Family and early life

Yizhu was born in 1831 at the Old Summer Palace, eight kilometres northwest of Beijing. He was from the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, and was the fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor. His mother was the Noble Consort Quan, of the Manchu Niohuru clan, who was made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumously as Empress Xiaoquancheng. Yizhu was reputed to have an ability in literature and administration which surpassed most of his brothers, which impressed his father, who therefore decided to make him his successor.

Early reign

Yizhu succeeded the throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relatively young emperor. He inherited a dynasty that faced not only internal but also foreign challenges. Yizhu's reign title, "Xianfeng", which means "universal prosperity", did not reflect the situation. In 1850, the first of a series of popular rebellions began that would nearly destroy the Qing dynasty. The Taiping Rebellion began in December 1850, when Hong Xiuquan, a Hakka leader of a syncretic Christian sect, defeated local forces sent to disperse his followers. Hong then proclaimed the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the rebellion spread to several provinces with amazing speed. The following year, the Nian Rebellion started in North China. Unlike the Christian-influenced Taiping rebels, the Nian movement lacked a clear political program, but they became a serious threat to the Qing capital, Beijing, with the mobility of their cavalry-based armies. The Qing imperial forces suffered repeated defeats at the hands of both rebel movements.

Rebellions and wars

In 1853, the Taiping rebels captured Nanjing and for a while it seemed that Beijing would fall next; but the Taiping northern expedition was defeated and the situation stabilized. The Xianfeng Emperor dispatched several prominent mandarins, such as Zeng Guofan and the Mongol general Sengge Rinchen, to crush the rebellions, but they only obtained limited success. The biggest revolt of the Miao people against Chinese rule in history started in 1854, and ravaged the region until finally put down in 1873. In 1856, an attempt to regain Nanjing was defeated and the Panthay Rebellion broke out in Yunnan.

Meanwhile, an initially minor incident on the coasts triggered the Second Opium War. The British and French, after engaging in a number of minor military confrontations on the coast near Tianjin, attempted to start negotiations with the Qing government. The Xianfeng Emperor believed in Chinese superiority and would not agree to any demands from the European powers. He delegated Prince Gong for several negotiations but relations broke down completely when a British diplomat, Sir Harry Parkes, was taken hostage by Chinese forces during negotiations on 18 September.

Anglo-French forces clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry on 18 September near Zhangjiawan before proceeding toward the outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in Tongzhou District, Beijing. On 21 September, at the Battle of Palikao, Sengge Rinchen's 10,000 troops, including his elite Mongol cavalrymen, were completely annihilated after several doomed frontal charges against the concentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces, which entered Beijing on 6 October. On 18 October 1860, British and French forces sacked and burnt Old Summer Palace. Upon learning about this news, the Xianfeng Emperor's health quickly deteriorated.

During the Xianfeng Emperor's reign, China lost part of Manchuria to the Russian Empire. In 1858, according to the Treaty of Aigun, the territory between the Stanovoy Range and the Amur River was ceded to Russia, and in 1860, according to the Treaty of Beijing, the same thing happened also to the area east of the Ussuri River. After that treaty, the Russians founded the city of Vladivostok in the area they had annexed.

While negotiations with British, French and Russian officials were being held, the Xianfeng Emperor and his imperial entourage fled to Jehol province in the name of conducting the annual imperial hunting expedition. As his health worsened, the emperor's ability to govern also deteriorated, and competing ideologies in court led to the formation of two distinct factions — one led by the senior official Sushun and the princes Zaiyuan and Duanhua, and the other led by Noble Consort Yi, who was supported by the general Ronglu and the Bannermen of the Yehe Nara clan.

Death

The Xianfeng Emperor died on 22 August 1861, from a short life of overindulgence, at the Chengde Mountain Resort, 230 kilometres northeast of Beijing. His successor was his surviving five-year-old son, Zaichun. A day before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor had summoned Sushun and his supporters to his bedside and gave them an imperial edict that dictated the power structure during his son's minority. The edict appointed eight men – Zaiyuan, Duanhua, Jingshou, Sushun, Muyin, Kuang Yuan, Du Han and Jiao Youying – as an eight-member regency council to aid Zaichun, who was later enthroned as the Tongzhi Emperor. Xianfeng gave the eight men the power of regency, but their edicts would have to be endorsed by Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen. By tradition, after the death of an emperor, the emperor's body was to be accompanied to the capital by the regents. Noble Consort Yi and Empress Consort Zhen, who were now known as Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an travelled ahead to Beijing and planned a coup with Prince Gong that ousted the eight regents. Empress Dowager Cixi then effectively ruled China over the subsequent 47 years as a regent.

The Xianfeng Emperor was interred in the Eastern Qing Tombs, 125 kilometres/75 miles east of Beijing, in the Ding (定; lit. "Quietude") mausoleum complex.

Legacy

The Qing dynasty continued to decline during the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor. Rebellions in the country, which began the first year of his reign, would not be quelled until well into the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor and resulted in millions of deaths. The Xianfeng Emperor also had to deal with the British and French and their ever-growing appetite to expand trade further into China. The Xianfeng Emperor, like his father, the Daoguang Emperor, understood very little about Europeans and their mindset. He viewed non-Chinese as inferior and regarded the repeated requests by the Europeans for the establishment of diplomatic relations as an offence. When the Europeans introduced the long-held concept of an exchanged consular relationship, the Xianfeng Emperor quickly rebuffed the idea. At the time of his death, he had not met with any foreign dignitary.

Despite his tumultuous decade of reign, the Xianfeng Emperor was commonly seen as the last Qing emperor to have held paramount authority, ruling in his own right. The reigns of his son and subsequent successors were overseen by regents, a trend present until the fall of the Qing dynasty.

Family

Empress

• Empress Xiaodexian (孝德顯皇后) of the Sakda clan (薩克達氏; 12 April 1831 – 24 January 1850)

• Empress Xiaozhenxian (孝貞顯皇后) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏; 12 August 1837 – 8 April 1881)

• Empress Xiaoqinxian (孝欽顯皇后) of the Yehe-Nara clan (葉赫那拉氏; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), personal name Xingzhen (杏貞)

　• Zaichun (載淳), the Tongzhi Emperor (同治帝; 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), first son

Imperial Noble Consort

• Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing (莊靜皇貴妃) of the Tatara clan (他他拉氏; 2 April 1837 – 26 December 1890)

　• Princess Rong'an of the First Rank (榮安固倫公主; 20 June 1855 – 5 February 1875), first daughter

　　• Married Fuzhen (符珍; ? – 1909) of the Manchu Gūwalgiya clan in September/October 1873

• Imperial Noble Consort Duanke (端恪皇貴妃) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏; 3 December 1844 – 7 May 1910)

Noble Consort

• Noble Consort Wen (玟貴妃) of the Xu clan (徐氏; 1835 – 20 December 1890)

　• Prince Min of the Second Rank (憫郡王; 8 January 1859 – ?), second son

• Noble Consort Wan (婉貴妃) of the Socoro clan (索綽絡氏; 17 November 1835 – 20 June 1894)

Consort

• Consort Lu (璷妃) of the Yehe-Nara clan (葉赫那拉氏; 2 March 1841 – 15 May 1895)

• Consort Ji (吉妃) of the Wang clan (王氏; 1846 – 12 November 1905)

• Consort Xi (禧妃) of the Cahala clan (察哈喇氏; 4 October 1842 – 26 June 1877)

• Consort Qing (慶妃) of the Zhang clan (張氏; 25 October 1840 – 15 June 1885)

Concubine

• Concubine Yun (雲嬪) of the Wugiya clan (武佳氏; ? – 11 January 1856), personal name Qiyun (绮云)

• Concubine Rong (容嬪) of the Irgen-Gioro clan (伊爾根覺羅氏; 6 July 1837 – 21 June 1869)

• Concubine Shu (璹嬪) of the Yehe-Nara clan (葉赫那拉氏; 27 March 1840 – 9 May 1874)

• Concubine Yu (玉嬪) of the Yehe-Nara clan (葉赫那拉氏; 14 August 1843 – 26 December 1863)

First Class Attendant

• First Class Attendant Chun (瑃常在) of the Ming'an clan (暝谙氏; 1835–1859)

• First Class Attendant Xin (鑫常在) of the Daigiya clan (戴佳氏; ? – 27 May 1859)

• First Class Attendant Ping (玶常在) of the Irgen-Gioro clan (伊尔根觉罗氏; ? – 1856)

Ancestry

生平

清朝道光十一年六月初九日（公元1831年7月17日），咸豐帝生于北京圓明園之澄靜齋，得名奕詝。當時，父親道光帝的前三個兒子都已去世，所以奕詝出生後即為實際在世的皇長子。奕詝年幼喪母，被父親指定給靜貴妃撫養，因此和靜貴妃之子奕䜣成為形影不離的夥伴。道光二十六年（1846年），按照秘密立儲制度，奕詝被道光帝密立為儲君，弟弟奕訢同時被立為親王。道光三十年正月十四日（1850年2月25日），道光帝駕崩，臨終前宣召大臣開啟鐍匣，宣布奕詝為皇太子並即位成為皇帝。同年正月二十六日（3月9日），奕詝正式即位，年號「咸豐」。

咸豐帝即位之初勤於政事，廣開言路、明詔求賢，先後將有損國家利益的穆彰阿和耆英革職，並啟用林則徐等能臣，大手筆地改革朝政。但此時的清朝內憂外患不斷，咸豐元年（1851年），太平天國運動于廣西興起，捻軍也在同年于河南起義，咸豐帝身邊的重臣能臣也接連故去，使其陷入被動。同時，由于恭親王奕䜣要求冊封自己的生母康慈皇貴太妃為皇太后之事，咸豐帝心神疲憊，與曾情同手足的奕䜣也嫌隙漸生，不複往日之友好。咸豐三年（1853年），太平天國北上定都南京並極速北上，席捲半壁江山，朝廷大駭，耗費巨額銀兩反制，曾國藩率領的湘軍也興起討逆，局勢逐步由膠著走向上風。太平天國運動幾乎困擾了咸豐帝在位的全部時限，最終于同治初年被平定。

咸豐五年（1855年），黃河在河南開封府銅瓦廂決口，河道改回北方，山東、河南與直隸受災深重，災民數量高達1000萬，大額的賑災及工程款令朝廷的財政狀況雪上加霜。

咸豐六年（1856年），英國借「亞羅號」事件向清朝發難，與之前因西林教案與中國齟齬的法國聯合出兵，發動了第二次鴉片戰爭，戰線由廣州向北方一路拓展，直至天津大沽口。咸豐十年（1860年），英法聯軍兵臨北京城下，咸豐帝正式下詔對英國法國宣戰，最後圓明園、清漪園等皇家園林被焚掠。北京城破之際，咸豐帝倉皇北逃，命恭親王奕䜣在京主持與列強談判講和，最終以簽定《北京條約》等一系列不平等條約收場，擴大了英國在香港的占領區、增開天津為英法商埠並向兩國賠償巨額銀兩。

與此同時，俄國趁亂對華打劫，其西伯利亞總督穆拉維約夫于1858年用武力迫使黑龍江將軍奕山簽訂《璦琿條約》，割去黑龍江以北、外興安嶺以南原屬清朝的60萬平方公里的土地，其後又通過不平等條約獲取中國西北巴爾喀什湖周圍的部分領土。美國也在此間漁利，獲取了更多的通商港口及最惠國待遇。

輪番登場的巨大國家變故令咸豐帝備受煎熬，悲痛欲絕，最終走向了身心崩潰。咸豐十一年七月十七日（公元1861年8月22日），咸豐帝駕崩于熱河行在避暑山莊煙波致爽殿，終年31歲，其獨子載淳（即同治帝）繼位。依咸豐帝遺詔，以肅順、載垣、端華、景壽、穆蔭、匡源、杜翰、焦祐瀛為顧命八大臣，肅順為首，輔導皇帝施政。同時將「御賞」、「同道堂」兩方小璽分別賜給慈安、慈禧兩宮皇太后，並規定凡以後下發諭旨必須鈐用此二璽為憑。咸豐帝確立的這個權力結構意在用八大臣輔佐皇帝，再用兩宮皇太后制約八大臣。

然而不久後，在咸豐帝治喪期間，東太后慈安、西太后慈禧聯合恭親王奕訢等人發動辛酉政變，令輔政八大臣非死即貶，政府隨即由慈安、慈禧兩宮皇太后垂簾聽政，與恭親王奕䜣一道代替幼小的同治帝行使皇權。自此，咸豐帝生前設計的輔政權力結構被徹底打破。由于同治帝亦早逝且無後，清朝自太祖以來的世襲帝系也自此終結。1875年同治帝逝世後，醇親王奕����之子載湉（即光緒帝）被過繼給咸豐帝，繼承了咸豐帝的皇位。咸豐帝也是清朝最後一位擁有實權的皇帝，曾為其妃子的慈禧太后後來獨攬大權，成為清王朝的實際最高統治者，主宰國家將近半個世紀。

咸豐帝死後，清朝內外憂患漸趨消弭，國家度過了一段難得的平穩時期，洋務運動等發展戰略使國家近代化進程被加速推進。其墓葬是位于清東陵的定陵。

評價

• 清朝皇帝的評價中，咸豐帝的爭議最大。咸豐愛看戲，愛唱戲，即使到熱河行在唱戲，「著昇平署三拔至熱河」，也表現得樂不思蜀。咸豐一朝，財政十分困難，要鎮壓太平天國，對付英法聯軍，財源枯竭，「戶部因軍興財匱，行鈔，置寶鈔處，行大錢，置官錢總局，分領其事」，鈔票大量發行，造成通貨膨脹，「官民交累，徒滋弊竇」。

• 咸豐帝「任賢擢才，洞觀肆應」，在面對太平天國運動與「三千年未有之政局」的內憂外患中，咸豐指揮若定，重用漢族大臣曾國藩、李鴻章等人組織團練來對付太平天國，咸豐帝頗思除弊求治，提拔行事果斷的肅順，並支持肅順等人在朝政上推行的改革。為後來的同光中興打下良好基礎。但也因為採納肅順對英法兩國強硬的做法，導致引發英法聯軍之役。

• 咸豐帝臨終前對朝政事宜不合理的安排和權力制衡，使朝臣和後宮在有關朝政和國事方面展開逐鹿，間接導致慈安太后、慈禧太后、恭親王奕訢、醇親王奕譞聯手，打倒了顧命八大臣，最後慈禧掌權近半個世紀，從而也被有些史家流派認為咸豐帝沒有安排好善後事宜，致使後宮幹政半個世紀的局面。

• 英、法等國要求清廷能讓英法兩國在北京設置駐京公使，新任公使到任時能覲見皇帝，但咸豐帝不接受。英國也要求清廷開放中國貿易，咸豐帝也拒絕，雖然天津條約簽訂後，咸豐帝默許了英、法等國的要求，但又對英、法等國的公使刁難（主因是採納肅順對英法兩國強硬的做法）。咸豐帝本人的守舊，間接導致英法聯軍之役清朝的慘敗，使清朝失去首都北京，圓明園也遭聯軍焚毀。

• 太平天國運動與英法聯軍之役，使咸豐帝遭受打擊，逃往熱河行宮後就病逝了，太平天國運動與英法聯軍之役的善後工作，直到慈安、慈禧兩宮聽政時期才結束。

大事年表

• 1831年（道光十一年）六月初九日，奕詝出生。後受教于杜受田。

• 1850年（道光三十年）正月，宣宗去世，奕詝繼位。是年太平天國起事。

• 1853年（咸豐三年）二月，太平軍攻佔江寧，定都在此，改名天京。九月，太平天國北伐軍逼近天津。是年曾國藩建湘軍。

• 1855年（咸豐五年）四月，李開芳被俘，太平天國北伐軍覆沒。同年，黃河在河南決口改道，致使巨大災患。

• 1856年（咸豐六年）八月，天京事變發生。九月，「亞羅號事件」發生。

• 1858年（咸豐八年）四月，與俄國簽訂《璦琿條約》。五月，先後與俄、美、英、法四國簽訂《中俄天津條約》、《中美天津條約》、《中英天津條約》及《中法天津條約》。十月，太平軍取得三河大捷。

• 1859年（咸豐九年）五月，清大沽守軍擊退英、法艦隊。

• 1860年（咸豐十年）七月，英法聯軍攻佔天津和大沽一帶。八月，八里橋和大沽口相繼被攻佔，咸豐帝逃往承德，亦不足兩個月，英法聯軍火燒圓明園，進佔北京。十月，《中英北京條約》及《中法北京條約》立。十一月，《中俄北京條約》立。十二月總理各國事務衙門成立。

• 1861年（咸豐十一年）七月十七日，咸豐皇帝駕崩於承德避暑山莊煙波致爽殿，年三十。其子載淳年僅六歲，繼承大統，是為同治帝。咸豐委派載垣、端華、景壽、肅順、穆蔭、匡源、杜翰、焦祐瀛為輔政八大臣，輔助小皇帝。

家族成員

后妃

皇后

• 孝德顯皇后（1831年4月12日—1850年1月24日），薩克達氏，滿洲鑲藍旗人，太常寺少卿富泰與鄭慎親王烏爾恭阿第三女之女。道光二十七年，經宣宗指婚與皇四子奕詝為嫡福晉，但在丈夫咸豐帝即位前一個月去世，年十九歲，追謚為孝德溫惠誠順慈莊恪慎徽懿恭天贊聖顯皇后。

• 孝貞顯皇后（1837年8月12日—1881年4月8日），即慈安太后，鈕祜祿氏，滿洲鑲黃旗人，廣西右江道三等承恩公穆揚阿之女。生于道光十七年七月十二日，咸豐二年二月選秀入宮，四月二十七日進內，冊封為貞嬪，五月晉升為貞貴妃，十月即正式立為皇后。文宗崩後，尊為「母后皇太后」（慈安太后、東太后）與慈禧太后（西太后）共同垂簾聽政。光緒七年三月初十日崩，年四十四歲，謚為孝貞慈安裕慶和敬誠靖儀天祚聖顯皇后。

• 孝欽顯皇后（1835年11月29日—1908年11月15日），即慈禧太后，葉赫那拉氏，滿洲鑲藍旗人，安徽徽寧池太廣道道員惠徵之女。生于道光十五年十月初十日，咸豐二年二月選秀入宮，五月初九進內，冊封為蘭貴人，咸豐四年二月乙未晉封為懿嬪，咸豐六年三月庚辰，懿嬪生下皇長子載淳，當日就晉封懿妃。咸豐七年正月乙卯晉封貴妃。文宗崩後，尊為「聖母皇太后」（慈禧太后、西太后）與東太后共同垂簾聽政，光緒三十四年十月二十二日崩，年七十二歲，謚為孝欽慈禧端佑康頤昭豫莊誠壽恭欽獻崇熙配天興聖顯皇后。生一子載淳，即同治帝。

皇貴妃

• 莊靜皇貴妃，他他拉氏，主事慶海女，道光十七年生。咸豐元年入宮，二年五月初九日，封為麗貴人，四年十二月二十四日，封為麗嬪，五年五月初七日，晉為麗妃。穆宗登極後，尊封麗皇貴妃，同治十三年十一月十六日，光緒帝尊封為麗皇貴太妃，光緒十六年薨，年五十四歲。生一女：榮安固倫公主。

• 端恪皇貴妃，佟佳氏。她是咸豐帝所有后妃中最後去世者，亦是最後入葬定陵妃園寢者。

貴妃

• 玟貴妃，徐佳氏，皇次子憫郡王生母。

• 婉貴妃，索綽絡氏，咸豐帝時為婉嬪，同治帝晉尊為皇考婉妃，再詔晉尊為婉貴妃。

妃

• 璷妃，葉赫那拉氏。咸豐五年二月初十日，封璷貴人，二月二十四日，璷貴人如嬪位的內庭宮各退。同治帝尊其為皇考璷嬪。光緒帝再尊其為皇祖璷妃，所享的內庭宮分同貴妃之位。

• 禧妃，察哈拉氏。

• 吉妃，王氏。咸豐八年五月十五日，封為吉貴人。同治帝尊其為皇考吉嬪，後光緒帝再尊其為吉妃。

• 慶妃，張氏。

嬪

• 雲嬪，武佳氏，咸豐帝為皇子時，入侍為「格格」。

• 容嬪，伊爾根覺羅氏，咸豐三年十月二十日已為容常在，咸豐五年十月初一日已晉為容貴人，咸豐十一年尊封容嬪。尊封伊爾根覺羅氏為容嬪的尊封事宜，於同治八年仍未辦理，因伊爾根覺羅氏突然去世而停止。

• 璹嬪，葉赫那拉氏，正白旗滿洲員外郎桂祥之女，道光二十年。咸豐五年二月初十日，經外八旗選秀入宮，封為𤩈貴人，所享的內庭宮分同嬪位。咸豐七年十一月至咸豐八年二月，葉赫那拉氏的待遇因故如常在之位。咸豐九年十一月初十日，改號為璹貴人。咸豐十一年尊封璹嬪，與莊靜皇貴妃同居永和宮。尊封葉赫那拉氏為璹嬪的尊封事宜，於同治十三年仍未辦理，因葉赫那拉氏突然去世而停止，葬在清定陵妃園寢。

• 玉嬪，葉赫那拉氏，正白旗滿洲員外郎桂祥之女，有一姐璹嬪，同為咸豐帝妃嬪。咸豐八年三月二十五日，由本家送入圓明園，為玉貴人。咸豐十一年同治帝繼位，奉兩宮皇太后懿旨晉封為玉嬪。同治元年去世。同治四年奉安妃園寢。

常在

• 玶常在，伊爾根覺羅氏，初號英貴人，咸豐二年封英嬪，咸豐三年降為伊貴人，咸豐五年降為伊常在，再降為伊答應，咸豐六年封為玶常在。

• 瑃常在，明安氏（暝諳氏），滿洲旗人出身。

• 錱常在，《內務府譜牒》記載為戴氏，戴吉祿原配之女，包衣管領下辛者庫人。咸豐九年去世。

子女

皇子

咸豐共育有2子1女，是中國最後一位有生育子女的皇帝。

• 長子：載淳，即同治帝，母懿嬪葉赫那拉氏；

• 次子：憫郡王，出生後未及命名即逝世，母玟貴人徐佳氏；

• 嗣子：載湉，醇親王奕譞之次子。

皇女

• 長女：榮安固倫公主，母麗嬪他他拉氏；

• 養女：榮壽固倫公主，恭親王奕訢之女。

影視形象

軼事

雖然咸豐帝在位只有短短11年，但對內卻民不聊生，甚至出現太平天國起義。而西方國家由此時開始強行打開中國國門，資本主義思想及科技由這段時間開始得以傳播，由此中國開始從古代進入近代。亦因如此，後人即以「咸豐年前」來代表陳年往事。

注釋