devised a method of weighing an elephant by using the principle of buoyancy. Cao Chong died prematurely at the age of 12. Cao Pi, Cao Zhang and Cao Zhi were born to Lady Bian and were known for their individual talents: Cao Pi and Cao Zhi were noted as brilliant writers and poets; Cao Zhang inherited his father's military skills. Cao Pi eventually overcame his two younger brothers in a succession struggle and was chosen to be his father's heir apparent. Three of Cao Cao's daughters – Cao Xian, Cao Jie and Cao Hua – were married to Emperor Xian. Cao Cao's two adopted sons, Qin Lang and He Yan, were conceived from his concubines' previous marriages.

Research on Cao Caos ancestry

Cao Cao was a purported descendant of Cao Shen, a statesman of the early Western Han. In the early 2010s, researchers from Fudan University compared the Y chromosomes collected from a tooth from Cao Cao's granduncle, Cao Ding (曹鼎), with those of Cao Shen and found them to be significantly different. Therefore, the claim about Cao Cao descending from Cao Shen was not supported by genetic evidence. The researchers also found that the Y chromosomes of Cao Ding match those of self-proclaimed living descendants of Cao Cao who hold lineage records dating back to more than 100 generations ago.

Zhu Ziyan, a history professor from Shanghai University, argued that Cao Ding's tooth alone cannot be used as evidence to determine Cao Cao's ancestry. He was sceptical about whether those who claim to be Cao Cao's descendants are really so because genealogical records dating from the Song dynasty (960–1279) are already so rare in the present day, much less those dating from the Three Kingdoms era (220–280). Besides, according to historical records, Cao Ding was a younger brother of the eunuch Cao Teng, who adopted Cao Cao's biological father, Cao Song. Therefore, Cao Cao had no blood relations with Cao Ding; i.e., Cao Ding was not Cao Cao's real granduncle. Zhu Ziyan mentioned that Fudan University's research only proves that those self-proclaimed descendants of Cao Cao are related to Cao Ding; it does not directly relate them to Cao Cao.

Personal life

Cao Cao was known to be frugal and modest in his daily life, showing no particular interest in aesthetic appeal. The clothes and shoes he wore at home were plain and simple. When the folding screens and curtains in his house were damaged, he simply had them mended instead of replaced. He relied on only mattresses and blankets for warmth, and had no decorative ornaments at home. When he met guests, he wore a simple hat and clothes made of raw silk and had a pouch containing a handkerchief and other small items attached to his belt. Outside of his work life, Cao Cao was known to behave in a frivolous and carefree manner. When he chatted with people, he spoke casually, occasionally poked fun at others, and shared everything on his mind. Once, during a meal, he was so amused that he laughed until he knocked his head into the dishes and soiled his face and clothing.

Cao Cao's low regard for material wealth influenced not only his personal life, but also his political and military careers and other aspects of his life. In the late Eastern Han dynasty, fujins (幅巾; similar to bokgeon), especially those made of silk, became popular among the scholar-gentry and upper class because they felt that wearing a fujin made one look cultured and refined. Cao Cao, however, disapproved of wearing expensive headgear as he felt that the country lacked monetary resources due to chaos and famines, hence he advocated replacing silk fujins with the older bians (弁; a type of cap) made of leather. He also suggested the use of colours (instead of material) to distinguish status in the military. His ideas were implemented. He also invented a type of hat, the qia (帢), for casual wear. He felt that it was a pity to have very extravagant arrangements in weddings, so, when his daughter got married, she was dressed modestly and had no more than 10 ladies-in-waiting to accompany her. After winning battles, he awarded the spoils of war to his men who had made contributions. He heavily rewarded those who deserved to be rewarded; undeserving people who expected to receive something from him had their hopes dashed. When others presented gifts to him, he shared those gifts with his subordinates. He felt that it was of no benefit to own many possessions because such things would eventually wear out. He personally prepared the clothes he would wear at his funeral and the items he would be buried with, which were sufficient to fill up just four trunks.

Interests and hobbies

Cao Cao was known to be very skilled in hand-to-hand combat. When he was still a youth, he once broke into the eunuch Zhang Rang's personal chambers but was discovered. Armed with only a short ji halberd, he brandished the weapon at the guards as he slowly retreated and eventually climbed over the wall and escaped. He also enjoyed hunting and once shot down 63 pheasants in a single day during a hunting expedition in Nanpi County.

Cao Cao was very fond of reading books, especially military classics and treatises. Apart from writing military journals and annotating Sun Tzu's The Art of War, he also collected various military books and compiled extracts from them. His works were spread around. He also gave out new reading materials to his officers when they went to battle. He never neglected reading throughout his military career of over 30 years. When Sun Quan encouraged his general Lü Meng to take up scholarly pursuits, he cited Cao Cao as an example: "Mengde agrees that he is already old but he never gives up on learning."

Some of Cao Cao's other interests and hobbies were recorded in Zhang Hua's Bowuzhi, which mentioned that he enjoyed calligraphy, music and weiqi. His proficiency in these arts were comparable to other experts who lived around the same time as him, such as: calligraphers Cui Yuan, Cui Shi (崔寔), Zhang Zhi and Zhang Xu (张昶); musicians Huan Tan and Cai Yong; and weiqi players Shan Zidao (山子道), Wang Jiuzhen (王九真) and Guo Kai (郭凯). Cao Cao was also interested in alchemy and the art of longevity. He met and sought help from various fangshis, including Zuo Ci, Hua Tuo, Gan Shi (甘始) and Xi Jian (郄俭). The Bowuzhi stated that he attempted tasting wild kudzu up to one chi in length and sipping wine dipped with zhen's feathers.

Poetry

Cao Cao was an accomplished poet, as were his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi. The Wei Shu recorded that whenever he ascended high ground, he would compose odes and poems and turn them into musical pieces with the aid of music accompaniment. He was also a patron of poets such as Xu Gan. Of Cao Cao's works, only a remnant remain today. His verses, unpretentious yet profound, helped to reshape the poetic style of his time and beyond, eventually contributing to the poetry styles associated with Tang dynasty poetry. Cao Cao, Cao Pi and Cao Zhi are known collectively as the "Three Caos". The Three Caos' poetry, together with additional poets, became known as the Jian'an style, which contributed to Tang and later poetry. Cao Cao also wrote verse in the older four-character per line style characteristic of the Classic of Poetry. Burton Watson describes Cao Cao as: "the only writer of the period who succeeded in infusing the old four-character metre with any vitality, mainly because he discarded the archaic diction associated with it and employed the ordinary poetic language of his time." Cao Cao is also known for his early contributions to the Shanshui poetry genre, with his 4-character-per-line, 14-line poem "View of the Blue Sea" (观沧海).

Evaluation

Opinions of Cao Cao have been divided from as early as the Jin dynasty (266–420) – the period immediately after the Three Kingdoms era (220–280) – to modern times. There were some who praised him for his achievements in poetry and his political and military careers, but there were also others who hold unfavourable views of him for his cruelty, cunning and alleged traitorous ways. In traditional Chinese culture and literature, Cao Cao is stereotypically portrayed as a sly, power hungry and treacherous tyrant, serving as a nemesis to Liu Bei.

Chen Shou, who wrote Cao Cao's official biography in the Sanguozhi, praised Cao Cao for his exemplary wisdom and sagacity and his promotion of meritocracy in the civil service and the military. Chen Shou's concluding remarks on Cao Cao were "an extraordinary man and an outstanding hero of his time."

During the Tang dynasty (618–907), Emperor Taizong wrote elegiac addresses for Cao Cao, complimenting Cao Cao for his ability to maintain control of the political situation in a turbulent period, and commenting that Cao Cao was "exceptionally brilliant for a military leader but not competent enough to rule as an emperor." However, Liu Zhiji condemned Cao Cao for his oppressive treatment of Emperor Xian and his role in the murder of Empress Fu Shou and claimed that Cao Cao's "crimes" were worse than those of Tian Chengzi and Wang Mang.

In the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), Sima Guang, who wrote the Zizhi Tongjian, echoed Chen Shou's positive views of Cao Cao's championing of a meritocratic style of governance and praised Cao Cao's acumen for recognising and grooming talents, but also noted that Cao Cao was strict and harsh in upholding laws. During that period, shuoshu (traditional Chinese storytelling) was very popular among the masses, so folktales and legends about the Three Kingdoms era were widely circulated and narrated. The poet Su Shi mentioned that "audiences looked distressed when they heard that Liu Bei had lost battles and some even shed tears; they expressed joy and delight when they heard that Cao Cao had been defeated."

During the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), Zhu Xi produced the Tongjian Gangmu (a condensed version of Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian), in which he regarded Shu Han as the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty and denounced Cao Cao as cuan ni (篡逆).

In the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Luo Guanzhong wrote the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. Cao Cao was cast as a primary antagonist in the novel.

The 20th-century writer Lu Xun once said: "Actually, Cao Cao was a very capable person and was at least a hero. I may not agree with Cao Cao, but I am nonetheless always very impressed with him."

Mao Zedong was known to be a great admirer of Cao Cao and he actively advocated providing historical "redress" for the warlord. His praise on Cao Cao centred on three aspects: Cao Cao's literary talents (poetry and writings); Cao Cao's contributions to the unification of China (after the Three Kingdoms period); Cao Cao's determination in the face of adversity.

Modern historians such as Lü Simian, and Yi Zhongtian have written books to present more balanced views of Cao Cao. Between 2006 and 2007, Yi Zhongtian conducted a series of 52 lectures about the Three Kingdoms, of which nearly a third focused on Cao Cao, on the CCTV programme Lecture Room.

In anecdotes and legends

From works preserved in Pei Songzhis annotations

Cao Cao's uncle complained to Cao Song several times about his nephew's behaviour, so Cao Cao became more wary of his uncle. One day, Cao Cao encountered his uncle on the street and pretended to twist his mouth and collapse on the ground. When his uncle asked him what happened, he claimed he had been paralysed after suffering from a stroke. Cao Cao's uncle went to inform Cao Song, who immediately rushed to the scene, where he saw that his son was well. Cao Song asked his son: "Your uncle says you had a stroke. Is it true?" Cao Cao replied: "I didn't have a stroke, but I have lost the love of my uncle, which is probably why he would say something so nasty about me." Cao Song believed his son and refused to trust his brother again when his brother complained about Cao Cao. Cao Cao was able to do as he wished.

Yuan Zhong (袁忠), the chief administrative officer in Cao Cao's hometown, attempted to prosecute Cao Cao when he was still an ill-behaved and idling young rascal. Huan Shao (桓邵), who was also from Cao Cao's hometown, treated Cao Cao with contempt when he was still a youth. After Cao Cao became the Inspector of Yan Province in the early 190s, Bian Rang (边让), who was from Chenliu Commandery (陈留郡; around present-day Kaifeng), insulted and belittled him. Cao Cao had Bian Rang and his family arrested and executed. Yuan Zhong and Huan Shao fled to Jiao Province to evade Cao Cao, but Cao ordered Jiao Province's Administrator, Shi Xie, to track down and kill them along with their families. Huan Shao gave up on escaping, surrendered to Cao Cao and begged for his life. Cao Cao asked him coldly: "You think you can be spared from death just by kneeling in front of me?" He then ordered Huan Shao's execution.

After assuming his first appointment as the Commandant of the North District (北部尉) of the imperial capital Luoyang, he ordered his subordinates to make five-coloured wooden staffs and place them outside the office. He also instructed them to use those staffs to kill any person who violated the night curfew regardless of his/her status. Some months later, an uncle of the influential eunuch Jian Shuo violated the curfew by walking on the streets at night. Cao Cao arrested Jian Shuo's uncle and ordered his men to beat him to death. This incident shocked everyone in Luoyang and nobody dared to violate the night curfew after that. The eunuchs resented Cao Cao for his actions but could not do anything to him because he had the law on his side. They then recommended him to serve as the Prefect of Dunqiu County (顿丘县), sending him out of Luoyang.

During one military expedition, when his army passed through wheat fields, Cao Cao issued an order: "Any person who damages the crops will be executed." His soldiers immediately dismounted from their horses and trod carefully through the fields. Cao Cao's steed rushed into the field and trampled on the wheat. He then summoned his registrar (主簿) and asked him what punishment he should receive. The registrar said that according to Confucian philosophy, Cao Cao, a man of exalted status, was exempt from punishment. Cao Cao said: "How can I expect to lead my men if I gave an order and violated it myself? However, I am the commander so I can't kill myself. However, I still have to punish myself." He drew his sword, cut off a lock of his hair and threw it to the ground. In some later traditions, Cao Cao also executes his horse.

Cao Cao was often accompanied by one of his favourite concubines when he slept. Once, before taking a short nap, he instructed her to wake him up a while later. The concubine saw that he was sound asleep so she did not wake him up. When Cao Cao woke up later, he ordered her to be beaten to death.

During another military campaign, when Cao Cao's food supplies were running out, he asked his supply officer what they should do. The officer suggested that they reduce the amount of grain rationed out. Cao Cao agreed. Later, when rumours about Cao Cao deceiving his soldiers started spreading around, Cao Cao told the supply officer: "I want to 'borrow' your life to appease the men, or else the problem can't be resolved." He then executed the officer, put his head on display and announced: "(This man) stole from the granary and reduced the amount of grain rationed out. I had him executed under military law."

After Xiahou Yuan's death in battle, Cao Cao was growing tired of the Hanzhong campaign and wanted to abandon Hanzhong Commandery. He gave an order, "chicken rib" (鸡肋), which baffled his subordinates, who did not know what he meant. Yang Xiu, a Registrar (主簿) under Cao Cao, immediately gave instructions for everyone to pack up and prepare to leave. When they asked Yang Xiu how he knew that Cao Cao wanted to withdraw, Yang Xiu replied: "It's a pity to discard a piece of chicken rib, but there's nothing from it which can be eaten. The King is comparing Hanzhong to a piece of chicken rib. That's how I know he intends to retreat." Cao Cao withdrew his forces back to Chang'an afterwards. In Luoyang a few months later, he revisited the office where he first served as a Commandant of the North District (北部尉) in his early career.

The Shiyu and the Cao Man Zhuan provided dramatic accounts of the events before Cao Cao's death. The Shiyu mentioned that after he returned to Luoyang from Hanzhong Commandery, Cao Cao wanted to build a palace hall so he ordered a Zhuolong Shrine (濯龙祠) to be demolished to make way, but blood spilled out from a tree. The Cao Man Zhuan mentioned that Cao Cao wanted a pear tree to be moved. When the workers uprooted the tree, blood spilled out from its roots, and the workers were all shocked. Cao Cao heard about it and went there to take a closer look. He was disgusted and felt that it was an unlucky omen. He became ill after returning home.

From the Shishuo Xinyu

Cao Cao and Yuan Shao were close friends and playmates when they were young. Once, they decided to play a prank on a newlywed couple by kidnapping the bride. After breaking into the house, they shouted: "There's a thief!" When everyone in the house came out to catch the "thief", they sneaked into the house and kidnapped the bride. While fleeing from their pursuers, Yuan Shao fell into a hedge covered with thorns and was trapped there. Cao Cao shouted: "The thief is here!" Yuan Shao became panicky so he struggled and managed to free himself and escape. Suggestive parallels have been drawn between this anecdote and the actual political situation of the 190s, when Cao Cao had control over the emperor but was free to chastise Yuan Shao for disloyalty.

When Yuan Shao and Cao Cao were young, Yuan Shao once played a prank on Cao Cao by sending someone to throw a dagger at Cao Cao while he was asleep at night. The dagger landed low and missed Cao Cao. Cao Cao saw that and knew that the thrower would aim higher on the next attempt, so he changed his sleeping posture. He was right because the dagger landed higher on the second throw.

During one military expedition, Cao Cao and his army lost track of their water source and were very thirsty. Cao Cao announced: "There's a plum forest filled with juicy plums ahead. We can quench our thirst there." The soldiers started salivating when they heard that, which temporarily quenched their thirst until they finally found a water source. This story is the origin of the Chinese idiom "thinking of plums to quench one's thirst" (望梅止渴 wàng méi zhǐ kě|labels=no), which means to use one's imagination to satisfy one's craving for something.

Cao Cao often said: "I can sense it when someone is about to harm me." He once secretly instructed a servant: "Approach me from the side with a concealed dagger and then I will say I can sense it. After you are caught, you mustn't say that I told you to do so, and nothing will happen to you. I will reward you handsomely later!" The servant trusted Cao Cao and did as he was told without fear, but Cao still had him executed after he was "captured". The servant did not realise that he had been fooled, even before he died. Cao Cao's enemies, who were plotting to assassinate him, believed that his so-called 'sensing power' was real and were demoralised by this incident.

Cao Cao often said: "Don't approach me when I am asleep. I will subconsciously attack anyone who is near me. Beware, all of you!" Once, while he was taking an afternoon nap, someone covered him with a blanket. He woke up and killed the person. After this incident, when he was asleep, no one dared to approach him.

Once, when Cao Cao was about to meet an emissary from the Xiongnu, he felt that he looked ugly and might not be able to command respect so he ordered Cui Yan to impersonate him while he carried a sword, stood beside Cui Yan, and pretended to be a bodyguard. After the meeting, Cao Cao sent someone to ask the Xiongnu emissary about his impression of the King of Wei. The Xiongnu emissary replied: "The King looks handsome and extraordinary. However, the man who was carrying a sword and standing beside him is a real hero." Cao Cao had the emissary killed when he heard that.

Cao Cao had a concubine who sang very well but was cruel and malicious. There were many occasions where he wanted to kill her or send her away, but did not do so because he appreciated her singing talent. He then selected another 100 women and ordered his concubine to teach them to sing. After some time, one of the 100 women could sing as well as Cao Cao's concubine, so Cao Cao executed his concubine and replaced her with that woman.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong is a romanticisation of the events of the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. While adhering to historical facts most of the time, the novel inevitably reshaped Cao Cao to some extent, portraying him as a cruel and suspicious villain. In some chapters, Luo Guanzhong created or transmitted fictional or semi-fictional events involving Cao Cao. As the novel has been adapted to many modern forms of media, so has Cao Cao's image. Given the source material upon which these adaptations are founded, Cao Cao continues to be characterised as a prominent villain.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Cao Cao:

• Cao Cao presents a precious sword, where Cao Cao attempts to assassinate Dong Zhuo

• Cao Cao arrested and released by Chen Gong, where Cao Cao's actual arrest and release is ahistorically rewritten

• Lü Boshe, whose entire family is personally murdered by Cao Cao

• Guan Yu releases Cao Cao at Huarong Trail, which is not where Guan Yu was after the Battle of Red Cliffs

• New Book of Mengde, where Cao Cao plagiarises an ancient military treatise and claims it as original work

• Battle of Tong Pass, where Cao Cao repeatedly alters his appearance to escape Ma Chao

• Cao Cao's death, where Cao Cao imprisons his physician and dies of an untreated head illness

In popular culture

Through to modern times, the Chinese equivalent of the English idiom "speak of the devil" is "speak of Cao Cao and Cao Cao arrives".

After the Communists won the Chinese Civil War in 1949, there were perceived similarities between Mao Zedong and Cao Cao, so propagandists began a long-term and sustained effort to improve Cao Cao's image in popular culture. In 1959, Peng Dehuai wrote a letter to Mao, in which he compared himself to Zhang Fei. Because of Mao's popular association with Cao Cao, Peng's comparison implied that he had an intuitively confrontational relationship with Mao. Mao had the letter widely circulated in order to make Peng's attitude clear to other party members and proceeded to purge Peng and end his career.

Chinese opera

Cao Cao is represented as a cunning and deceitful man in Chinese opera, where his character is given a white facial makeup to reflect his treacherous personality. When Luo Guanzhong wrote Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he took much of his inspiration for Cao Cao from Chinese opera.

Film and television

The "Father of Hong Kong cinema", Lai Man-Wai, portrayed Cao Cao in The Witty Sorcerer, a 1931 comedy film based on a story in Romance of the Three Kingdoms about Zuo Ci playing tricks on Cao Cao. In the Shaw Brothers film The Weird Man, Cao Cao appeared in the beginning of the film with Zuo Ci. Zuo Ci was playing tricks on him by giving him a tangerine with no fruit inside. This was later referenced in another film titled Five Element Ninjas.

Other notable actors who have portrayed Cao Cao in film and television include:

• Bao Guo'an in the 1994 Chinese television series Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Bao won two Best Actor awards at the 1995 Golden Eagle Awards and Flying Apsaras Awards for his performance.

• Damian Lau in the 2008 Hong Kong film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon.

• Zhang Fengyi in the 2008–09 Chinese film Red Cliff.

• Chen Jianbin in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms and the 2018 Chinese television series Cao Cao.

• Jiang Wen in the 2011 Hong Kong film The Lost Bladesman.

• Chow Yun-fat in the 2012 Chinese film The Assassins.

• Zhao Lixin in the 2014 Chinese television series Cao Cao.

• Yu Hewei in the 2017 Chinese television series The Advisors Alliance.

• Tse Kwan-ho in the 2018 Chinese television series Secret of the Three Kingdoms.

• Wang Kai in the 2019 Hong Kong film Dynasty Warriors

Card games

In the selection of hero cards in the Chinese card game San Guo Sha, there is also a Cao Cao hero that players can select at the beginning of the game.

Cao Cao is also referenced in Magic: The Gathering, as the card "Cao Cao, Lord of Wei". This card is black, the colour representing ruthlessness and ambition, though not necessarily evil. It was first printed in Portal Three Kingdoms and again in From the Vault: Legends.

Video games

Cao Cao appears in all instalments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms video game series. He is also featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi series. He also features in Koei's Kessen II as a playable main character.

Other appearances

As with most of the other relevant generals of the period, Cao Cao is portrayed as a young female character in the Koihime Musō franchise. He is also the central character in the Japanese manga series Sōten Kōro. Barry Hughart's novel The Story of the Stone mentions the Seven Sacrileges of Tsao Tsao, most of which involve family.

生平

早年生平

东汉永寿元年（155年），曹操出生于沛国谯县（今安徽亳州）的一个宦官家族，养祖父是宦官曹腾，历侍四代天子，汉桓帝时封为费亭侯。父亲曹嵩是曹腾养子，汉灵帝时官至太尉。《三国志》中记载曹操远祖是汉代初期的相国曹参，但是裴松之注曰：「嵩，夏侯氏之子，夏侯敦之叔父。太祖于敦为从父兄弟」；胡三省注《资治通鉴》称：「曹氏，夏侯氏之出也」；曹氏先世实属难考。

曹操少年时机警、权数。十岁时曾经在家乡击退鳄鱼，但性格放荡不羁。曹操的叔父曹炽数次在曹嵩面前批评曹操，曹操听到后心生不满。有次在曹炽经过时，曹操突然装作中风的样子，曹炽急忙去找曹嵩，曹嵩赶来时，曹操却和平常一样，说自己原本就没有病，因此曹炽不受曹嵩喜爱，以为曹炽就爱乱说谎。所以之后曹炽再告曹操的状时，曹嵩都不相信他的话，曹操也更加肆无忌惮。曹操曾经和袁绍偷新娘，这些举动不为世人看重。只有桥玄、何顒、李瓒和王儁认为曹操是非常之人，将来一定会安定天下。当时曹操还在当默默无闻的洛阳北部尉，桥玄建议曹操去结交当时投靠名士许劭，以提高名望。曹操问许劭「我是怎样的人（我何许人也）？」据说，许劭鄙视其为人不肯回答，后曹操固问之，劭曰：「君清平之奸贼，乱世之英雄。」（孙盛《异同杂语》记载为：「子治世之能臣，乱世之奸雄」），曹操听罢大笑，并逐渐知名。许劭相当看重曹操的能力，曹操因许劭而名当世，许劭也因评论曹操而名流千古。

建安七年（202年）曹操北征，路过桥玄之墓，祭祀桥玄，并且写下悼文。李膺子李瓒将没时谓子李宣等称：「时将乱矣，天下英雄无过曹操。张孟卓与我善，袁本初汝外亲，虽尔勿依，必归曹氏。」

孙盛《异同杂语》记载：曹操尝私入中常侍张让家，张让发觉后，曹操手舞著戟越墙逃出，才艺绝人。又博览群书，尤其喜欢兵法，曾经抄录古代诸家兵法韬略，还有注释《孙子兵法》的《孙子略解》，后立志组成《兵法接要》此为后来的《孟德新书》。

初入官场

曹操年轻时是名诸生，熹平三年（174年），二十岁的曹操察举孝廉成为郎官，不久司马防（曹魏后期的权臣和西晋奠基人司马懿的父亲）推荐曹操为洛阳北部尉，但曹操想担任洛阳令，不过负责人事的选部尚书梁鹄并没有同意。曹操上任洛阳北部尉后，在官署门口放置五色棒，规定犯法者处死。数月后，宦官蹇硕的叔叔蹇图违禁夜行，被曹操依律棒杀。这使曹操得罪宦官集团，可是曹操是依法而行，这些人又无法中伤诋毁曹操，只好表面称赞他，但却暗中陷害，举荐他去担任地方官，从此离开中央。177年，曹操被任命为顿丘令，第二年，曹操因堂妹夫滁强侯宋奇被宦官诛杀，受到牵连，被免去官职。其后，在洛阳无事可做，回到家乡谯县闲居。。

180年，曹操又被朝廷徵召，任命为议郎。此前（168年），大将军窦武、太傅陈蕃谋划诛杀宦官，不料反为阉党所害。曹操上书陈述窦武等人为官正直而遭陷害，致使奸邪之徒满朝，而忠良之人却得不到重用的情形，言辞恳切，没有被汉灵帝采纳。而后，曹操又多次上书进谏，虽偶有成效，但是东汉朝政日益腐败，曹操知道无法匡正。

中平元年（184年）二月，太平道首领张角聚众起义，黄巾之乱爆发，朝廷任命曹操为骑都尉，前往颍川郡镇压叛乱。由于镇压黄巾军有功，升任济南相，任职后罢免济南贪污县令8名，并且严令禁止当时盛行的宗教迷信。据说因为曹操当政素称严明，济南郡一带作乱之徒听说曹操要来，都纷纷潜逃到别的郡县。曹操被任命为东郡太守，但是曹操没有就任，自称在担任济南相期间的行为得罪十常侍和地方豪强，害怕引起报复，称病回乡，在谯县东部五十里建筑精舍，上半年研读书籍传记，下半年以打猎为自己娱兴，还言：顾视同岁中，年有五十，未名为老，同时也谢绝宾客来访。当时天下纷乱，先是发生冀州刺史王芬联合南阳许攸、沛国周旌与汝南陈逸等地方豪强，谋划废黜灵帝立合肥侯的事件。王芬等人曾经希望曹操加入他们，但被曹操拒绝，后来王芬事败自杀。接著，又有西北金城郡（今甘肃兰州）的边允、韩约杀死刺史和太守，率兵十馀万反叛朝廷。

188年，汉灵帝组建西园军，曹操被起用为典军校尉，，之后朝廷将曹操派往家乡募兵，结果中途士兵叛乱，袭击曹操，曹操负伤逃脱。189年，在位22年的汉灵帝驾崩，终年34岁，太子刘辩登基，何太后临朝听政。大将军何进想趁宦官失势之机诛灭阉党，但是没有取得太后的支持。于是何进便召时任并州刺史的董卓进京，胁迫太后同意。然而此举打草惊蛇，董卓尚未抵达京城，何进已经被宦官下手谋杀，随后宦官十常侍也被袁绍、袁术等人带兵诛杀。同年九月，董卓入京，诛杀丁原，逼走袁绍，执掌朝政。废少帝刘辩为弘农王，改立其弟陈留王刘协为皇帝，是为汉献帝，京城陷入混乱。为了稳定局面，董卓想拉拢曹操，上表奏请曹操为骁骑校尉。但是，曹操没有接受董卓所封的官职，害怕惹祸上身，与西园助军右校尉冯芳、前将军袁术趁机逃亡出洛阳。曹操更名改姓向东走小路回乡，与骑从们经过成皋，投奔故人吕伯奢家，吕伯奢不在，其子招待曹操。曹操听见有磨刀之声，以为吕伯奢儿子要抓捕自己献给官府，乾脆将吕伯奢五个儿子和吕家2名宾客全部杀死。事后曹操发现自己是误杀，于是说「宁我负人，毋人负我！」来安慰自己。曹操杀死吕伯奢儿子离开后，道逢二人，容貌威武，曹操避让。二人笑著对曹操说：「感觉你很害怕，为什么呀？」曹操觉得诧异，把刚才杀人的事全盘托出。临别前，曹操解佩刀送给二人并说：「以此表吾丹心，愿二贤慎勿言。」出关后，经过中牟县时，被亭长怀疑，于是将曹操抓去见县令。有县功曹认为不应拘禁天下雄俊，得以获释。

189年十二月，在回到陈留郡之后，曹操散尽家财徵募乡勇，甚至亲自和刀匠一同制作武器，豪强卫兹也倾家财助之，曹操率先于己吾揭竿举义，讨伐董卓。初平元年（190年）正月，董卓讨伐战开始，勃海太守袁绍、后将军袁术、冀州牧韩馥、豫州刺史孔伷、河内太守王匡、兖州刺史刘岱、陈留太守张邈、东郡太守桥瑁、山阳太守袁遗、济北国相鲍信等地方势力，举兵反董，群雄推举袁绍为盟主。曹操则行使奋武将军之职。

此次战役中，曹操跟随诸将驻扎酸枣，当时天下英雄豪杰，都以袁绍马首是瞻，只有鲍信认为曹操是拨乱反正的雄才。而鲍信的推算也没有错，在董卓焚烧洛阳，挟持汉献帝与百官迁都长安之后，袁绍等各军将领都畏惧董卓而按兵不动，谁也不敢先发动攻击，唯有曹操单独引兵西行。张邈派部将卫兹率领一部份兵力跟随曹操，曹操打算夺取成皋，在抵达荥阳汴水时，和董卓部将徐荣遭遇，大败，士卒死伤众多。战中，曹操被流矢射中，所骑战马受伤倒下，幸而曹洪把自己的坐骑让给曹操，且步行随侍保护，才能乘夜逃走。也是因为这战，徐荣发现曹操以这么少的兵力，都能奋战一整天，判断酸枣不易攻下，因此也向后撤退。

曹操回到酸枣，看见各军累积起来也有十馀万，但诸将每天欢宴饮酒，没人图谋进取，于是提出建议：

• 袁绍从河内发兵，进逼孟津。

• 酸枣诸将，据守成皋，控制敖仓，封锁轘辕关、太谷关，掌握险要。

• 袁术攻击丹水、析，直入武关，威胁三辅。

• 全军兴筑高大坚固的堡垒，不和董卓军团正面冲突，只派出游击部队骚扰，完全控制关东，从而立于不败之地，等待董卓军内部发生变化。

然后诸将不能接受这项部署，曹操因为士兵多死在荥阳之战，只好跟司马夏侯敦等，前往扬州募兵，扬州刺史陈温、丹阳太守周昕给予曹操四千馀人。行军至龙亢，士卒叛变，趁夜焚烧曹操营帐，曹操亲手斩杀数十人，才出营帐，没有参与叛变的仅剩五百馀人。又行军到銍、建平一带，集结残兵一千馀人，投奔袁绍，前来河内驻守。

然而不久后，酸枣大营粮秣告尽，各军星拔营散，同时内斗又起，刘岱和桥瑁交恶，桥瑁被杀。袁绍和韩馥又谋立幽州牧刘虞为帝，想拉拢曹操，遭到曹操拒绝。联军无暇顾及董卓之事，于是反董卓联盟解散，除了曹操、孙坚、王匡之外，其馀诸军皆没有和凉州军团交战，只是各怀鬼胎，保存实力。曹操听从鲍信的建议，想避开袁绍新占的冀州，往黄河南边的兖州进行发展。这时黑山军于毒、白绕、眭固等十馀万众攻略魏郡、东郡，东郡太守王肱无法抵抗，曹操趁机使袁绍让自己前往东郡，并顺利地濮阳击败白绕。袁绍于是上表曹操为东郡太守，屯驻东武阳。

收众山东

初平三年（192年），曹操驻军顿丘，黑山贼于毒等趁机攻击东武阳，曹操率军直向于毒的本营西山，于毒得到消息，解除对东武阳的进攻。曹操趁胜进抵内黄，大破眭固及南匈奴单于于夫罗等，东郡遂告安定。

夏，青州的百万黄巾大军入侵兖州。兖州刺史刘岱不听济北相鲍信劝阻，与黄巾军交战，结果被杀，举州惊恐。曹操部属陈宫前往昌邑，向别驾、治中推荐曹操继任。鲍信心中亦有同样想法，于是与州吏万潜等到东郡迎接太守曹操，推举他担任兖州牧。后来与黄巾军战于寿张以东，初期失利，后曹操即起补救，加强训练，赏罚严格，又不断使用奇兵诡计，昼夜进攻，终于逼退黄巾军。然而鲍信在乱军中战死，曹操重金寻鲍信尸体不得，只好雕刻其木像安葬祭拜。之后，曹操追击黄巾直到济北国，黄巾军眼见退无可退，遂全体投降，其中有士兵三十馀万人，眷属老幼约一百万人。曹操遴选其精锐，组成大名鼎鼎的「青州兵」。

与此同时，汉献帝下诏使金尚为兖州刺史，曹操在金尚要赴任之际，率军攻击，金尚只好投奔袁术。

当时，袁绍和袁术反目成仇，双方拉结人马，袁绍找上荆州刘表，而袁术则找上公孙瓒、陶谦。而作为袁绍盟友的曹操，帮助袁绍打败屯驻高唐的刘备、屯驻平原的单经、屯驻发干的陶谦等。

初平四年（193年），曹操屯军鄄城。此时刘表截断盘踞在南阳的袁术其粮道，袁术受不了如此压力，率军北上，打算进占兖州。联络黑山贼馀党以及于夫罗，屯驻封丘，并派遣将领刘详驻扎匡亭。曹操出兵攻击刘详，袁术来救，为曹操所败，曹操乘胜包围封丘，还没包围完成，袁术突围，退驻襄邑，曹操追击，连战连胜，最后袁术退入扬州九江郡，曹操因此回军定陶。是为匡亭之战。

秋，陶谦攻打兖州东部泰山郡，使得曹操父亲曹嵩被杀。对于曹嵩之死，存在争议。为此事，曹操开始攻击徐州牧陶谦，并得到袁绍相助。曹操打到彭城，陶谦不敌退保郯县，曹操在此战中被指「多所残戮」。

兴平元年（194年），曹操以荀彧、程昱留守，再攻陶谦，进逼东海、琅邪，并在郯县大破前来帮忙陶谦的刘备，吓得陶谦差点逃回丹阳。就在此时，张邈因为恐惧曹操将为袁绍杀死自己，而陈宫则因为边让被杀而心生恐惧，于是两人联合从事中郎许汜、王楷以及张邈弟张超与太守毛晖，徐翁等，奉迎吕布成为兖州牧。吕布占据濮阳，兖州郡县大部分都响应，等曹操回军时，根据地只剩下鄄城、范、东阿三县。

曹操和吕布交战于濮阳，濮阳豪门田氏作为内应，大开城门迎接曹操。曹操焚烧东门，誓言绝不退出，但被吕布反攻大败，出奔，被吕布抓住，却不认识曹操，反而问曹操在哪里，曹操回答：「骑马逃走那个就是曹操。」吕布相信而放掉曹操，曹操才因此逃过一劫。

曹操回营后，再度组织进攻，双方再战于濮阳，对峙一百馀天，双方粮秣用尽，于是各自撤退。在这危急时刻，曹操曾想投奔袁绍，但被程昱劝阻，曹操这才打消念头，但还是亲自前往袁绍处，借了五千士兵回兖州继续和吕布作战。

兴平二年（195年），曹操在钜野大败吕布部将薛兰、李封等，吕布与陈宫卷土重来，双方遭遇，曹操兵全出去收割小麦，只剩一千馀人，于是曹操设伏，吕布发现敌人单薄，轻装突击，曹操伏兵出击，大败吕布，乘胜攻取定陶，分兵收复诸县，吕布逃奔徐州。后，曹操围雍丘，城破，夷张超三族。就在此时，汉献帝封曹操为兖州牧。曹操受封兖州牧后，向汉献帝进贡梨、椑、枣各二箱。曹操在兖州鏖战四年，总算得到朝廷的承认，也扎实地站稳其第一个领地。

奉迎天子

195年七月，李傕与郭汜为了争权夺利，内斗不断，汉献帝趁机逃出长安，进驻安邑。建安元年（196年），曹操听从谋士荀彧、毛玠建议，前往洛阳，迎接皇帝。

虽然汉献帝（或其掌权之臣）对曹操仍有疑虑，但是曹操势力击破黄巾军，表现出关心社稷的忠心。由于京师洛阳被董卓破坏，残破不堪，汉室于八月庚午日（10月7日）迁都至颍川郡许县。曹操于十一月丙戌日（197年1月1日）被任命为司空，行车骑将军，封武平侯，仍领兖州牧，录尚书事，开始掌控东汉朝廷的军政大权。

早在兖州时期，曹操就开始打算和袁绍决裂。曹操控制汉献帝后，让献帝下诏书谴责袁绍地广兵多而树立党羽，不闻勤王之师而但擅相讨伐。袁绍不服，上书辩解。曹操为了安抚冀州牧袁绍，上表汉献帝，封其为太尉。袁绍又不肯位列曹操之下，甚至被曹操背盟举动所激怒，说；「曹操有几次都快没命，我每次都救他，现在曹操忘恩负义，居然挟天子以令我吗？！」最后曹操让汉献帝封袁绍为大将军。袁绍眼见曹操控制皇帝，藉口许都潮湿，洛阳残破，要曹操迁都靠近袁绍控制区的鄄城，但被曹操拒绝。

大约此时曹操夺取梁国，原占据梁国的豫州刺史郭贡下落不明。

四方征战

197年，曹操征讨南阳郡的张绣，张绣举众投降，之后因为曹操纳张绣叔父张济之妻王氏与其丫环周氏，张绣对这件事感到十分痛恨，于是张绣袭击曹操，曹操在长子曹昂、侄子曹安民与校尉典韦殿后下逃亡，曹昂、曹安民与典韦阵亡。此后，曹操又两度攻击张绣，都没有彻底击破。两年后，张绣接受谋士贾诩的建议，向曹操投降，曹操才取得对荆州北部的控制，并且消除许都南面的威胁。

198年十二月，曹操用荀攸、郭嘉的计策，开决泗、沂二河之水灌入下邳，最后生擒处死吕布、陈宫与高顺，收降张辽，把徐州纳入势力范围。199年，曹操派史涣、曹仁、于禁和徐晃击破张杨旧部眭固，取得河内郡，把势力范围扩张到黄河以北。同年六月，穷途末路的袁术病死于寿春，其部下向曹操投降，淮南之地尽归曹操之手。

统一北方

200年正月，车骑将军董承与左将军刘备、长水校尉种辑、将军吴子兰、王子服等人自称收到汉献帝的玉带诏，密谋诛杀曹操，事情败露后除刘备之外的人等被曹操杀害，夷灭三族，怀孕的董贵人也被绞杀。在外领兵的刘备听说后斩杀车胄，统领徐州。不久，曹操攻下徐州，刘备逃到冀州投奔袁绍，刘备大将关羽投降。

二月开始，曹操和袁绍展开一系列的会战，史称官渡之战。谋士沮授建议袁绍采取持久战略不被采纳，而许攸建议袁绍派兵袭击许都亦不被接受。曹操厚待关羽，但关羽在白马之战中斩杀袁绍大将颜良后，自认为已经报恩而重归刘备。十月，战事处入僵局之时，袁绍谋士许攸因为袁绍和他多次不和，许攸家属因为犯罪被袁绍处罚，许攸对袁绍怀恨在心于是投奔曹操，向曹操献策，偷袭袁绍的粮草囤积地乌巢。曹操采纳，因而扭转战局。张合向袁绍建议派大军救援乌巢，但是袁绍只派轻骑去救援。乌巢守将淳于琼对曹军未先加以防范，结果乐进率军攻陷乌巢，烧掉袁绍所有的军粮，俘虏斩杀淳于琼。乌巢沦陷之后袁绍兵败逃回邺城，张合、高览投降曹操，沮授因为拒绝投降而被处死。202年五月，袁绍去世，他最喜欢的三子袁尚继承大将军、冀州牧之位，与长兄袁谭内斗不断。

204年，曹操趁袁氏兄弟内斗的机会，发兵攻下邺城，诛杀审配，自领冀州牧，把自己的据点北迁到冀州邺城，政令军队此后皆从此出，只是在许县留主簿王必监视汉献帝。205年攻下青州，诛杀袁谭与郭图。206年，平定并州高干的叛乱。207年，曹操征讨乌桓，诛杀蹋顿，谋士郭嘉病死在行军途中。与乌桓合作的袁尚、袁熙在此役兵败后逃往辽东，被太守公孙康所杀并派被扣留的名士凉茂带首级投降曹操。至此，曹操经过七年的战争，彻底消灭袁氏集团，基本统一中国北方。

曹操出身寒族，而且与阉宦有关，虽然深通诗文，但是不以儒家经学为务，与当时服膺经学的经学、士大夫不同。曹操曾下「求贤令」，强调重才不重德，并以法家之术为治，要摧破豪族的儒学。曹操为一代枭雄，不仅得到众多寒族人才支持，也得到部份经学士大夫支持，如荀彧、荀攸、钟繇，荀彧更为曹操引进不少士大夫阶层的人才。

南征赤壁

建安十三年六月癸巳日（208年7月9日），曹操恢复丞相制度，自为丞相。七月，曹操亲统大军10馀万南征荆州，企图先灭刘表，再顺长江东进，击败孙权。八月，荆州牧刘表病亡，次子刘琮请降。九月，刘备在长阪坡被曹军重创，逃往江夏，派遣诸葛亮出使柴桑，与孙权联合。十二月，江东名将周瑜火烧乌林，曹操败于孙权和刘备联军，损失惨重，逃回北方，三国鼎立的雏型初步形成。209年，孙权率军攻打合肥，却中计退兵。周瑜占领江陵与夷陵，守将曹仁、徐晃、乐进等人逃往襄阳。

平定西凉

211年三月，曹操为用兵关中，藉口要讨伐汉中张鲁，遣曹仁、夏侯渊等统率大军与钟繇会师于关中，此举引起起关中诸侯的惊疑，马超等十部起兵联合反曹，曹操依贾诩离间之计，引起马超、韩遂等人相互猜疑，一举击溃关中联军，马超等人各自走还凉州。十月，曹操进军安定，杨秋投降。曹操率军撤回，命令夏侯渊督众将继续西征。随后，马超在陇西卷土重来，先后攻下陇西各地，但是最后复夺凉州未成，兵败逃奔汉中。曹军在数年之内逐马超、破韩遂、灭宋建、横扫羌、氐，虎步关右，凉州地区基本平定。

封公称王

早在建安十一年（206年），曹操就开始废除一些绝封的宗室封国以削弱汉室，仅因感念琅邪王刘容的弟弟刘邈曾称赞他是忠臣，复封刘容之子刘熙为琅邪王。

建安十七年（212年），汉献帝准许曹操「参拜不名、入朝不趋、剑履上殿」，如汉丞相萧何故事。董昭等人推举曹操为魏公，荀彧以忠于汉室的立场提出反对。曹操答应荀彧永不做魏国公，但是因此对荀彧不悦，不久以参军事为由革除荀彧尚书令之职并派伏波将军夏侯敦护送至军中，但中途停留谯县，夏侯敦回京，荀彧不久病逝，一说被逼自杀。曹操起兵号称四十万，亲自南征孙权。次年（213年）正月，曹军进军濡须口（今安徽巢湖东南），攻破孙权设在江北的营寨，生擒后处死东吴小将公孙阳。孙权亲率军七万，前至濡须口抵御曹军，相持月馀，各无所获。曹操见孙权军容严整，自己难以取胜，遂撤军北还。五月丙申日（6月16日），汉献帝正式下诏册封曹操为魏公，加九锡。仍以丞相领冀州牧如故，其领地广及魏郡、河东郡、河内郡等十个郡国，超过西汉初年的刘姓宗室藩王，更加违背「七国之乱」和推恩令后诸侯封地不得超过一郡的汉制。

建安十九年三月癸未日（214年3月30日），汉献帝抬曹操的魏公之位于诸王之上，改授金玺，赤绂、远游冠。伏皇后数年前曾经写信给父亲伏完，要他秘密图划铲除曹操，伏完直到去世都不敢动手。后来事情败露，曹操命令御史大夫郗虑与尚书令华歆一起统兵入宫逮捕伏皇后。伏皇后藏于墙壁夹缝中，校事赵达率虎贲士砸开墙壁，伏皇后被监禁于掖庭暴室，幽禁而死，所生的两位皇子被鸩酒毒杀，伏氏宗族由不其侯伏隆以下一百多人亦被处死，曹操之女曹节被立为皇后。

215年，曹操进攻汉中，太守张鲁投降。曹操收降张鲁后，取得汉中属地，但是刘备得悉曹操攻降汉中，早晚要南下伐蜀，便和孙权以湘水为界平分荆州，回师益州。此时曹操没有接受刘晔的建议，未能趁刘备未站住脚跟之时攻蜀，便班师回朝。同年曹操获得名义上分封诸侯和任命太守的权力。

建安廿一年四月甲午日（216年5月29日），曹操被封为魏王，立曹丕为世子，公然违反汉高祖所订「非刘氏而王，天下共击之」的白马之盟。同年，杀死图谋投靠孙权的琅邪王刘熙，废除琅邪国。次年（217年）僭天子礼，设天子旌旗，戴天子旒冕，出入得称警跸，并作泮宫。十月，再授赐十王冠、二彩带，乘金根车，驾六马，设五时副车。曹操此时名义上虽仍为汉臣，但实际上已掌握等同于皇帝的权力和待遇，权倾朝野，汉朝已经名存实亡。曹操任命夏侯渊为征西将军、曹仁为征南将军，欲取荆蜀之地。

东进西退

215年，曹操打算报复孙权的皖城打击，随即率军伐吴，可惜以失败告终。孙权率领讹称十万大军进攻合肥，曹操当时刚刚拿下汉中，不能亲自前往征战，便命令合肥守将张辽、乐进、李典阻挡进攻，孙权最终攻不下撤兵。216年，曹操拘留南匈奴单于呼厨泉，派右贤王去卑监国，将南匈奴分成五部，分别安置在朔方、并州、幽州一带，其中左部帅刘豹就是十六国汉赵政权创建者刘渊的父亲。

216年冬，曹操再次率军攻打濡须口，217年开始进攻逼退正在濡须口筑新城的孙权，但后来孙权作出反击，把曹操军击退回居巢，双方进入胶著阶段。当时连日大雨水涨，孙权驱使水军令魏军将士不安，曹操当时无法打败孙权，也未能穿越长江巢湖，看见形势不利便下令撤军，征战时及归途中大军受瘟疫侵袭死伤者众多。战后，孙权派都尉徐详以重结姻亲为条件向汉朝廷请降，曹操则对徐详表示自己想跨越长江与孙权一起在江东狩猎的意愿，但徐详认为这样只会令江东震荡，委婉拒绝曹操想乘机进入长江天险的意图，曹操听后大笑，随即接受孙权的请降并结为姻亲。

从217年末起，刘备率军大举进攻汉中阳平关，汉中之战爆发。218年七月，曹操亲率大军坐镇长安，同时边塞硝烟再起，曹彰、田豫北征，大破乌桓、鲜卑联军，柯比能附魏。镇守汉中的夏侯渊与刘备相峙一年，曹军守将夏侯渊、张合、徐晃多次击退刘备军猛烈攻势。

219年正月，刘备亲自领军和黄忠分进合击，于定军山斩杀征西将军夏侯渊。至此汉中为刘备取得，同年三月曹操亲自挥军欲夺回，一度召集抽调镇守北方的曹彰二十万大军增援，但是都为刘备所败，曹军无功而返，刘备便派刘封、黄忠、赵云等将昼夜不停攻击曹军。至五月曹操便撤退至长安，且身体已感觉不适。刘备攻下房陵，派刘封顺沔水攻占上庸。相传此战为「鸡肋」一词的出处。

襄樊决战

219年七月，刘备在汉中自立为汉中王，封关羽为前将军。关羽起荆州之兵大举北伐襄樊，进一步围困曹军大将曹仁、满宠的残军于樊城，史称樊城之战。曹操派左将军于禁援救，适逢汉水暴涨，淹没于禁七军，汉军乘势以水军攻打，活捉于禁。于禁向关羽投降，庞德被俘虏后不降遭斩，关羽并另遣军队包围襄阳，一时之间威震华夏。当时曹操治下许多州郡的叛军早已受关羽遥控。

同年十月，曹操来到洛阳，欲迁都以避其锋芒，桓阶、司马懿、蒋济等人劝阻，认为孙权必然不愿看到关羽坐大。孙权果然自请袭击关羽后方，曹操并召集驻守合肥与孙权对峙的张辽军队、在汉中监视巴蜀的徐晃军队等，并且亲自由洛阳领军往樊城救援。

曹操又命人把孙权偷袭荆州的消息用箭射到关羽和樊城守将曹仁处，曹军士气大振，而关羽进退失据。最先抵达樊城的徐晃军，乘著大水稍退，对围城的关羽军展开攻击。曹仁终于突围而出，与徐晃军一同击退关羽。同年十二月，往南退军的关羽被占领江陵的孙权俘虏后处斩，孙权将关羽的首级送到洛阳，曹操以诸侯之礼安葬，襄樊战役结束。

枭雄寿终

219年冬天，孙权上书称臣，陈说天命，劝曹操称帝。曹操把孙权来书给群臣观看，陈群、夏侯敦和司马懿等人都劝曹操称帝。曹操却不想代汉自立，他说：「若天命在吾，吾为周文王矣。」；因周文王的儿子周武王代商立周改朝换代，部分人认为曹操暗示自己的儿子称帝。（学术界分为两派，一部分人认为曹操暗示自己儿子去称帝，而另一部分人认为曹操不想代汉，只想当个周文王那样的英雄就好了）

建安二十四年（220年）曹操病重时，自虑不起，对于长子曹昂的死，叹曰：「我前后行意，于心未曾有所负也。假令死而有灵，子修（曹昂）若问我母（丁氏）所在，我将何辞以答！」

建安二十五年正月廿三日庚子（220年3月15日），曹操因中风病逝于洛阳，享年66岁，谥号武王。

曹操临死前留下《遗令》，提倡薄葬。二月廿一日丁卯（4月11日），曹操被安葬于邺城西郊的高陵，与西门豹祠相近。

曹操去世后，世子曹丕嗣魏王、丞相、冀州牧之位。不久，夏侯敦、程昱等人也先后去世。同年十月廿九日（12月11日），曹丕代汉，迫使汉献帝退位禅让，建立曹魏，年号黄初，定都洛阳。封刘协为山阳公，追尊曹操为太祖武皇帝。

文学成就

体裁

曹操诗歌在表现形式上往往有所创新，如「薤露行」、「蒿里行」，「短歌行」古辞都是杂言，各曲仅为四句，曹操则改用五言来写，各十六句。五言诗以外，又长于四言诗。

《蒿里行》原是杂言，曹操却以五言重写，非常成功。四言诗方面，本自《诗经》之后已见衰落，少有佳作，但曹操却继承《国风》和《小雅》的传统，反映现实，抒发情感。例如：《短歌行》、《龟虽寿》、《步出夏门行》等均是四言诗之佳作，使四言诗重生而再放异彩。

此外，曹操还有不少其他文章传世，例如《请追增郭嘉封邑表》、《让县自明本志令》、《与王修书》、《祀故太尉桥玄文》等，文字质朴，感情流露，流畅率真。

内容思想

曹操用旧调旧题，描写新内容。汉乐府诗多著重塑造客观人物形象，曹操的乐府诗却突破诗人自我形象；汉乐府诗以叙事为主，曹操的乐府诗却以抒情为主。他没有形式上模拟乐府，而是学习民歌反映现实创作精神，用旧曲作词，既具有民歌的特色，而又富有自己的创造性。

曹操善于以诗歌抒写政治理想和抱负，雄心壮志，诗中充满奋发进取的精神，也有思忧难忘、人生朝露的消极情绪，还有宿命思想，又写了一些游仙诗。

曹操诗内容大致有三种：反映汉末动乱的现实、统一天下的理想和顽强的进取精神、以及抒发忧思难忘的消极情绪。

• 汉末大乱，曹操又南征北讨，接触的社会面非常广大，故多有亲身经验和体会如《蒿里行》谓汉末战乱的惨象，见百姓悲惨之馀又见诗人伤时悯乱的感情。故后人谓曹操乐府「汉末实录，真诗史也。」

• 曹操对天下具有野心，怀有统一之雄图，《短歌行》有谓「周公吐哺，天下归心。」可资明证。其进取之心亦可见出，如《龟虽寿》言之「老骥伏枥，志在千里。」言己虽至晚年仍不弃雄心壮志。

• 一代枭雄，纵风光一世，亦有星落殒灭之时。曹操对此也感到无能为力，只有作诗感叹，无可奈何。如《短歌行》中「譬如朝露，去日苦多」的感伤，《秋胡行》之低沉情绪，《陌上桑》等游仙作品中都可见他的消极情绪。

曹操的诗，极受乐府影响，现存的诗脱胎自汉乐府民歌。这些诗歌虽用乐府旧题，却不因袭古人诗意，自辟新蹊，不受束缚，而是体现汉乐府「感于哀乐，缘事而发」的精神。例如：《薤露行》、《蒿里行》原是挽歌，曹操却以之悯时悼乱。《步出夏门行》原是感叹人生无常，须及时行乐的曲调，曹操却以之抒述一统天下的抱负及北征归来所见的壮景。可见曹操富有创新精神的民歌，开启建安文学的新风，也影响到后来的杜甫、白居易等人。

语言风格

曹操诗语言多古朴质直，少华美词藻；情调悲壮，激昂慷慨；音调昂扬，气魄雄伟；形象鲜明，善用比兴。

曹操诗文辞简朴，直抒襟怀，慷慨悲凉而沉郁雄健，华美辞藻并不常见，惟形象鲜明，如《观沧海》一诗：「东临碣石，以观沧海。水何澹澹，山岛竦峙。树木丛生，百草丰茂。秋风萧瑟，洪波涌起，日月之行，若出其中，星汉灿烂，若出其里。」寥寥数笔，即能以辽阔的沧海景象，表现诗人胸襟，不加润饰。

《诗品》评价

锺嵘《诗品》对曹操的作品评价「曹公古直，甚有悲凉之句。」，将其置于下品，引起争议，后世学者亦有认为曹操作品应置于上品。一般认为是由于锺嵘喜五言诗，而曹操的作品以四言诗见长之故。

容貌

• 《世说新语》容止第十四注引《魏氏春秋》：武王姿貌短小，而神明英发。

• 《世说新语》容止第十四：魏武将见匈奴使，自以形陋，不足雄远国，使崔季圭代，帝自捉刀立床头。既毕，令间谍问曰：「魏王何如？」匈奴使答曰：「魏王雅望非常，然床头捉刀人，此乃英雄也。」魏武闻之，追杀此使。

• 曹操小字阿瞒。《说文解字》卷五目部：瞒，平目也。

性格

• 据《三国志·武帝纪》记载：曹操年少时展现机智警觉、有权术的样子，行为侠义而放荡，没有专心在一个行业上，当时的人也没有觉得很奇怪。

• 东汉末年的名士许劭对曹操说：「子治世之能臣，乱世之奸雄」。

• 蜀汉的观阁令史、西晋的孝廉陈寿曾留下关于曹操的评论「抑可谓非常之人，超世之杰矣」。

• 也有人批评曹操的品德，孙盛曰：「魏武于是失政刑矣。易称『明折庶狱』，传有『举直措枉』，庶狱明则国无怨民，枉直当则民无不服，未有徵青蝇之浮声，信浸润之谮诉，可以允厘四海，惟清缉熙者也。昔者汉高狱萧何，出复相之，玠之一责，永见摈放，二主度量，岂不殊哉！」

• 曹操性格严厉，掾属办公如果不合其意，常常被他杖责。其中何夔经常带著毒药，决心如被杖责宁可自鸩而死也不受侮辱，而何夔终究没有遭受杖刑。

• 曹操生性猜忌，不少人都被他诛杀，例如：崔琰、许攸、娄圭、孔融、杨修、华佗、边让、桓邵、刘勋等人，赵彦等忠谏直言而向汉献帝进言分析局势和对策，亦被诛杀。亦有派遣刺客诛杀周不疑的故事。

• 曹操派下属卢洪、赵达二人担任抚军都尉负责监军，军中对卢洪、赵达相当畏惧。

• 曹操的性格是有两面性的，从《让县自明本志令》中可以看出曹操有政治智慧，也有性情。这样一份有重要政治意义的纲领性文件却用了非常朴实的语言风格，以及他的遗嘱中很少提及他的政治生涯，很大篇幅都是安排琐碎的家务事，苏东坡曾对此评价「平生奸伪，死见真性」，另一方面，曹操的性格也是奸猾的，他以《让县自明本志令》表明对汉朝的忠心，但现实上的实际行动却浑然不同。

• 曹操深通兵法，在战略、战术方面都能应付裕如，擅长孙武和吴起等兵法，常用计略来应付一系列的群雄战争来取胜，曹操喜欢看书，通晓古典文学，常年在军旅亦手不释卷，并在白天传授兵法，晚上则阅览经文传记，甚至还抄写各家的兵书，命名为《接要》，亦为孙武所著作的《孙子兵法》做过注释（《孙子略解》）。

• 曹操擅长武艺、剑术，十岁时击退过鳄鱼，曾在兵变时，用剑杀死数十个乱兵才脱身。甚至有一次偷进张让家时被发现，曹操手挥舞戟才得以逃跑，弓术亦出神入化，曹操也有抱负著野心的态度来面对乱世，如其迎接刘协代表其掌控了汉朝大势。

• 曹操面对威胁毫不留情，曾坑杀伪装投降的袁绍士卒，诛杀密谋作乱的董承及其女董贵人、伏皇后及其二子和宗族。

• 曹操治下虽然有时会有因不满徭役而出现的叛乱，但同时曹操亦有很多善待百姓之举。

• 曹操妻妾众多，不过娶纳方面并不是毫无一个标准。并其中出名者多自他处改嫁而来。收降张绣时，收了张绣伯母入侧室，引来张绣不快，曹操得知后于是想杀害张绣，但是由于计画泄漏，引起张绣兵变，其长子曹昂，侄儿曹安民以及典韦白白地牺牲。曹操曾许诺将秦宜禄前妻杜夫人赠与关羽，但见其美色后自纳之，关羽因此心中不安。曹操不齿吕布染指有夫之妇的行为。曹操也很疼爱妻子所带来继子，并不因为非自己所出就有所忌讳。曹操死前也留下遗言，要求善待他的夫人们。

• 曹操生性节俭，不好华丽。《魏晋世语》记载，曹植之妻崔氏（崔琰侄女）就因穿著过于华丽的衣服违反了禁令，回家后就被曹操赐死了。

• 曹操不迷信鬼神，在担任济南相期间捣毁城阳景王刘章祠，并且认为坟墓也终将被人盗掘，所以极力提倡丧葬从简，一改汉代奢华之风，行事风格非常乾脆实际。袁绍的幕僚陈琳起草讨曹之「檄文」中曾指控曹操设立发丘中郎将、摸金校尉等职，专门盗墓掘坟以赚取军费，公然发掘汉梁孝王墓列为其「罪行」之一。

• 曹操喜欢吃鱼，在他的《四时食制》中提及不少鱼类。在一场宴会中也说过「今日高会，珍羞略备，所少吴松江鲈鱼耳。」

• 曹操一度认为叔孙通任用盗贼有理，并认为贤人君子无法办理检举一事，自校事赵达遭伏法后，曹操才向建议检举赵达的高柔道歉。

• 曹操长年以来有严重偏头痛毛病，甚至有痛到在地上打滚的纪录，《三国志·华佗传》描述曹操的病情「心乱目眩」。一日曹操头痛症犯，强忍苦楚批阅陈琳奏章，陈的绝妙文笔让曹操看得入神连头痛都忘了，之后曹操以此事开玩笑称赞陈琳妙笔生花可治头痛，后引申为成语「文愈头风」。

身世争议

曹操的父亲曹嵩被宦官曹腾收养，其本来身份与姓氏一直存在争议。《三国志》作者陈寿记载「莫能审其生出本末。」刘宋裴松之《三国志注》中引用的《曹瞒传》和郭颁《世语》则记载曹嵩本姓夏侯，是夏侯敦的叔父。

对于曹嵩出自夏侯氏的记载，何焯提出夏侯敦的儿子夏侯楙娶了曹操的女儿清河公主，夏侯渊的儿子夏侯衡也娶了曹家的女子，所以这种说法是敌对方东吴的传闻，不可采信。而潘眉、林国赞、姚范和赵一清则认为陈寿将夏侯敦、夏侯渊、曹仁、曹洪、曹休、曹真、夏侯尚放在同一个列传中，正隐寓夏侯氏是曹魏的宗室，曹操是夏侯氏的子孙，赵一清还指出曹操把女儿嫁给夏侯楙大概是想掩盖自己的出身，非常地奸诈，何焯据此辩证曹操不是夏侯氏的子孙完全是颠倒事实。恽敬则认为曹操虽然阴险狡猾，也不应该做出近亲通婚之事。曹氏与夏侯氏世代通婚，而夏侯敦、夏侯渊和曹仁、曹洪、曹休、曹真等是曹魏开国元勋，他们死后，曹爽与夏侯玄陆续被杀，大权归于司马氏，所以陈寿将夏侯氏与曹氏合传，让后人看到曹魏兴衰的缘由，这是陈寿写史书定下的史学法规。洪亮吉猜测陈寿大概是因为当时世传曹操是夏侯氏的子孙，所以在评论中特别注明夏侯氏和曹氏世代通婚，以表明此说的错误，洪亮吉还认为将《曹瞒传》和《世语》当做信史的人都是不善于读史书的。刘咸炘认为即便曹嵩是夏侯氏的子孙，他的后裔也未必不能与夏侯氏通婚，因为两家已经是不同族了，陈矫就是如此。如果曹嵩为夏侯氏的子孙不是丑事，没必要避讳，曹嵩是宦官养子人所共知，曹氏家族也没对此事避讳，不避讳养子而避讳出自夏侯氏是不近人情的，所以此说不足信。刘咸炘认为恽敬所给出的曹氏、夏侯氏合传的解释合理，陈寿评论中曹氏合夏侯氏世代通婚就是他这样立传的理由，洪亮吉所说陈寿意在辨明流言的是非反而曲解了陈寿的意思。李景星认为「莫能审其生出本末」是陈寿揭露曹操家世的丑闻。

吴金华总结各家观点，指出陈寿「莫能审其生出本末」是一种曲笔，他还提出曹嵩为夏侯氏的三个证据：

• 《三国志注·吴主传》中引《魏略》记载了孙权写给浩周的书信，当中有「今子当入侍，而未有妃耦，昔君念之，以为可上连缀宗室若夏侯氏」，此时孙权向曹魏称臣，魏臣浩周以为孙权之子可以如同夏侯氏一样和曹魏宗室连结在一起，这已证明曹嵩出自夏侯氏并非敌对方的传闻。

• 《三国志·文帝纪》记载夏侯敦去世的时候，裴松之引用《魏书》「王素服幸邺东城门发哀」，又引孙盛的评价「在礼，天子哭同姓于宗庙门之外。哭于城门，失其所也。」孙盛是东晋时人，以「良史」著称，他的这项评价以曹丕和夏侯敦为同姓，证明曹嵩出自夏侯氏这一点在孙盛时代仍为人所共知。

• 1974年至1979年安徽亳县城南出土了曹氏墓砖，刻辞有「夏侯右」。

对于夏侯氏和曹氏世代通婚之事，周寿昌指出陈矫原为刘氏子孙，后成为舅舅家养子改姓陈，又娶了刘颂的女儿，刘颂与陈矫是近亲，曹操因爱惜陈矫的才华，为他周全，特别下令禁止诽谤此事。周寿昌认为曹操禁止人们议论同姓通婚，也是为自己的私事提供方便。吴金华也提出曹魏时期同姓通婚毫不奇怪，甚至有同母兄妹结为夫妇的情况，如《三国志注·曹爽传》引《魏末传》记载曹操义子何晏就娶了同母妹妹金乡公主。吴金华指出只要知道这一点，就会对曹嵩出自夏侯氏没有任何疑问。此后朱子彦和韩升仍旧以《曹瞒传》和《世语》不可信，夏侯楙、夏侯衡、夏侯尚娶曹氏女来论证曹操不是夏侯氏的后裔。

身后墓地

2009年在河南安阳出土被认为是曹操墓的遗迹。出土的骨骼身高只有1.55米左右，符合史书中形容曹操身材短小的描述。

2010年1月26日，复旦大学历史学系和现代人类学教育部重点实验室联合宣布，「向全国徵集曹姓男性参与Y染色体检测」。复旦大学研究者藉由对现代曹姓人群进行DNA分析，同时配合史籍、方志、家谱等历史资料多重印证，进而找出了6支曹氏族群是最有可能的曹操后代。2011年，复旦大学大学历史学和人类学联合课题组对安徽亳州曹氏宗族墓「元宝坑一号墓」中发现的两颗牙齿，进行了DNA测试，结果属于O1b-M268这一Y染色体单倍群，同时课题组对全国79个曹姓家族446个男性进行了测试，宣布调查结果显示「O1b-M268是唯一在宣称为曹操后裔的众多家族里显著提示的单倍群」，O1b-M268极大可能是曹操家族的遗传标记。而汉代丞相曹参的家族基因O2a-AM01822-MF20808，与曹操的家族基因没有关系，复旦大学教授韩升表示：「曹操是曹参后人的说法可能是伪造。对有关操姓是曹操后代避祸改姓而来以及曹操是从夏侯氏抱养的说法，经过基因验证都不可信。」课题组李辉等人多次请求安阳有关部门将头盖骨送检DNA，但被拒绝。

然而复旦大学团队的观点被一些机构质疑，如厦门大学人文院发布的论文《关于曹姓家族分子人类学研究的几个问题》中，提出「元宝坑一号墓」在考古挖掘前已被盗掘，陪葬品已几乎被盗光，没有尸骨被发现、作为考古珍贵文物的牙齿却没有被归入文物列出、仅根据牙齿磨损程度和历史文献记载推测可能属于曹鼎的年龄等多方面的存疑。

2016至2017年度考古出现重大发现，曹操墓室内发现3具遗骸，其中60岁左右男性遗骸较完整，专家鉴定后确定为曹操。

庙庭

《明帝纪》和《三少帝纪》记载了诏祭祀的文臣武将。

魏明帝曹睿

• 一，「青龙元年夏五月壬申，诏祀故大将军夏侯敦、大司马曹仁、车骑将军程昱于太祖庙庭。 」

齐王曹芳

• 二，「正始四年秋七月，诏祀故大司马曹真、曹休、征南大将军夏侯尚、太常桓阶、司空陈群、太傅锺繇、车骑将军张合、左将军徐晃、前将军张辽、右将军乐进、太尉华歆、司徒王朗、骠骑将军曹洪、征西将军夏侯渊、后将军朱灵、文聘、执金吾臧霸、破虏将军李典、立义将军庞德、武猛校尉典韦于太祖庙庭。」

• 三，「正始五年冬十一月癸卯，诏祀故尚书令荀攸于太祖庙庭。 」

• 四，「嘉平三年十一月，有司奏诸功臣应飨食于太祖庙者，更以官为次，太傅司马宣王功高爵尊，最在上。」

魏元帝曹奂

• 五，「景元三年冬，诏祀故军祭酒郭嘉于太祖庙庭。 」

评价

时人评价

• 自评：「设使国家无有孤，不知当几人称帝，几人称王。」（卷一 魏书一 武帝纪第一 三国志（晋）陈寿（南朝宋）裴松之注《让县自明本志令》）

• 桥玄：「今天下将乱，安生民者，其在君乎！」

• 许劭：「君清平之奸贼，乱世之英雄。」

• 何顒：「汉室将亡，安天下者，必此人也！」

• 王儁：「有治世之具」、「如卿之言，济天下者，舍卿复谁？」、「曹公，天下之雄也，必能兴霸道，继桓、文之功者也。」（《逸士传》）

• 李瓒：「时将乱矣，天下英雄无过曹操。」（《后汉书·卷六十七·党锢列传第五十七》）

• 袁涣：「公明哲超世，古之所以得其民者，公既勤之矣，今之所以失」其民者，公既戒之矣。海内赖公，得免于危亡之祸。」（《三国志·魏书·袁张凉国田王邴管传第十一》）

• 武宣卞皇后：「明公性急忿然，在外辄行军法。」（《与杨彪夫人袁氏书》）

• 陈宫：「今天下分裂而州无主；曹东郡（曹操），命世之才也，若迎以牧州，必宁生民。」「逆贼曹操，何等明公！」

• 袁绍：「曹操当死数矣，我辄救存之，今乃背恩，挟天子以令我乎！」

• 袁术欲称帝时曾推辞：「曹公尚在，未可也。」

• 刘表：「今天下大乱，未知所定，曹公拥天子都许，君为我观其衅。」

• 吕布：「明公（曹操）所患不过于布，今已服矣，天下不足忧。明公将步，令布将骑，则天下不足定也。」（《三国志·魏书·吕布臧洪传第七》）

• 于禁：「且公聪明，谮诉何缘！」（《三国志·魏书·张乐于张徐传第十七》）

• 荀彧：「将军（曹操）本以兖州首事，平山东之难，百姓无不归心悦服。」

• 郭嘉：「真吾主也。」「公奉顺以率天下；公纠之以猛而上下知制；公外易简而内机明，用人无疑，为才所宜，不问远近；公策得辄行，应变无穷；公以至心待人，推诚而行，不为虚美，以检率下，与有功者无所吝，士之忠正远见而有实者皆愿为用；公于目前小事，时有所忽，至于大事，与四海接，恩之所加，皆过其望，虽所不见，虑之所周，无不济也；公御下以道，浸润不行；公所是进之以礼，所不是正之以法；公以少克众，用兵如神，军人恃之，敌人畏之。」

• 董昭：「将军（曹操）兴义兵以诛暴乱，入朝天子，辅翼王室，此五伯之功也。」

• 田丰：「曹公善用兵，变化无方，众虽少，未可轻也，不如以久持之。将军据山河之固，拥四州之众，外结英雄，内修农战，然后简其精锐，分为奇兵，乘虚迭出，以扰河南，救右则击其左，救左则击其右，使敌疲于奔命，民不得安业；我未劳而彼已困，不及二年，可坐克也。今释庙胜之策，而决成败于一战，若不如志，悔无及也。」

• 刘备：「今指与吾为水火者，曹操也，操以急，吾以宽；操以暴，吾以仁；操以谲，吾以忠；每与操反，事乃可成耳。今以小故而失信义于天下者，吾所不取也。」（卷三十七 蜀书七 庞统法正传第七 三国志（晋）陈寿（南朝宋）裴松之注）「惟独曹操，久未枭除，侵擅国权，恣心极乱。」「今曹操阻兵安忍，戮杀主后，滔天泯夏，罔顾天显。」「遂得使操穷凶极逆，主后戮杀，皇子鸩害。」「曹操虽有无君之心，而有奉主之名，议者见操失利于赤壁，谓其力屈，无复远志也。今操三分天下已有其二，将欲饮马于沧海，观兵于吴会，何肯守此坐老乎？」（《三国志·蜀书·先主传第二》）「吾势虽不便，汝等百万来，未如吾何；曹孟德单车来，吾自去。」（华阳国志（晋）常璩 卷六）「今寇虏作害，民被荼毒，思汉之士，延颈鹤望。」「曹操父子，世载其罪。」（卷三十六 蜀书六 关张马黄赵传第六 三国志（晋）陈寿（南朝宋）裴松之注）「贼臣篡盗，社稷无主。」（卷三十三 蜀书三 后主传第三 三国志（晋）陈寿（南朝宋）裴松之注 ）

• 关羽：「吾极知曹公待我厚，然吾受刘将军厚恩，誓以共死，不可背之。吾终不留，吾要当立效以报曹公乃去。」（《三国志·蜀书·关张马黄赵传第六》）

• 孙权：「老贼欲废汉自立久矣，陡忌二袁、吕布、刘表与孤耳。今数雄已灭，惟孤尚存，孤与老贼，势不两立。」（《三国志·吴书·周瑜鲁肃吕蒙传第九》）「其惟杀伐小为过差，离间人骨肉以为酷耳，御将自古少有。」

• 张辽：「以明公威信著于四海，辽奉圣旨，豨必不敢害故也。」（《三国志·魏书十七》）

• 周瑜：「操虽托名汉相，其实汉贼也。」（《三国志·吴书·周瑜鲁肃吕蒙传第九》）

• 鲁肃：「今之曹操，犹昔项羽，将军何由得为桓文乎？肃窃料之，汉室不可复兴，曹操不可卒除。为将军计，惟有鼎足江东，以观天下之衅。」「彼曹公者，实严敌也」（裴松之注引《魏书》及《九州春秋》）「曹公威力实重」（裴松之注引《汉晋春秋》）（《三国志·吴书·周瑜鲁肃吕蒙传第九》）

• 陆逊：「斯三虏者（曹操、刘备、关羽）当世雄杰，皆摧其锋。」（《三国志·吴书·陆逊传第十三》）

• 韩嵩：「豪杰并争，两雄相持，天下之重，在于将军。将军若欲有为，起乘其弊可也；若不然，固将择所从。将军拥十万之众，安坐而观望。夫见贤而不能助，请和而不得，此两怨必集于将军，将军不得中立矣。夫以曹公之明哲，天下贤俊皆归之，其势必举袁绍，然后称兵以向江汉，恐将军不能御也。故为将军计者，不若举州以附曹公，曹公必重德将军；长享福祚，垂之后嗣，此万全之策也。」

• 诸葛亮：「曹操智计，殊绝于人，其用兵也，仿佛孙、吴。」「曹操五攻昌霸不下，四越巢湖不成，任用李服而李服图之，委夏侯而夏侯败亡，先帝每称操为能，犹有此失」（《三国志·蜀书·诸葛亮传第五》）

• 陈琳为袁绍所作檄文：「历观古今书籍所载，贪残虐烈无道之臣，于操为甚。」「因缘眦睚，被以非罪；榜楚参并，五毒备至；触情任忒，不顾宪纲。」「操欲迷夺时明，杜绝言路，擅收立杀，不俟报国。」

• 鲍信：「夫略不世出，能总英雄以拨乱反正者，君也。」

• 凉茂：「曹公忧国家之危败，愍百姓之苦毒，率义兵为天下诛残贼，功高而德广，可谓无二矣。」（《三国志·魏书·袁张凉国田王邴管传第十一》）

• 赵云：「国贼是曹操，非孙权也。」（卷三十六 蜀书六 关张马黄赵传第六 三国志（晋）陈寿（南朝宋）裴松之注）

• 夏侯敦：「自古已来，能除民害为百姓所归者，即民主也。今殿下即戎三十馀年，功德著于黎庶，为天下所依归，应天顺民，复何疑哉！」（卷一 魏书一 武帝纪第一 三国志（晋）陈寿（南朝宋）裴松之注）

后人评价

• 王沈：「太祖御军三十馀年，手不舍书。书则讲武策，夜则思经传。登高必赋，及造新诗，被之管弦，皆成乐章。」（《魏书》）

• 陈寿：「汉末，天下大乱，雄豪并起，而袁绍虎踞四州，强盛莫敌。太祖武皇帝运筹演谋，鞭挞宇内，揽申不害、商鞅之法术，该白起、韩信之奇策，官方授材，各因其器，矫情任算，不念旧恶，终能总御皇机，克成洪业者，惟其明略最优也。抑可谓非常之人，超世之杰矣。」（《三国志·魏书·武帝纪》）

• 崔鸿《前凉录》曰：「张茂谓马岌曰：『刘曜自古可谁等辈也？』」岌谓曰：『曹孟德之流。』茂默然。岌曰：『孟德公族也，刘曜戎狄，难易不同。曜殆过之。』茂曰：『曜可方吕布、关羽，而云孟德不及，岂不过哉？』岌曰：「孟德挟天子，令诸侯，仗大义，讨不庭；曜一卒胡人，用乌合之众，而能建威成大逆，天下莫之当，其不优欤！』茂曰：『天生胡以灭中国，殆不可以人事论也。』」

• 孙楚：「太祖承运，神武应期，征讨暴乱，克宁区夏；协建灵符，天命既集，遂廓弘基，奄有魏域。」（《晋书·列传第二十六》）

• 裴松之：「魏太祖虽机变无方，略不世出，安有以数千之兵，而得逾时相抗者哉？」

• 陆机：「曹氏虽功济诸华，虐亦深矣，其民怨矣。」（《辨亡论》）「接皇汉之末绪，值王途之多违，伫重渊以育鳞，抚庆云而遐飞。运神道以载德，乘灵风而扇威。摧群雄而电击，举勍敌其如遗。指八极以远略，必翦焉而后绥。厘三才之缺典，啓天地之禁闱。举修网之绝纪，纽大音之解徽。扫云物以贞观，要万途而来归。丕大德以宏覆，援日月而齐辉。济元功于九有，固举世之所推。」（《吊魏武帝文》）

• 潘安：「魏武赫以霆震，奉义辞以伐叛，彼虽众其焉用，故制胜于庙算。」（《西征赋》）

• 刘渊：「大丈夫当为汉高、魏武，呼韩邪何足效哉！」（《资治通鉴 卷第八十五》）

• 梅陶赞陶侃像曹操「机神明鉴」

• 王导：「昔魏武，达政之主也；荀文若，功臣之最也。」 （《晋书 列传第三十五》）

• 石勒：「大丈夫行事，当磊磊落落，如日月皎然，终不能如曹孟德、司马仲达父子，欺他孤儿寡妇，狐媚以取天下也。」（《晋书·载记第五·石勒下》）

• 垣荣祖：「昔曹操、曹丕上马横槊，下马谈论，此于天下可不负饮矣！」（《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九》）

• 钟嵘：「曹公古直，甚有悲凉之句。」

• 张辅：「武帝为张绣所困，挺身逃遁，以丧二子也；然其忌克，安忍无亲：董公仁贾文和，恒以佯愚自免；荀文若杨德祖之徒；多见贼害；行兵三十馀年，无不亲征；功臣谋士，曾无列土之封；仁爱不加亲戚；惠泽不流百姓。」（《艺文类聚卷二十二》）

• 张悌：「曹操虽功盖中夏，威震四海；崇诈权术，征伐无已！民畏其威而不怀其德也。」

• 张鼎：「君不见汉家失统三灵变，魏武争雄六龙战。荡海吞江制中国，回天运斗应南面。隐隐都城紫陌开，迢迢分野黄星见。流年不驻漳河水，明月俄终邺国宴。文章犹入管弦新，帷座空销狐兔尘。可惜望陵歌舞处，松风四面暮愁人。」

• 张说：「君不见魏武草创争天禄，群雄睚眦相驰逐。昼携壮士破坚阵，夜接词人赋华屋。都邑缭绕西山阳，桑榆汗漫漳河曲。城郭为墟人代改，但有西园明月在。邺傍高冢多贵臣，娥眉曼睩共灰尘。试上铜台歌舞处，唯有秋风愁杀人。」（《邺都引》）

• 王勃：「魏武用兵，仿佛孙吴。临敌制奇，鲜有丧败，故能东禽狡布，北走强袁，破黄巾于寿张，斩眭固于射犬。援戈北指，蹋顿悬颅；拥旆南临，刘琮束手。振威烈而清中夏，挟天子以令诸侯，信超然之雄杰矣。」（《三国论》）

• 魏元忠：「魏武之纲神冠绝，犹依法孙、吴，假有项籍之气，袁绍之基，而皆泯智任情，终以破灭，何况复出其下哉！」（《旧唐书·列传第四十二》）

• 朱敬则：「观曹公明锐权略，神变不穷，兵折而意不衰，在危而听不惑，临事决机，举无遗悔，近古以来，未之有也。」（《全唐文·魏武帝论》）；「昔魏太祖兵锋无敌，神机独行，大战五十六，九州静七八，百姓与能，天下慕德，犹且翼戴弱主，尊奖汉室。」

• 赵蕤：「运筹演谋，鞭挞宇内，北破袁绍，南虏刘琮，东举公孙康，西夷张鲁，九州百郡，十并其八，志绩未究，中世而殒。」（《长短经卷六 霸纪下》）

• 崔浩：「刘裕平逆乱，司马德宗之曹操也。」（《资治通鉴·卷一百一十八·晋纪四十》）

• 习凿齿：「昔齐桓公一矜其功而叛者九国，曹操暂自骄伐而天下三分，皆勤之于数十年之内而弃之于俯仰之顷，岂不惜乎！是以君子劳谦日昃，虑以下人，功高而居之以上，势尊而守之以卑。情近于物，故虽贵而人不厌其重；德洽群生，故业广而天下愈欣其庆。夫然，故能有其富贵，保其功业，隆显当时，传福百世，何骄矜之有哉！君子是以知曹操之不能遂兼天下者也。」（《汉晋春秋》）

• 李世民对曹操用兵才能评价：「临危制变，料敌设奇，一将之智有馀，万乘之才不足。」（《资治通鉴/卷197》）「帝以雄武之姿，当艰难之运，栋梁之任，同乎曩时，匡正之功，异于往代。观沈溺而不拯，视颠覆而不持，乖徇国之情，有无君之迹。既而三分肇庆，黄星之应久彰；卜主启期，真人之运斯属。其天意也，岂人事乎！」（《全唐文·卷十·祭魏太祖文》），又对曹操品德评价：「朕常以魏武帝多诡诈，深鄙其为人。」（《贞观政要》）

• 虞世南：「曹公兵机智算，殆难与敌，故能肇迹开基，居中作相，实有英雄之才矣。然谲诡不常，雄猜多忌，至于杀伏后，鸩荀彧，诛孔融，戮崔琰，娄生毙于一言，桓邵劳于下拜，弃德任刑，其虐已甚，坐论西伯，实非其人。许劭所谓『治世之能臣，乱世之奸雄』，斯言为当。」（《长短经》卷二）

• 刘知几：「贼杀母后，幽迫主上，罪百田常，祸千王莽。」（《史通•探赜篇》）

• 元稹：「刘虞不敢作天子，曹瞒篡乱从此始」（《董逃行》）

• 苏洵：「项籍有取天下之才，而无取天下之虑；曹操有取天下之虑，而无取天下之量；玄德有取天下之量，而无取天下之才。」

• 苏轼：「世之称人豪者，才气各有高卑，然皆以临难不惧，谈笑就死为雄。操以病亡，子孙满前，而咿婴涕泣，留连妾妇，分香卖履，区处衣物，平生奸伪，死见真性。世以成败论人物，故操得在英雄之列。而公见谓才疏意广，岂不悲哉！操平生畏刘备，而备以公知天下有己为喜，天若胙汉，公使备，备诛操无难也。」（《孔北海赞》）

• 穆修：「惟帝之雄，使天济其勇尚延数年之位，岂强吴、庸蜀之不平！」（《四库全书总目提要》）

• 王安石：「青山为浪入漳州，铜雀台西八九丘。蝼蚁往还空垄亩，麒麟埋没几春秋。功名盖世知谁是，气力回天到此休。何必地中馀故物，魏公诸子分衣裘。」

• 司马光：「知人善任，难眩以伪。识拔奇才，不拘微贱；随能任使，皆获其用。与敌对阵，意思安闲，如不欲战然；及至决机乘胜，气势盈溢。勋劳宜赏，不吝千金；无功望施，分毫不与。用法峻急，有犯必戮，或对之流涕，然终无所赦。雅性节俭，不好华丽。故能芟刈群雄，几平海内。」（《资治通鉴》）

• 何去非：「曹公逡巡独以其智起而应之，奋盈万之旅，北摧袁绍而定燕、冀；合三县之众，东擒吕布而收济衮；蹙袁术于淮左，旁徨无归，遂以奔死。而曹公智画之出，常若有馀，而不少困。彼之所谓势与勇者，一旦溃败，皆不胜支。然后天下始服曹公之为无敌，而以袁、吕为不足恃也。至于彼之任势与力，及夫各挟智勇之不全者，亦皆知曹公之独以智强而未易敌也，故常内惮而共蹙之。」；「言兵无若孙武，用兵无若韩信、曹公。」（《何博士备论》）

• 元好问：「曹刘坐啸虎生风，四海无人角两雄。」（《论诗绝句》）

• 朱熹：「曹操作诗必说周公，如云：『山不厌高，水不厌深；周公吐哺，天下归心！』又，苦寒行云：『悲彼东山诗。』他也是做得个贼起，不惟窃国之柄，和圣人之法也窃了！」（《朱子语类‧论文下》）「曹操合下便知据河北可以为取天下之资。既被袁绍先说了，他又不成出他下，故为大言以诳之。胡致堂说史臣后来代为文辞以欺后世，看来只是一时无说了，大言耳。此著被袁绍先下了，后来崎岖万状，寻得个献帝来，为挟天下令诸侯之举，此亦是第二大著。若孙权据江南，刘备据蜀，皆非取天下之势，仅足自保耳。"曹操用兵，煞有那幸而不败处，却极能料。如徵乌桓，便能料得刘表不从其后来。……曹操自是贼……孙权又是两间底人，只有先主名分正。」（《朱子语类 卷一百三十六 历代三》）

• 李纲：「曹瞒黠如鬼，嗜杀犹虎狼。」（五哀诗 汉处士祢衡）

• 周紫芝：「曹瞒举汉鼎，一目窥九州。凌轹欺孤儿，大蒙口舌羞。」（张鳌诗（并引））

• 胡三省：「操盖已弃武都而不有矣。诸氐散居秦川，苻氏乱华自此始。」

• 洪皓：「长笑袁本初，妄意清君侧。垂头返官渡，奇祸怜幕客。曹公走熙尚，气欲陵韩白。欺取计已成，军容漫辉赫。跨漳筑大城，劳民屈群策，北虽破乌丸，南亦困赤壁。八荒思并吞，二国尽勍敌。四陵寄遗恨，讲武存陈迹。雉堞逐尘飞，浊流深莫测。回首铜雀台，鼓吹喧黾蝈。」（《洪皓诗集》）

• 洪适：「曹瞒好发丘，凶德比夷虏。」

• 姜特立：「可笑曹瞒空狡狯，西陵作伎一何痴。」（《和乐天为张建封侍儿盼盼作仍继五篇 其五》）

• 钟惺：「邺则邺城水漳水，定有异人从此起。雄谋韵事与文心，君臣兄弟而父子。英雄未有俗胸中，出没岂随人眼底？功首罪魁非两人，遗臭流芳本一身。文章有神霸有气，岂能苟尔化为群？横流筑台距太行，气与理势相低昂。安有斯人不作逆，小不为霸大不王？霸王降作儿女鸣，无可奈何中不平。向帐明知非有益，分香未可谓无情。呜呼！古人作事无巨细，寂寞豪华皆有意。书生轻议冢中人，冢中笑尔书生气！」

• 张溥：「孟德瑞应黄星，志窥汉鼎，世遂谓梁沛真人，天下莫敌；究其初，一名孝廉也……孟德奋跳，当涂大振，易汉而魏，虽附会曹参，难洗宗耻……孟德御军三十馀年，手不舍书，兼草书亚崔、张，音乐比桓、蔡，围棋埒王、郭；复好养性，解方药。周公所谓多材多艺，孟德诚有之。使彼不称王谋篡，获与周旋，画讲武策，夜论经传；或登高赋诗，被之管弦。又观其射飞鸟，擒猛兽，殆可终身忘老，乃竟甘心作贼者，谓时不我容耳。汉末名人，文有孔融，武有吕布，孟德实兼其长；此两人不死，杀孟德有馀。《述志》一令，似乎欺人，未尝不抽序心腹，慨当以慷也。」（《汉魏六朝百三家集·魏武帝集题辞》）

• 罗贯中：「雄哉魏太祖，天下扫狼烟。动静皆存智，高低善用贤。长驱百万众，亲注《十三篇》。豪杰同时起，谁人敢赠鞭？」「功首罪魁非两人，遗臭流芳本一身。文章有神霸有气，岂能苟尔化为群？」「向帐明知非有益，分香未可谓无情。」（《三国志通俗演义》）

• 赵翼：「操起兵于汉祚垂绝之后，力征经营，延汉祚者二十馀年，然后代之。司马氏当魏室未衰，乘机窃权，废一帝、弑一帝而夺其位，比之于操，其功罪不可同日语矣！」（《廿二史札记》卷七 ）

• 蔡东藩：「曹操为乱世奸雄，乘机逐鹿，智略过人。袁绍袁术诸徒，皆不足与操比，遑论一张绣乎？乃宛城既下，遽为一孀妇所迷，流连忘返，几至身死绣手，坐隳前功。董卓之死也，衅由妇人﹔操之不死于妇人之手，盖亦仅耳！（《后汉演义》）

• 陈祚明：「孟德天分甚高，因缘所至，成此功业。」

• 黄摩西：「魏武雄才大略，草创英雄中，亦当占上座；虽好用权谋，然从古英雄，岂有全不用权谋而成事者？」

• 鲁迅：「曹操是一个很有本事的人，至少是一个英雄。我虽不是曹操一党，但无论如何，总是非常佩服他。」

• 毛泽东：「曹操是了不起的政治家、军事家，也是个了不起的诗人…曹操统一中国北方，创立魏国。他改革了东汉的许多恶政，抑制豪强，发展生产，实行屯田制，还督促开荒，推行法治，提倡节俭，使遭受大破坏的社会开始稳定、恢复、发展。」；「大雨落幽燕，白浪滔天，秦皇岛外打鱼船。一片汪洋都不见，知向谁边？往事越千年，魏武挥鞭，东临碣石有遗篇。萧瑟秋风今又是，换了人间。」（《浪淘沙·北戴河》）

• 范文澜：「他是拨乱世的英雄，所以表现在文学上，悲凉慷慨，气魄雄豪。」

• 黄仁宇：「《三国志》里的曹操，不见得比他同时人物如刘备、孙权更为谲诈。而且他有敢说敢做、豪迈磊落、放浪不羁的浪漫色彩。」「曹操能够出类拔萃，是由于他的不拘小节、眼光远大。然则他虽看清传统道德不能解决当日毛病，但他也不知放弃传统道德亦不见得能拯救当日毛病。」（《赫逊河畔谈中国历史》）

• 费正清、崔瑞德：「给予汉王朝的致命一击却留给了中国历史上最引人注目的人物之一的曹操。曹操出身微贱，是大诗人、大战略家，也是现实主义的政治思想家；他反对儒家的礼仪和道德束缚。」（《剑桥中国秦汉史》）

• 美国西点军校图书舘，现收录孙子兵法曹操注释版

• 申靖夏：「魏武得荆州，与荀彧书曰，不喜得荆州，喜得蒯异度耳。异度卽越字也，越盖通后也，魏武之能急士如此。其得志天下宜哉。」，「沮授，田丰之智谋，不在荀彧，郭嘉下。使绍而能用其言，魏武未必得志于天下，然绍不徒不能用，又从而杀之，一似项羽之于范增。二人者盖亦有昧择木之罪焉。东坡论范增，陋其欲依羽成功，吾于授，丰亦云。」，「魏武之欲易储也，毛玠谏曰，近者袁绍以嫡庶不分，覆宗灭国。其问贾诩也，诩不答。魏武曰，有问而不答何也。诩曰，适有所思耳。魏武曰，何思也。诩曰，思袁本初，刘景升父子耳。盖玠则正谏，而诩则以讽也。当玠之有言也，魏武虽曰吾之周昌。而其意犹未已。及闻诩之对，则笑而遂无易太子之志。此则讽谏之易入而正谏之难入也。其后玠坐微事，终身废放，而诩则厚遇加昔，此则正与讽之利害也。」（《恕菴集·卷16·杂记·评史》）

• 余秋雨：「曹植固然构筑了一个美艳的精神别苑，而曹操的诗，则是礁石上的铜铸铁浇。」

• 谭其骧：「曹操是一个有优点，有缺点，功劳很大，罪孽也不小的历史人物。」（《毛泽东为曹操翻案的历史细节》）

• 钱穆：「曹操兼能政治、军事和文学，又能用人，是魏国创业者。然而，他却是一大奸雄，故为历史反面人物，此下中国历史六百年中衰，曹操不能辞其咎。」（《中国史学发微》）

• 曹青：「圣主曹操，沧海如巅。」（《思想先于革新》）

家庭成员

祖父辈

• 曹腾（100年－159年），东汉宦官，为小黄门，迁至中常侍。桓帝即位，曹腾封费亭侯，迁大长秋，加位特进。曹操的父亲曹嵩是他的养子。曹睿继承皇位后，追尊曹腾为高皇帝。

• 曹褒，颍川太守，曹仁祖父。

父辈

• 曹嵩（2世纪－193年），曹操的父亲，宦官中常侍、大长秋曹腾的养子，出钱一亿万买官至太尉。曹操起兵后，避世于徐州，后来因曹操曾数击陶谦，陶谦使轻骑杀曹嵩、曹德于郡界。也有说法认为他们是被陶谦手下张闓贪财杀害。曹丕称帝后，追尊曹嵩为太皇帝。

• 曹炽，侍中、长水校尉。曹褒之子，曹仁、曹纯之父。

• 曹鼎，尚书令、河间相、吴郡太守 。曹洪伯父，曹休祖父。

弟

• 曹德（2世纪－193年），太尉曹嵩之子。曹操之弟。曹操起兵后，避世于徐州，曹操曾数击陶谦，陶谦使轻骑杀曹嵩、曹德于郡界。

• 海阳哀侯，曹操弟，名不详。其女嫁夏侯渊之子夏侯衡。

• 曹彬，曹操弟。是曹操之子曹均的养父。

• 曹操弟，名不详，其子曹安民。

• 曹操弟，名不详，其女嫁孙坚之子孙匡。

堂兄弟

• 夏侯敦（？－220年）：字元让，初为奋武将军司马，建安十二年（207年）封邑2500户。官至大将军，封高安乡侯。死后谥为忠侯，其七子二孙皆为关内侯。青龙元年（233年）入太祖庙庭，配享祭祀。其子夏侯楙娶曹操之女清河公主。

• 夏侯渊（？－219年）：字妙才，敦之族弟，其妻为曹操原配夫人丁氏之妹，有记载的活动期间为189年-219年。初为别部司马、骑都尉。建安廿一年（216年）封邑800户。官至征西将军，封博昌亭侯。建安廿四年（219年）死于与刘备、黄忠的争夺汉中的战役，死后谥为愍侯。正始四年（243年）在太祖庙庭，享祭祀。其子夏侯衡娶曹操弟海阳哀侯之女。

• 曹仁（168－223年）：字子孝，太祖从弟，祖父曹褒曾任颖川太守，父亲曹炽曾任侍中、长水校尉。初为别部司马，行厉锋校尉权。建安廿五年（220年）封邑3500户，封陈侯。文帝年间官至大将军。死后谥为忠侯。青龙元年（233年）入太祖庙庭，配享祭祀。

• 曹纯（170－210年）：字子和，曹仁之弟，初为议郎，后统领虎豹骑。约建安十二年（207年）封邑300户，封高陵亭侯，死后谥为威侯。

• 曹洪（？－232年）：字子廉，太祖从弟，伯父曹鼎曾为尚书令。初为鹰扬校尉。黄初年间，封邑2100户。官至骠骑将军，封乐城侯。死后谥为恭侯。正始四年（243年）在太祖庙庭，享祭祀。

妻妾

曹操正妻及侧室，据《魏志·后妃传》及《武文世王公传》，可考者有15位：

• 丁夫人，曹操的原配正室夫人，因曹昂之死而与曹操反目，曹操曾欲迎回而不可得。

• 武宣皇后，即卞氏，丁夫人被废后才扶正，生有曹丕、曹彰、曹植、曹熊四子。

• 刘夫人，曹操之妾，早年病亡，生有曹昂、曹铄两子，女儿清河公主。

• 环夫人，曹操之妾，生有三个儿子曹冲、曹据、曹宇。

• 杜夫人，曹操之妾。和前夫秦宜禄生有儿子秦朗。和曹操生有儿子曹林、曹衮，女儿金乡公主。

• 秦夫人，曹操之妾，生有曹玹、曹峻二子。

• 尹夫人，曹操之妾。和前夫何咸生有儿子何晏，和曹操生有曹矩一子。

• 王昭仪，曹操之妾，曹干生母早卒，曹操命其抚养。

• 孙姬，曹操之妾，生有曹上、曹彪、曹勤三子。

• 李姬，曹操之妾，生有曹乘、曹整、曹京三子。

• 周姬，曹操之妾，生有曹均一子。

• 刘姬，曹操之妾，生有曹棘一子。

• 宋姬，曹操之妾，生有曹徽一子。

• 赵姬，曹操之妾，生有曹茂一子。

• 陈妾，曹操之妾，生有曹干一子。

• 张济妻，《三国演义》为邹氏，张绣族叔之妻，曹操纳为妾室后，引张绣所恨。

其他

• 来莺儿，野史记载，东汉雒阳之名妓，后爱上曹操的侍卫王图。

儿子

据《魏志·文帝纪》、《任城陈萧王传》、《武文世王公传》，曹操的儿子有25位，因列传顺序是按母亲地位而非长幼，故总体次序不可考，仅知同一母下的排序：

女儿

曹操的女儿，可考证者6位，及其相关史书：

• 清河公主（？ - ？），刘夫人之女，为长公主，名不详，夏侯楙之妻。（《魏志·夏侯敦传》引《魏略》）

• 曹宪（？ - ？），汉献帝贵人，曹节之姊妹。（《后汉书·皇后纪下》）

• 曹节（？ - 260年），汉献帝皇后。（《后汉书·皇后纪下》、《后汉书·孝献帝纪》）

• 曹华（？ - ？），汉献帝贵人，曹节之妹。（《后汉书·皇后纪下》）

• 安阳公主（？ - ？），名不详，为荀恽之妻。（《魏志·荀彧传》）。她的次子荀霬娶晋武帝姑母南阳公主，长子荀憺为少府，三子：荀悝护军将军。

• 金乡公主（？ - ？），名不详，尹夫人或杜夫人之女，何晏之妻，生有至少一子。（《魏志·曹真传》引《魏末传》）

• 临汾公主（？ - 226年后），名不详。（《魏志·司马芝传》）

另《昭明文选》陆机《吊魏武文》李善注引《魏略》曰：太祖杜夫人生沛王豹及高城公主。未知高城公主与金乡公主是否一人。

侄辈

• 曹安民（？－197年），曹操爱侄，因为张绣反叛而死于战乱之中。

• 曹休（？－228年）：字文烈，太祖族子，其祖父曾为吴郡太守。十馀岁时，父死，独与一家仆携母亲渡江至吴。曹操起兵，变更姓名，辗转荆州，以投奔曹操。初为虎豹骑宿卫。黄初七年（226年）封邑2500户。官至大司马，封长平侯。死后谥为壮侯。正始四年（243年）在太祖庙庭，享祭祀。

• 曹氏，曹操弟海阳哀侯（名不详）女，嫁夏侯衡。

• 曹氏，曹操侄女，嫁孙匡。

养子

曹操的养子，可考证者3位：

• 曹真（？－231年）：字子丹，太祖养子，其父曹邵为曹操招兵被人所杀。《魏略》中说其本姓秦，其父为掩护曹操，为追兵所杀，曹操收养真，改其姓为曹。初讲虎豹骑。太和三年（229年）封邑2900户。官至大司马，封邵陵侯。死后谥号为元侯。子曹爽

• 秦朗（？－？），曹操养子，曹睿的近臣。生父秦宜禄为张飞所杀。母为曹操之妾杜夫人。

• 何晏（?－249年），大将军何进孙，曹操的养子、女婿，三国时期玄学家。父何咸早亡，母为曹操之妾尹夫人。

后裔

• 曹霸：高贵乡公曹髦后人，唐玄宗时期画家，能文善画，官至左武卫将军，杜甫作有《丹青引》及《观曹将军画马图》二诗，表达对其画艺的赞叹。

• 曹雪芹：清朝小说家，中国四大名著《红楼梦》的作者。

民间艺术

三国演义

《三国演义》是中国历史小说中出类拔萃的长篇巨著。此作塑造了众多形象鲜明且生动的人物，其中曹操是《三国演义》中塑造得最为成功的人物之一，他的性格既丰富又矛盾。他既是智谋机警，志大才高的英雄；同时又是一奸诈狡猾，嗜血残忍之奸雄。曹操因而被评为「古今奸雄中的第一奇人」。罗贯中对曹操这一矛盾形象的雕塑非常深刻，摆脱了早期小说中人物形象性格单一化、平面化的缺陷。毛宗岗称其为「三绝」之「奸绝」。

熟语

• 望梅止渴，出自刘义庆笔记小说《世说新语·假谲》

• 说曹操，曹操到

戏剧

京剧里的曹操是以白脸的形象来表示他奸诈狡猾、诡计多端的反面人物，与黑脸包公或红脸关公相对。

漫画

日本漫画家王欣太漫画作品《苍天航路》以曹操为主角。另外，在《火凤燎原》（陈某）、《超三国志霸》（池上辽一）、《天地吞食》（本宫宏志）、《龙狼传》（山原义人）、《曹操孟德正传》（大西巷一）等，曹操也都作为一名主要角色出场。

游戏

• 真·三国无双系列

• 无双OROCHI系列

• 三国志

• 梦三国

• 王者荣耀

• 三国群英传系列

• 幻想三国志II

• 神魔之塔

• 三国杀

• 万国觉醒

• 朕的江山（普通，SP和特殊）

• 卧龙：苍天陨落

动画

• 三国志

• 三国演义

• 横山光辉三国志

• 苍天航路

• 幻想三国志 -天元灵心记-

电影

电视剧

注释