Names

"Duke Wen of Jin" is a posthumous name bestowed on him as part of his family's ancestral veneration. It literally means the "Cultured Duke of Jin". Duke Wen's given name was Chong'er. His clan name was Ji.

Life

Early life

Prince Chong'er was born to Duke Xian of Jin in 697 BC. The Zuo Zhuan notes that "his ribs were all grown together," a sign of strength and leadership. Chong'er's half-brothers included Shensheng and Xiqi. While Shensheng was the original crown prince, in his later years Duke Xian favoured the concubine Li Ji, who desired her son Xiqi to be heir instead. As such, she plotted to discredit Shensheng before his father, eventually leading to Shensheng's suicide in 656 BC.

Wandering

This event led to a civil war in Jin, known as the Li Ji Unrest, where Duke Xian led several campaigns against his own sons, forcing them to flee Jin. With a retinue of capable men, including Zhao Cui, Hu Yan, Wei Chou (魏犨), Jia Tuo (賈佗), Xian Zhen (先軫), and Jie Zhitui, Chong'er fled to the north. In 651 BC, after the death of Duke Xian led to a succession crisis, Chong'er was invited to return to Jin and assume the duchy, but declined; the throne passed instead to his half-brother Yiwu, who became Duke Hui of Jin.

In 644 BC, after failed assassination attempts by Duke Hui, Chong'er moved to the State of Qi. He remained there until yet another succession crisis in Qi in 639 BC, whereupon he fled first to the State of Cao, then the states of Song, Zheng, Chu and finally the State of Qin. Over this 19-year period of exile, Chong'er gained both prestige and talented followers; a lady of a foreign court once commented that "When I look at the followers of the prince of Jin, every one of them is fit to be a premier of a state".

In 636 BC, after the death of Duke Hui, Duke Mu of Qin escorted Chong'er back to Jin with an army, and Chong'er was installed as the Duke of Jin.

Duke of Jin

Duke Wen undertook several major reforms of the state's military and civil institutions, partly in order to fill the gaps that had been caused by the slaughter of the ducal house previously. These included the formation of a three-army system, with an upper, middle and lower army each commanded by a General and a Lieutenant-General. The state was further invigorated by the many capable leaders Duke Wen had gathered from his wanderings, who were given senior military and governmental posts.

With this army, as well as his considerable prestige, Duke Wen was able to absorb many of the states around Jin, greatly increasing its extent, while also subjecting others as vassals; its vassal states included Cao, which he attacked in reprisal for the rude treatment afforded him during his exile. At the same time, he took the political stance of supporting the Eastern Zhou court and King Xiang of Zhou. When in 635 BC King Xiang was deposed and driven out by his brother, Duke Wen led a coalition of states which re-installed him as King.

At the same time, the northward expansion of the State of Chu was also resisted by Duke Wen; the two states' conflict was mostly played out among the smaller states which lay between their territories and formed alliances with one state or another. In 633 BC, Chu invaded the State of Song, which was an ally of Jin; Duke Wen led his coalition, including troops from Qin, Qi and Song, and won a decisive victory over Chu forces at the Battle of Chengpu in 632 BC. This battle checked Chu's northern expansion for decades, while cementing Duke Wen's position; the next year, he convened a large coalition of rulers at Jiantu, and was confirmed as hegemon over the other states, becoming one of the Five Hegemons.

Duke Jin died in 628 BC, and was succeeded by his son Duke Xiang of Jin; his son also inherited the hegemony, which would stay with Jin for nearly a century.

Legends

Ordering the Army to Retreat Three She

When Chong'er stayed at the court of Chu, its king set banquets for him and afforded him good treatment. At one meal, he asked Chong'er how he intended to repay this debt. Chong'er replied that, should Jin and Chu meet on the battlefield in the future, he would order his own troops to retreat three she (舍) or about . After Chong'er was restored to his throne by the duke of Qin, he did meet Chu in battle. Remembering his promise, he ordered his men to retreat three she. He used the occasion, however, to lure the Chu commander Ziyu into an ambush at Chengpu and won the battle there.

Cold Food Festival

Accounts of Chong'er and his retainer and musician Jie Zhitui or Zitui circulated by at least the 4th century BC. Sima Qian relates that Jie was among those who followed the prince through all his years of exile but, crediting Heaven with Qin's willingness to install Chong'er in place of Duke Yu, he declined to present himself at court for reward and insulted those who did so. He and his mother left to become hermits in the forests around MtMian and were never seen again. Chong'er was distracted during this time by the chaos of his installation, as Yu's partisans started riots and even burnt down the ducal palace. He was eventually reminded of Jie by a poem about a dragon and some snakes that was posted on his new palace's main gate; unable to find or reward him, he set aside the fields of Mianshang to endow sacrifices in his honor. This later developed into a temple, and Jie became regarded as a Taoist immortal with power over the weather by the early Han.

Later legends embellished this story: after the retinue of exiles were robbed by bandits while traveling through the Chinese countryside, they ran so low on food that Chong'er was at risk of starvation. Jie prepared him a hearty soup of meat and wild herbs that revitalized him and, under questioning, revealed that he had used flesh from his own thigh to prepare it. Upon the prince's restoration in Jin, he proclaimed that "awards may be divided into three grades: the first-grade award goes to those who followed me into exile; the second-grade award goes to those who donated money; and the third grade goes to those who welcomed the return of my dukedom" and that even "those who have supported me in other ways but not yet been rewarded may report their names for awards". Jie, however, was overlooked and felt so sad that he retired to the countryside, carrying his mother on his back. Recalling his loyal follower months or years later, Chong'er personally wandered the forests and ridges looking for them. His new advisors suggested using a forest fire to drive Jie out, since his duty to his mother would overwhelm any other concerns. The fire was started on one or three sides, and men waited on the open end to welcome the official back into public service. Instead, the fire raged for three days and nights and the mother and son were found burnt to death beneath a willow. In his sorrow and guilt, Chong'er renamed the mountain after Jie. (The surrounding territory would also later take the name "Jiexiu" or "of Jie's Final Rest".) He also ordered a period of prohibition against fire in Jie's honor, forcing the people to eat cold food during three days around the Qingming solar term.

In fact, the Cold Food Festival is not attested before the Han and began as a month-long popular observance to placate Jie's spirit in the depths of winter. The hardship this caused—including death among infants and the elderly—caused it to be repeatedly banned over a period of centuries. The regulations succeeded in moving the festival to the end of spring (by Chinese reckoning), but it never died out in Shanxi and spread through the rest of China under the Sui and Tang. Aspects of ancestral veneration added to it from the old Double Third Festival eventually overshadowed the stories of Chong'er and Jie Zhitui, however, causing it to develop into the modern Tomb-Sweeping Festival instead.

Offspring

Huan (驩). Born by Bi Ji (逼姞). He succeeded his father and was known as Duke Xiang of Jin. He was regarded as a good successor as he defeated Qin and Di, but died too early in 621 BC. His son became Duke Ling of Jin, and Duke Dao of Jin was the grandson of his another son named Jie.

Bo Ji (伯姬). Also born by Bi Ji (逼姞). She was married to Zhao Cui (趙衰), and was praised highly for returning the wifehood to the first wife Shu Wei (叔隗), thereby making herself a concubine. She bore three sons named Zhao Yingqi (趙嬰齊), Zhao Tong (趙同) and Zhao Kuo (趙括). Also known as Zhao Ji (趙姬) and Junjishi.

Yong (雍). Born by Du Qi (杜祁). He was initially sent to the State of Qin to be a minister in Qin to avoid the probable conflict among his brothers. When Duke Xiang of Jin died, Zhao Dun decided to let Yong succeed the throne, since he was elder and had a good reputation. Therefore, Yong was returning to Qin guarded by Qin troops. However, when Yong and the Qin troops were at border, Dun changed his mind and created Yigao (夷皋) as Duke Ling of Jin and attacked the Qin troops. Yong was killed in the attack from the State of Jin.

Le (Yue?) (樂). Born by Chen Ying (辰嬴) from the State of Qin. He was initially sent to the State of Chen to avoid the probable conflict among his brothers. When Duke Xiang died, another noble minister, Hu Shegu (狐射姑), wanted to make Le the duke and secretly fetched him from Chen. However, he was ambushed and killed on the way by fellows led by Gongsun Chujiu, one of the men of Zhao Dun.

Heitun (黑臀). Born by Zhou Nü (周女). He was initially sent to Zhou. When Duke Ling was murdered, he succeeded the throne and became Duke Cheng of Jin. He died in 600 BC.

Family

• Father: Duke Xian of Jin

• Stepmother: Li Ji

• Brother: Shensheng, Hereditary Duke of Jin / Xiqi, Duke of Jin / Duke Hui of Jin

• Nephew: Duke Huai of Jin

Legacy

Duke Wen's military and civil reforms created a framework of government which helped ensure the stability and preeminence of the Jin for subsequent decades. At the same time, though, it laid the framework for the political situation in the later years of Jin, when several houses of nobles came to dominate the ducal court. The houses of Wei and Zhao, for example, were consolidated by their military appointments in Duke Wen's court, setting the ground for their eventual domination and the partition of Jin two and a half centuries later.

Hong Kong's TVB made a television drama series about Duke Wen in the early 1990s called The Legend of Duke Wen (晉文公傳奇), starring Leon Lai. The series was semi-fictional, with many episodes featuring wuxia ("kung fu") scenes. Other dramatizations of his life include the 2011 Chinese series Song of Spring and Autumn, with the duke played by Gallen Lo.

In 2019 a Chinese historical romantic comedy television series called Chong Er's Preach was directed by Lai Shuiqing and Zhao Jian and starring Wang Longhua, Baby Zhang, Zhang Yishan, Madina Memet, Purba Rgyal, Shen Mengchen, and Gan Tingting. It is produced jointly by China Film Group Corporation, Global Hao Xiang Television Media and Shenzhen Yucong Cultural Media Co., Ltd.. The television series follows the story of the Duke Wen of Jin from exile to later ascending the throne to become hegemon.

出生

前671年，晉獻公與戎族通婚，娶狐季姬，生下重耳。

流亡生涯

前665年，繼母驪姬生下一子，取名奚齊，驪姬與優施通姦，淫亂後宮，兩人開始排擠陷害申生、重耳、夷吾。在前665年，晉獻公派重耳守護蒲城。

前655年，重耳之兄申生被驪姬害死，重耳也遭到驪姬之亂的迫害，離開了晉國都城絳，到蒲城，他父親晉獻公派勃鞮謀殺重耳，勃鞮割斷了重耳的袖子，重耳爬牆僥倖逃走。重耳的母親是戎族，他決定往狄族人的地方逃跑，至翟國，在翟國被晉國攻打後，又逃往其他國家，自此流亡19年，經歷狄、衛、齊、曹、宋、鄭、楚、秦八國。

至狄（前655年-前644年）

前651年，晉獻公逝世，荀息當國相，繼母驪姬立自己的兒子奚齊為國君，里克砍死奚齊，又活活鞭殺了驪姬，荀息自殺，里克派人迎接重耳回國即位，重耳辭謝。前650年，重耳的弟弟夷吾自立，是為晉惠公。重耳在狄國住了十二年。前644年，晉惠公派勃鞮第二次追殺重耳，重耳沒死，決定不能在狄國多留。

至衛（前644年）

重耳逃到衛國。衛國看他是個倒運的公子，不肯接待他。他們一路走去。走到五鹿（今濮陽東南）地方，實在餓得厲害，正瞧見幾個莊稼人在田邊吃飯。重耳他們看得更加口饞，就叫人向他們討點吃的。莊稼人懶得理他們，其中有一個人跟他們開個玩笑，拿起一塊泥巴給他們。重耳冒了火，他手下的人也想動手揍人了。重耳的舅舅狐偃連忙攔住，接過泥巴，安慰重耳說：「泥巴就是土地，百姓給我們送土地來啦，這不是一個好兆頭嗎？」重耳也只好趁此下了台階，苦笑著向前走去。

至齊（前644年-前639年）

重耳聽說齊桓公的宰相管仲去世了，決定去齊國給齊桓公效勞，他同時希望得到齊國的幫助和保護。重耳在齊國過安逸的生活，放棄了恢復君位的願望。齊桓公贈送他20輛車馬，並且主持了將宗室女齊姜嫁給重耳。

前639年，齊桓公死後，齊國發生內亂。趙衰、咎犯有一天在一棵桑樹下商量如何離開齊國，一個宮女在桑樹上聽到他們的對話，回宮以後偷偷的告訴了重耳的妻子齊姜。齊姜因為怕宮女洩露秘密，不但沒有給宮女獎賞，而且馬上把她殺了。齊姜也勸告重耳趕快離開齊國，但是重耳不肯。因此，趙衰等人讓重耳喝醉了，把重耳抬到馬車上離開齊國國都臨淄。重耳醒來的時候已經太晚了，感到非常憤怒，拿了戈追殺狐偃，幸虧沒有成功。

至曹（前639年）

重耳和他的忠臣到了曹國。曹共公聽說重耳的肋骨連成一片，很好奇，所以趁重耳洗澡的時候，偷看了他的裸體。曹共公如此無禮，重耳頗生怨心。

至宋（前638年）

前638年，楚國打敗宋襄公軍隊不久以後，重耳到了宋國。宋襄公熱情地款待了他，並贈送了20輛車馬給他。

至鄭（前637年）

前637年（周襄王十五年、魯僖公二十三年、鄭文公三十六年），重耳路過鄭國，鄭國大夫叔詹勸鄭文公要以禮待重耳，鄭文公卻以「諸侯亡公子過此者眾，安可盡禮！」為由，不聽叔詹勸告，對重耳不予禮遇接待。（這即是日後晉文公邀秦穆公興問罪之師的起源，加上鄭文公在城濮之戰起兵助楚，讓晉文公有了問罪的理由。更造成日後秦、晉之間的幾場戰爭（殽之戰、王官之戰和一些邊境衝突）埋下伏筆（事見《左傳》）。

至楚（前637年）

到了楚國，楚成王設宴接待他，並問他以後打算如何報答楚國。重耳回答「萬一晉國和楚國之間發生了戰爭，我願意命令軍隊撤退三舍（即九十里）」。楚國大夫成得臣（子玉）建議楚成王馬上殺死重耳，以免給自己留下後患，但是楚成王沒有採納他的意見。

至秦（前636年）

最後，重耳到了秦國，秦穆公熱烈地接待了他，並主持將宗室女子五人許配與他，其中就有秦穆公的親生女兒懷嬴。（參考《左傳》）

返國即位

晉惠公因治國無方，韓原之戰戰敗，使晉國內外交困。國人怨聲載道。前637年秋，晉惠公亡，其子晉懷公立。晉大夫欒氏暗中遣使赴秦，勸說重耳歸國稱君。據《左傳》，周襄王十六年（魯僖公二十四年，秦穆公二十四年，前636年）春二月（夏曆十二月），秦穆公派兵護送重耳回晉國。秦軍東渡黃河入晉。晉國西南部的令狐、桑泉（均在今山西臨猗縣）、臼衰（今山西永濟市東北）三邑相繼歸降重耳。晉懷公發兵西進迎擊秦軍，駐軍廬柳（今山西臨猗縣西北）。秦穆公使者赴廬柳遊說晉軍，使其倒戈，退到郇邑（今山西臨猗縣西南）。跟隨重耳流亡在外的狐偃便與秦、晉兩國大夫在郇邑會盟，支持重耳稱君。隨後，重耳率秦軍經曲沃（今山西聞喜縣東北）進入晉都翼（又稱絳，今山西翼城縣西南）繼位，為晉文公。晉懷公逃到晉國北部的高梁邑（今山西臨汾市東北），被文公派人殺死。

重耳即位後，在諸侯中威信很高。侍奉晉惠公的舊臣呂省和郤芮害怕遭到晉文公的迫害，所以想謀殺他。他們計劃放火燒他的宮室。

勃鞮聽聞了他們的陰謀，想告訴晉文公，但是文公拒絕見他，因為他曾試圖刺殺文公兩次。勃鞮說他當時純屬奉命行事，提醒他「過去齊桓公沒有記恨管仲向他射箭」，晉文公聽了，便接待了勃鞮，勃鞮就揭露了呂省和郤芮的陰謀。呂省和郤芮逃走，晉文公向秦穆公求助。秦穆公將呂省、郤芮二人誘殺于黃河岸邊。夏，秦穆公派三千秦軍入晉，助其加強防務。至此，晉文公在歷經十九年的流亡生涯後，開始了在晉國的統治。

《公羊傳》的記載有所不同。據《公羊傳》，前636年底，懷公死後重耳才篡奪了晉國。

孔子為晉文公重耳避諱篡位，並未在《春秋》正文中提及晉文公即位細節。

稱霸

尊王

前635年，周襄王的弟弟王子帶發起動亂，周襄王逃到鄭國並向晉文公緊急請求援助。同時，秦國正準備去救周王。晉文公想當霸主，他趁這個機會顯示了他的權力和威望，所以不顧晉國剛剛才安定，決定在行動之前拯救天子，不讓秦國得到功勞。因此，他答應了周襄王，打敗了王子帶，並護送周襄王返京。為了感謝晉文公的恩惠，周王將河內、等地賜與晉。

攘夷

當時齊桓公已卒，中原群龍無首，楚國乘勢堀興。晉文公先翦除楚國的羽翼，擊敗曹國、衛國，使二國與楚國絕交。

前633年（周襄王二十年），宋國都城商丘被楚軍包圍。前632年初，晉文公率兵救宋，為報答楚國在他流亡國外時楚國的款待，下令軍隊退避三舍（九十里），在衛國的城濮（今山東濮縣南）大敗楚軍。晉文公主持踐土之盟，成為霸主。

晉文公繼而聯合秦國，攻打親楚的鄭國，阻止日後楚國的北進。

執政

晉文公在位期間，執政為：郤縠、郤溱、先軫、趙衰、狐毛、狐偃、欒枝、胥臣、先且居、箕鄭、胥嬰、先都。

逝世

前628年冬，晉文公去世，其子晉襄公即位。

年齡

史書並未明確記載晉文公的出生時間，對于他流亡時的年齡有兩種說法。

• 《史記》的說法，則魯僖公五年（前655年），流亡時就已經四十三歲，到六十二歲回國，于七十歲時去世。

• 《左傳·莊公二十八年》：「又娶二女於戎，大戎狐姬生重耳，小戎子生夷吾。」《左傳·昭公十三年》記載：「……我先君文公 狐季姬之子也 ……生十七年……亡十九年」，晉文公是十七歲時因亂出奔，在外流亡達十九年才最終回國接位，在位八年後去世，終年四十四歲。楊伯峻考証史記的記載為誤，左傳記載的晉文公生年正確。重耳當生魯莊公二十三年（前671年），其姊伯姬於魯僖公五年（前655年），嫁於秦穆公時，年齡在十七歲左右，不可能四十四歲矣。《左傳·昭公十三年》原文記載：「我先君文公，狐季姬之子也，有寵于獻。好學而不貳，生十七年，有士五人。有先大夫子余、子犯以為腹心，有魏犨、賈佗以為股肱，有齊、宋、秦、楚以為外主，有欒、郤、狐、先以為內主。亡十九年，守志彌篤。惠、懷棄民，民従而與之。獻無異親，民無異望，天方相晉，將何以代文？」

• 《國語》：「晉公子生十七年而亡。」與《左傳》記載一致。

家庭

父母

• 父親：晉獻公

• 母親：狐季姬，又稱大戎狐姬

妻妾

• 文嬴

• 偪姞

• 季隗

• 杜祁

• 齊姜

• 懷嬴

• 南威

• 妾周氏，祖籍秦國，晉成公母

• 另有兩位秦國妾。

兒子

• 伯鯈，母季隗

• 叔劉，母季隗

• 公子驩，即晉襄公，母偪姞

• 公子雍，母杜祁

• 公子樂，懷嬴所生

• 公子黑臀，母周女，即晉成公

女兒

• 伯姬，又作趙姬、君姬氏

影視作品

• 《晉文公傳奇》由黎明飾演。

• 《東方小故事之李離殉職》由龔禮飾演。

• 《東周列國春秋篇》由蔣愷飾演。

• 《驪姬傳奇》由邱心志飾演。

• 《春秋祭》由羅嘉良飾演。

• 《重耳傳奇》由王龍華飾演。

註解

參考書目

• 顧頡剛：《浪口村隨筆》（瀋陽：遼寧教育出版社，1998），「晉文侵曹伐衛之故」條，頁151-152。

• 除了《左傳》和《史記》等文獻以外，子犯和鐘的銘刻也記載了關于晉文公的生活的重要信息。