History

In the Spring and Autumn period, Guan Zhong was the first chancellor in China, who became chancellor under the state of Qi in 685 BCE. In Qin, during the Warring States period, the chancellor was officially established as "the head of all civil service officials." There were sometimes two chancellors, differentiated as being "of the left" (senior) and "of the right" (junior). After emperor Qin Shi Huang ended the Warring States period by establishing the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), the chancellor, together with the imperial secretary, and the grand commandant, were the most important officials in the imperial government, generally referred as the Three Lords.

In 1 BC, during the reign of Emperor Ai, the title was changed to da si tu (大司徒). In the Eastern Han dynasty, the chancellor post was replaced by the Three Excellencies: Grand Commandant (太尉), Minister over the Masses (司徒) and Minister of Works (司空). In 190, Dong Zhuo claimed the title "Chancellor of State" (相国) under the powerless Emperor Xian of Han, placing himself above the Three Excellencies. After Dong Zhuo's death in 192, the post was vacant until Cao Cao restored the position as "imperial chancellor" (丞相) and abolished the Three Excellencies in 208. From then until March 15, 220, the power of chancellor was greater than that of the emperor. Later this often happened when a dynasty became weak, usually some decades before the fall of a dynasty.

During the Sui dynasty, the executive officials of the three highest departments of the empire were called "chancellors" (真宰相) together. In the Tang dynasty, the government was divided into three departments: the Department of State Affairs (尚书省), the Secretariat (中书省), and the Chancellery (门下省). The head of each department was generally referred to as the chancellor.

In the Song dynasty, the post of chancellor was also known as the "Tongpingzhangshi" (同平章事), in accordance with late-Tang terminology, while the vice-chancellor was known as the jijunsi. Some years later, the post of chancellor was changed to "prime minister" (首相 shou xiang) and the post of vice-chancellor was changed to "second minister" (次相 ci xiang). In the late Southern Song dynasty, the system changed back to the Tang naming conventions.

During the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty, the chancellor was not the head of the Secretariat, but the Crown Prince (皇太子) was. After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, the post became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng again. The post was abolished after the execution of Hu Weiyong, who was accused of treason (though his conviction is still strongly disputed in present times because of a lack of evidence to prove his guilt). Still, appointments of the people who held the highest post in the government were called "appointment of prime minister" (拜相) until 1644.

Influence

During and after the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued the use of a title Chingsang, from Chengxiang (丞相) for various high leaders, such as Pulad, the Yuan ambassador to the Ilkhan and for the deputy of the Western Mongol leader, the taishi. The title was also used in the Ilkhanate, for the vizier Buqa.

List of chancellors of China

List of chancellors of Shang dynasty

Zhou dynasty

• Jiang Ziya

• Duke of Zhou

• Duke Huan of Zheng

• Duke Zhuang of Zheng

• Guan Zhong of Qi state (died in 645 BC)

• Bao Shuya of Qi state

• Yan Ying of Qi state

• Fan Li of Qi State and Yue state

• Wu Zixu of Wu state

• Bo Pi of Wu state

• Cheng Dechen of Chu state

• Sunshu Ao of Chu state

• Wu Qi of Chu state

• Lord Chunshen of Chu state

• Lord Mengchang of Qi state

• Tian Dan of Qi state

• Li Kui of Wei state

• Hui Shi of Wei State

• Lin Xiangru of Zhao state

• Li Mu of Zhao state

• Su Qin of Yan state

• Yue Yi of Yan state

• Baili Xi of Qin state

• Shang Yang of Qin State

• Zhang Yi of Qin State

Qin dynasty

• Fan Ju

• Lü Buwei (251–238 BCE in office)

• Lord Changping

• Kui Zhuang

• Wang Guan

• Li Si (?–208 BCE in office)

• Feng Quji

• Zhao Gao (208–207 BCE in office)

Han dynasty

• Xiao He (206–193 BCE in office); Chen Xi (197 BCE), over Zhao

• Cao Shen (193–190 BCE in office)

• Chen Ping (190–179 BCE in office)

• Zhou Bo

• Guan Ying

• Zhou Yafu

• Huo Guang

• Shi Dan 史丹 (see Emperor Yuan of Han)

• Wang Mang

• Liu Yan (Bosheng)

• Deng Yu (25–27 in office)

• Wu Han

• Yuan An

• Dou Xian

• Li Gu

• Liang Ji

• Dou Wu

• Chen Fan

• Qiao Xuan

• Cao Song

• Zhang Wen

• Liu Yu

• Dong Zhuo

• He Jin

• Wang Yun

• Ma Midi

• Xun Shuang

• Huangfu Song

• Zhu Jun

• Cao Cao (196-220 in office)

• Cao Pi

Three Kingdoms

Wu

• Sun Shao (221–225)

• Gu Yong (225–243)

• Lu Xun (244–245)

• Bu Zhi (246–247)

• Zhu Ju (249–250)

• Sun Jun (253–256)

• Sun Chen (258)

• Puyang Xing (262–264)

• Zhang Ti (279–280)

Han

• Zhuge Liang (221–234)

• Jiang Wan

• Fei Yi

• Dong Yun

• Jiang Wei

• Dong Jue

• Fan Jian

• Zhuge Zhan

Wei

• Jia Xu

• Hua Xin

• Zhong Yao

• Wang Lang

• Chen Qun

• Dong Zhao

• Cui Lin

• Man Chong

• Jiang Ji

• Cao Shuang

• Sima Yi

• Gao Rou

• Wang Ling

• Zhuge Dan

• Sun Li

• Sima Shi

• Sima Zhao

• Sima Fu

• Wang Chang

• Wang Guan

• Deng Ai

• Zhong Hui

• Sima Yan

• Wang Xiang

• Sima Wang

Sui dynasty

• Gao Jiong

• Li Shimin

• Li Delin

• Su Wei

• Yang Su

• Yang Guang

• Yang Xiu

• Yang Zhao

• Yang Jian

• Xiao Cong

• Yuwen Shu

• Yu Shiji

• Li Yuan

• Yuwen Huaji

• Wang Shichong

• Li Mi

Tang dynasty

• Li Shimin (618–626 in office) (later Emperor Taizong of Tang)

• Fang Xuanling (626–648 in office)

• Wei Zheng (629–643 in office)

• Cen Wenben (unknown, under Emperor Taizong of Tang)

• Cen Changqian (unknown, under Emperor Gaozong of Tang)

• Cen Xi (unknown, under Emperor Shang of Tang, Emperor Ruizong of Tang and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang)

• Fan Lübing (686–688 in office)

• Di Renjie (691–693, 697–700 in office)

• Yao Chong (698–705, 710–711, 713–716 in office)

• Zhang Jiuling (733–736 in office)

• Li Linfu (734–752 in office)

• Yang Guozhong (752–756 in office)

• Wang Wei (758–759 in office)

• Li Deyu (833–835, 840–846 in office)

Song dynasty

Northern Song

• Fan Zhi (960–964 in office)

• Zhao Pu (964–973, 981–983, 988–992 in office)

• Kou Zhun (1004–1006, 1017–1021 in office)

• Wang Qinruo (1017–1019, 1023–1024 in office)

• Wang Zeng (1022–1029, 1035–1037 in office)

• Fan Zhongyan (1040–1045 in office)

• Wang Anshi (1067-1075, 1076–1077 in office)

• Sima Guang (1085–1086 in office)

• Fan Chunren (1086– in office)

• Fan Chunli (– in office)

• Zhang Dun (1094–1100 in office)

• Cai Jing (1101–1125 in office)

Southern Song

• Li Gang (1127 in office)

• Zhang Jun (1135–1137 in office)

• Qin Hui (1131–1132, 1137–1155 in office)

• Han Tuozhou (1194–1207 in office)

• Shi Miyuan/Shih Mi-yüan (1207–1233 in office).

• Jia Sidao (1259–1275 in office)

• Chen Yizhong (1275–1276 in office)

• Wen Tianxiang (1275–1278 in office)

• Lu Xiufu (1278–1279 in office)

Ming dynasty

Note: after the death of Hu Weiyong, the title of grand chancellor was abolished. The office of the Grand Secretariat assumed the de facto powers of the chancellery after the reign of the Hongwu Emperor.

• Li Shanchang (1368–1376)

• Hu Weiyong (1376–1380) – The last chancellor of China

• Yang Siqi

• Yan Song (in office 1544–1545)

• Xia Yan (in office 1546–1547)

• Yan Song (2nd time in office 1548–1562)

• Xu Jie

• Gao Gong

• Zhang Juzheng (in office 1572–1582)

• Zhang Siwei

• Shen Shixing

• Wang Jiabing

• Zhao Zhigao

• Wang Xijue

• Zhao Zhigao

Qing dynasty

The Qing dynasty bureaucratic hierarchy did not contain a chancellor position. Instead, the duties normally assumed by a chancellor were entrusted to a series of formal and informal institutions, the most prominent of which was the Grand Council. Occasionally, one minister may held enough power in the government that he comes to be identified, figuratively, as the "chancellor".

In 1911, the Qing court adopted reforms which, amongst other changes, established the position of prime minister. This position existed for less than a year before the Qing government was overthrown.

Premiers after 1911

Gallery

File:Xiao he.jpg|Xiao He, chancellor of the Han dynasty

File:Cao Shen.jpg|Cao Shen, chancellor of the Han dynasty

File:Chen Ping, Marquis of Quni.jpg|Chen Ping, chancellor of the Han dynasty

File:Huo guang.jpg|Huo Guang, chancellor of the Han dynasty

File:蜀汉丞相忠武侯诸葛亮.jpg|Zhuge Liang (181–234), chancellor of the Shu Han (221–234)

File:魏·太傅 司马懿.jpg|Sima Yi (179–251), chancellor of the Cao Wei (221–251)

File:Yang Su.jpg|Yang Su, chancellor of the Sui dynasty

File:Chinese - The Twenty-Four Ministers of the Tang -T'ang- Dynasty Emperor Taizong -T'ai-Tsung- - Walters 3557 - Changsun Wuji.png|Zhangsun Wuji, chancellor of the Tang dynasty

File:房玄龄.jpg|Fang Xuanling (579–648), chancellor of the Tang dynasty (626–648)

File:杜如晦.jpg|Du Ruhui, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (628–629)

File:魏徵.jpg|Wei Zheng, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (629–643)

File:狄仁杰.jpg|Di Renjie, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (691–693, 697–700)

File:韩滉画像.jpg|Han Huang (723–787), Song dynasty painting

File:李德裕像.png|Li Deyu, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (833–835, 840–846)

File:宋丞相赵普.jpg|Zhao Pu, chancellor of the Song dynasty (964–973, 981–983, 988–992)

File:宋丞相寇莱公准.jpg|Kou Zhun, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1004–1006, 1017–1021)

File:Wang Anshi.jpg|Wang Anshi, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1067–1075, 1076–1077)

File:宋丞相司马温公光.jpg|Sima Guang, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1085–1086)

File:秦桧.jpg|Qin Hui, chancellor of the Song dynasty (1131–1132, 1137–1155)

File:史弥远.jpg|Shi Miyuan chancellor of the Song dynasty (1207–1233)

File:文天祥肖像.jpg|Wen Tianxiang chancellor of the Song dynasty (1275–1278)

File:陆秀夫.jpg|Lu Xiufu chancellor of the Song dynasty (1278–1279)

File:Yansong2.jpg|Yan Song, Grand Secretary of the Ming dynasty

File:高拱.jpg|Gao Gong, Grand Secretary of the Ming dynasty

File:张居正-清晰版.jpeg|Zhang Juzheng, Grand Secretary of the Ming dynasty (1572–1582)

名称

「宰」原为「罪人在屋下执事者」，后引申为宰制的意思。「宰」有控制、掌握之意。「相」是「目接物」，故「相」又有「交接扶助」之意。

商朝时「宰」为贵族家中的管家，是管理家务和奴隶之官；周朝有执掌国政的太宰，也有掌贵族家务的家宰、掌管一邑的邑宰。「宰」，亦管「宰杀」牲畜以祭祀，实已为官的通称。因古时祭祀为头等大事。

「宰相」二字联称，始见于《韩非子·显学》，但只有辽代以为正式官名，其它各代所指官名与职权广狭则不同，而且名目繁多。唐朝宰相人数与名目最多，有三省长官的中书令、侍中、尚书左仆射、尚书右仆射，还有同中书门下三品、同中书门下平章事、参与（议、豫）朝政、参知政事、同掌机密等等。汉代丞相以一或二人为相，唐代的宰相以多人合议制为相，还有许多军人节度使获得宰相的头衔，是为使相，但为荣誉职，无实权。

有些朝代会设立左、右丞相（根据皇帝的方向），其地位根据不同朝代对「左尊」或「右尊」而不同。例如先秦时代文官尊左、武官尊右；在汉时期，以右丞相为主相、左丞相为副相；到隋唐两宋随周为「左尊右卑」；元朝依蒙古人习俗也以右丞相高于左丞相；到明初洪武时则恢复以左丞相为正职、右丞相为副职，但后废除了丞相制度。

北京大学历史系副主任祝总斌教授认为，宰相必须拥有议政权和监督百官的执行权，两者缺一不可。首先是进宫谒见皇帝，共议国家大事。宰相对政策（行政、财政、军事、民族等）和人事这两方面的大事必须出谋划策，辅助皇帝最后确定下来（包括对皇帝的错误意见进行谏诤）。其次是在经过皇帝与宰相商议，形成决定之后，还得由宰相监督百官执行。这里包括百官执行后的考课，以及由此奏行的黜陟、赏罚等。古代官吏和后代学者往往重视第一个条件，而忽视第二个条件，从而造成宰相称谓上许多混乱。祝总斌认为两汉的宰相是固定的，始终是三公，尚书台长官不是宰相。魏晋南北朝宰相始终是尚书台或尚书省的长官，而中书监、中书令和门下侍中不是宰相，尽管他们也是在某些方面或某个时期权力极大。明朝和清朝的殿阁大学士权力发展到参与议政，职掌票拟，因而他们一般也被誉为宰相，但在制度上始终无监督六部百官执行之权，所以并不是宰相。

沿革

宰相最早起源于春秋时期。最早见于《韩非子·显学篇》：「故明主之吏，宰相必起于州部，猛将必发于卒伍。」战国时期，宰相的职位在各个诸侯国都建立了起来，春秋战国时期列国宰相有齐国下卿管仲与上大夫晏婴、赵国上卿蔺相如、秦国相邦吕不韦等代表人物。

秦朝时，宰相的正式官名为丞相，由李斯担任。汉朝与秦朝相仿，一般称为丞相（金印緺绶，绶紫青色），只是如果称为「相国」（金印綟绶，绶似绿似紫）的话，地位更高一些，并以御史大夫为副职。汉初立国，刘邦以萧何为丞相，其后升任相国。汉武帝时，起用了一批儒生当丞相，处理日常行政事务，而政务中心则转到了内廷。宰相的职权逐渐转移到了尚书台长官的手中。汉哀帝改丞相为大司徒，东汉由司徒、司空、太尉，号称三公，共同执政，权臣则多称「大司马」。汉献帝建安十三年（208年），复置丞相，由曹操担任。

除了朝廷的宰相之外，由于汉朝采用封建与郡县并行制（也称作郡国制），因此在地方层级上有许多封国（诸如中山国、北海国、赵国等），行政区地位相当于郡。虽然封国的君主为各诸侯王，但只是傀儡，实质的长官，是皇帝派遣的「国相」，因此王国的国相，实际上相当于郡的太守。此外，各郡国内还有许多县侯的封国，侯国的国相，在品级上则相当于县令、县长。

魏晋时，丞相或相国多为权臣自命建立霸府政治，成为了一种篡位夺权的手段，一如曹魏的司马氏专权和东魏的高欢、西魏的宇文泰。偏安政权蜀汉立国以来所任丞相也只有诸葛亮一人。南北朝制度多变，皇帝所与议论政事或委以机密者，即是宰相，官名有中书监、中书令、尚书令、侍中、仆射或将军。其位最尊、权最大者则为录尚书事。

隋朝时，隋文帝杨坚创立三省六部制，三省长官内史省的内史令、门下省的纳言、尚书省的尚书令合称为宰相。唐改内史省为中书省，内史令为中书令，纳言为侍中。唐太宗时谏臣房玄龄官至司空兼领尚书左仆射，为当时尚书省实际长官。唐高宗后，不置尚书令，以副职尚书左右仆射为尚书省长官，除中书省长官中书令和门下省长官侍中外，以他官加「同中书门下三品」者才是宰相；玄宗开元后，加衔称「同中书门下平章事」，简称同平章事。

宋朝的尚书令和中书令为虚置，以同平章事、侍中为宰相正式官名，以参知政事为副，两者同议政事，轮流知印、押班、奏事，合称「宰执」。从汉朝至唐朝，天子待宰相之礼，逐渐降级，宋太祖废「坐论」之礼，使宰相站立答话，其地位大降。元丰改制，恢复唐朝的三省制度，但三省长官虚设，以副职代之，设宰相二人，首相称尚书左仆射兼门下侍郎，次相称尚书右仆射兼中书侍郎；另设门下侍郎、中书侍郎、尚书左右丞为副相。政和时，改左仆射为太宰兼门下侍郎，右仆射为少宰兼中书侍郎。靖康间复改为尚书左仆射兼门下侍郎、尚书右仆射兼中书侍郎。南宋建炎间，再改宰相官名为尚书仆射、同中书门下平章事，代表人物秦桧，副相为参知政事。乾道间又改为尚书左、右丞相，多兼枢密使，统领军政，代表人物如文天祥。

大蒙古国仿效汉制，设立中书省为行政机关，耶律楚材在窝阔台汗时期担任中书令，位居中书丞相之上。元朝建立后续以中书省为政务中枢，主官中书令由皇太子兼领，不常设，下为中书右左丞相，为常设长官，再下为平章政事，副职为右左丞及参知政事，合称「宰执」。各地设有行中书省作为朝廷的派出机构，长官为行省丞相。

明初亦设中书省，长官为左右丞相，不设中书令。洪武十三年（1380年），太祖藉由胡惟庸案，罢中书省，废丞相，由天子亲决国政。宰相制度和三省制度遂废。后皇帝以不胜庶政之繁，设正五品的内阁大学士协理文书。后内阁职位渐重，但大学士有宰相之实，却无宰相之名，权力受到一定限制，称辅臣，居首者为首辅，如严嵩、张居正。

清沿明制，不设立真正的宰相职务。雍正时设军机处，内阁成为闲曹，没有品阶的军机大臣行宰相职责，但没有独立的行政权力。清代习惯上称授正一品殿阁大学士为拜相，但无正式宰相名份。清朝末年，清政府仿效日本改革政治制度，成立以总理大臣为首的责任内阁，取代大学士和军机大臣。

在所有的官职中，宰相的变化最多，这是由于君主既需要宰相帮助办理政事，又担心宰相的权位过重，危及自身的权力。明清以后的大学士及军机大臣虽有宰相职责，辅助皇帝，但实际上只是皇权的执行者，没有独立决策权力。虽有大学士和军机大臣专权的情况发生，但他们的权力只是来自君主的信任，而非制度本身，相对下地位并不稳固。

与皇权的冲突

很少大有为的皇帝能长期忍受权力过大的相权。因此相权在中国历史中不断的被裁减，但随著中国封建王朝走向衰落，相权最终彻底战胜皇权。其中较显著的变革有四个时期：

• 汉武帝设内廷作为政务中心，逐渐架空以丞相为首的外廷。

• 隋代正式确立三省制；三公取消开府，成为彻底荣誉头衔。

• 明太祖洪武十三年借胡惟庸案废中书省和丞相，集君权与相权于一身。

• 清代宣统三年总理大臣袁世凯发实行共和制的电报迫使皇帝退位，相权彻底战胜皇权。

历代称谓表

中国的宰相在历代王朝有不同的称谓。下表是详细参照。

近代

受到日语影响，今日时常称君主制国家的各大臣雅称为「相」，如财务大臣称财相、外交大臣称外相、法务大臣称法相等。政府首长则称为首相，甚至是直接称「宰相」，「担任政府首长」为「拜相」，即得自「宰相」之名。