Historical sources

The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) written by Chen Shou in the third century. During the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include: Shu Ji (Records of Shu), by Wang Yin; Wei Shu (Book of Wei), by Wang Chen, Xun Yi and Ruan Ji; Jiang Biao Zhuan, by Yu Pu; Fu Zi, by Fu Xuan; Dianlüe, by Yu Huan; Wu Li (History of Wu), by Hu Chong; and Chronicles of Huayang, by Chang Qu.

Physical appearance

No explicit descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records. However, the Sanguozhi recorded that Zhuge Liang once referred to Guan Yu as having a "peerless beard".

Traditionally, Guan Yu is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long, lush beard. The idea of his red face may have been derived from a description of him in Chapter 1 of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, where the following passage appears:

Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces represented loyalty and righteousness. In illustrations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu's weapon was a guandao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a glaive and was said to weigh 82 catties (about 49 kg or 108 lbs).

Early life and career

Guan Yu was from Xie County (解縣), Hedong Commandery, which is present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. His original courtesy name was Changsheng (長生). He was very studious, and was interested in the ancient history book Zuo zhuan and could fluently recite lines from it. He fled from his hometown for unknown reasons and went to Zhuo Commandery. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei joined a volunteer militia formed by Liu Bei, and they assisted a colonel Zou Jing in suppressing the revolt. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were known as stalwart and strong men, which made them talented fighters.

When Liu Bei was appointed as the Minister (相) of Pingyuan, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command (别部司马), each commanding detachments of soldiers under Liu Bei. Liu Bei cherished them as if they were his own brothers and the three of them were as close as brothers to the point of sharing the same room, sleeping on the same mat and eating from the same pot. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu protected Liu Bei whenever there were large crowds of people and also stood guard beside him when he sat down at meetings all day long. They followed him on his exploits and were always ready to face any danger and hardship. And for their military prowess were appraised as "enemy of ten-thousand". Guan Yu was noted for his kindness towards his soldiers and fealty to Liu Bei akin to family, but had no respect for the gentry and treated them without courtesy.

Short service under Cao Cao

Background

Liu Bei and his men followed Cao Cao back to the imperial capital Xu after their victory over Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi in 198. About a year later, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu under the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attack Yuan Shu. Liu Bei went to Xu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (車冑), and seized control of the province. He moved to Xiaopei and left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capital Xiapi.

In 200, Cao Cao led his forces to attack Liu Bei, defeated him and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao, while Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and asked Emperor Xian to appoint Guan Yu as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍).

Battle of Boma

Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his general Yan Liang to lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (白馬; near present-day Hua County, Henan), which was defended by Liu Yan (劉延). Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao and Guan Yu to lead the vanguard to engage the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards Yan Liang, decapitated him and returned with his head. Yan Liang's men could not stop him. With Yan Liang's death, the siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian awarded Guan Yu the peerage of "Marquis of Hanshou Village" (漢壽亭侯).

Leaving Cao Cao

Although Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, he also sensed that Guan Yu had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out what he wants?" When Zhang Liao asked him, Guan Yu replied, "I am aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I have also received many favours from General Liu and I have sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I will leave eventually, so maybe you can help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was even more impressed with Guan Yu. The Fu Zi gave a slightly different account of this incident. It recorded that Zhang Liao faced a dilemma of whether or not to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and he is like a father to me, while Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually decided to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves his lord but doesn't forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He will most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness."

After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Baima, Cao Cao knew that he would leave soon so he gave Guan Yu greater rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to find Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him."

Pei Songzhi commented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that Guan Yu would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when Guan Yu left, so as to allow Guan Yu to fulfil his allegiance (to Liu Bei). If he was not as magnanimous as a great warlord should be, how would he allow this to happen? This was an example of Cao Cao's goodness."

Returning to Liu Bei

When Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu in 200, Yuan sent Liu Bei to contact Liu Pi (劉辟), a Yellow Turban rebel chief in Runan (汝南), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren, after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan Shao to form an alliance with Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du (共都/龔都), in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge of Xinye at the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye.

Battle of Red Cliffs and aftermath

Liu Biao died in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao when the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China. Liu Bei evacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towards Xiakou, which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi and independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towards Jiangling; another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei's group and they caught up with them at Changban, where the Battle of Changban broke out. Liu Bei and his remaining followers managed to escape from Cao Cao's forces and reach Han Ford (漢津), where Guan Yu's group picked them up and they sailed to Xiakou together.

In 208, Liu Bei allied with Sun Quan and they defeated Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and left Cao Ren behind to defend Jing Province. During the Battle of Jiangling, Guan Yu was stationed at the northern routes to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. Li Tong engaged Guan Yu, attempting to support Cao Ren's forces, but died from illness during the campaign. Xu Huang and Man Chong also engaged with Guan Yu in Hanjin (漢津) in order to support Cao Ren against Zhou Yu. Finally, Yue Jin, stationed in Xiangyang, defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei (蘇非) and drove them away. After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator (太守) of Xiangyang and General Who Defeats Bandits (盪寇將軍), and ordered him to station at the north of the Yangtze River.

Guarding Jing Province

Between 212 and 214, Liu Bei started a campaign to seize control of Yi Province from the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu remained behind to guard and oversee Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province.

Sun-Liu territorial dispute

During the mid 210s, a territorial dispute broke out between Liu Bei and Sun Quan in southern Jing Province. According to an earlier arrangement, Liu Bei "borrowed" southern Jing Province from Sun Quan to serve as a temporary base; he would have to return the territories to Sun Quan once he found another base. After Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province, Sun Quan asked him to return three commanderies but Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan then sent his general Lü Meng to lead his forces to seize the three commanderies. In response, Liu Bei ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng. Gan Ning, one of Lü Meng's subordinates, managed to deter Guan Yu from crossing the shallows near Yiyang. The shallows were thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (關羽瀨). Lu Su (the overall commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing Province) later invited Guan Yu to attend a meeting to settle the territorial dispute. Around 215, after Cao Cao seized control of Hanzhong Commandery, Liu Bei saw that as a strategic threat to his position in Yi Province so he decided to make peace with Sun Quan and agreed to divide southern Jing Province between his and Sun Quan's domains along the Xiang River. Both sides then withdrew their forces.

Battle of Fancheng

In 219, Liu Bei emerged victorious in the Hanzhong Campaign against Cao Cao, after which he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王). He appointed Guan Yu as General of the Vanguard (前將軍) and bestowed upon him a ceremonial axe. In the same year, Guan Yu led his forces to attack Cao Ren at Fancheng and besiege the fortress. Cao Cao sent Yu Jin to lead reinforcements to help Cao Ren. It was in autumn and there were heavy showers so the Han River overflowed. The flood destroyed Yu Jin's seven armies. Guan Yu had prepared his navy to advance during the flood, and Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu while his subordinate Pang De refused and was executed by Guan Yu. Various local officials such as Administrator of Nanxiang Fu Fang and Inspector of Jing Province Hu Xiu defected to Guan Yu. Angered by Cao Cao's forced labor put upon them, rebel peasants and bandits in Liang (梁), Jia (郟) and Luhun (陸渾) also submitted to Guan Yu and received official seals to work as his raiders. Guan Yu's fame spread throughout China.

The Shu Ji recorded that before Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he dreamt about a boar biting his foot. He told his son Guan Ping, "I am growing weaker this year. I might not even return alive."

Belittling Sun Quan

With Liu Bei gaining Hanzhong as well as the northwest commanderies of Jing: Fangling, Shangyong and Xicheng; and now after Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xu further north into Hebei to avoid Guan Yu, but Sima Yi and Jiang Ji told him that Sun Quan would become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and get him to help them hinder Guan Yu's advances; in return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories in Jiangdong. In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion. Previously, Sun Quan had sent a messenger to meet Guan Yu and propose a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter. However, Guan Yu not only rejected the proposal, but also scolded and humiliated the messenger. Sun Quan was enraged.

Encounter with Xu Huang

Cao Cao later sent Xu Huang to lead another army to reinforce Cao Ren at Fancheng. Xu Huang broke through Guan Yu's encirclement and routed Guan Yu's forces on the battlefield, thus lifting the siege on Fancheng. Guan Yu withdrew his forces after seeing that he could not capture Fancheng. The Shu Ji recorded an incident about Xu Huang encountering Guan Yu on the battlefield. Xu Huang was previously a close friend of Guan Yu. They often chatted about other things apart from military affairs. When they met again at Fancheng, Xu Huang gave an order to his men: "Whoever takes Guan Yu's head will be rewarded with 1,000 jin of gold." A shocked Guan Yu asked Xu Huang, "Brother, what are you talking about?" Xu Huang replied, "This is an affair of the state."

Losing Jing Province

Although Guan Yu defeated and captured Yu Jin at Fancheng, his army found itself lacking food supplies, so he seized grain from one of Sun Quan's granaries at Xiang Pass (湘關). By then, Sun Quan had secretly agreed to an alliance with Cao Cao and sent Lü Meng and others to invade Jing Province while he followed behind with reinforcements. At Xunyang (尋陽), Lü Meng ordered his troops to hide in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships and sail towards Jing Province. Along the way, Lü Meng infiltrated and disabled the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the river, so Guan Yu was totally unaware of the invasion.

When Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he left Mi Fang and Shi Ren behind to defend his key bases in Jing Province – Nan Commandery and Gong'an. Guan Yu had constantly treated them with contempt. During the campaign, after Mi Fang and Shi Ren sent insufficient supplies to Guan Yu's army at the frontline, an annoyed Guan Yu said, "I will deal with them when I return." Mi Fang and Shi Ren felt uneasy about this. When Sun Quan invaded Jing Province, Lü Meng showed understanding towards Mi Fang and successfully induced him into surrendering while Yu Fan also persuaded Shi Ren to give up resistance. With the exceptions of the northwest, Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province fell under Sun Quan's control after the surrenders of Mi Fang and Shi Ren.

Dubious account from the Dianlue

The Dianlue recorded:

Pei Songzhi commented on the Dianlue account as follows:

Death

By the time Guan Yu retreated from Fancheng, Sun Quan's forces had occupied Jiangling and captured the families of Guan Yu's soldiers. Lü Meng ordered his troops to treat the civilians well and ensure that they were not harmed. Most of Guan Yu's soldiers lost their fighting spirit and deserted and went back to Jing Province to reunite with their families. Guan Yu knew that he had been isolated so he withdrew to Maicheng (麥城; in present-day Dangyang, Hubei) and headed west to Zhang District (漳鄉), where his remaining men deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. Sun Quan sent Zhu Ran and Pan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route. Guan Yu, along with his son Guan Ping and subordinate Zhao Lei (趙累), were captured alive by Pan Zhang's deputy Ma Zhong (馬忠) in an ambush. Guan Yu and Guan Ping were later executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (臨沮; in present-day Nanzhang County, Hubei).

Alternate account from the Shu Ji

The Shu Ji mentioned that Sun Quan initially wanted to keep Guan Yu alive in the hope of using Guan Yu to help him counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao. However, his followers advised him against doing so by saying, "A wolf shouldn't be kept as a pet as it'll bring harm to the keeper. Cao Cao made a mistake when he refused to kill Guan Yu and landed himself in deep trouble. He even had to consider relocating the imperial capital elsewhere. How can Guan Yu be allowed to live?" Sun Quan then ordered Guan Yu's execution.

Pei Songzhi disputed this account as follows:

Posthumous honours

Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan Yu and had his head properly buried with full honours. In October or November 260, Liu Shan granted Guan Yu the posthumous title "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯). According to posthumous naming rules in the Yi Zhou Shu, "mou" was meant for a person who failed to live up to his reputation.

Anecdotes

Request to take Qin Yilus wife

During the Battle of Xiapi in late 198, when the allied forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei fought against Lü Bu, Guan Yu sought permission from Cao Cao to marry Qin Yilu's wife Lady Du (杜氏) after they won the battle. After Cao Cao agreed, Guan Yu still repeatedly reminded Cao Cao about his promise before the battle ended. After Lü Bu's defeat and death, Cao Cao was so curious about why Guan Yu wanted Lady Du so badly and he guessed that she must be very beautiful, so he had her brought to him. Cao Cao ultimately broke his promise as he took Lady Du as his concubine and adopted her son Qin Lang (whom she had with Qin Yilu).

Advice to Liu Bei

The Shu Ji recorded an incident as follows:

Pei Songzhi commented on the Shu Ji account as follows:

Asking Zhuge Liang about Ma Chao

In 214, Ma Chao defected from Zhang Lu's side to Liu Bei's forces, and he assisted Liu Bei in pressuring Liu Zhang to surrender and yield Yi Province to Liu Bei. When Guan Yu received news that Ma Chao (whom he was unfamiliar with) had recently joined them, he wrote to Zhuge Liang in Yi Province and asked him who was comparable to Ma Chao. Zhuge Liang knew that Guan Yu was defending the border (so he should not displease Guan Yu). He replied: "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue. He can compete with Yide, but he is not as good as the peerless beard."

Guan Yu was very pleased when he received Zhuge Liang's reply and he welcomed Ma Chao.

Arm injury

Guan Yu was once injured in the left arm by a stray arrow which pierced through his arm. Although the wound healed, he still experienced pain in the bone whenever there was a heavy downpour. A physician told him, "The arrowhead had poison on it and the poison had seeped into the bone. The way to get rid of this problem is to cut open your arm and scrape away the poison in your bone." Guan Yu then stretched out his arm and asked the physician to heal him. He then invited his subordinates to dine with him while the surgery was being performed. Blood flowed from his arm into a container below. Throughout the operation, Guan Yu feasted, consumed alcohol and chatted with his men as though nothing had happened.

Family

Guan Yu had two known sons – Guan Ping and Guan Xing. Guan Xing inherited his father's title "Marquis of Hanshou Village" (漢壽亭侯) and served in the state of Shu during the Three Kingdoms period. Guan Yu also had a daughter. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter, but Guan Yu rejected the proposal. Her name was not recorded in history, but she was known as "Guan Yinping" (關銀屏) or "Guan Feng" (關鳳) in folktales and Chinese opera, as well as in the Dynasty Warriors video game series (as Guan Yinping). Guan Yu allegedly had a third son, Guan Suo, who is not mentioned in historical texts and appears only in folklore, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms novel, and in Dynasty Warriors.

Guan Xing's son, Guan Tong (關統), married a princess (one of Liu Shan's daughters) and served as a General of the Household (中郎將) among the imperial guards. Guan Tong had no son when he died, so he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Guan Yi (關彝).

According to the Shu Ji, after the fall of Shu in 263, Pang Hui (Pang De's son) massacred Guan Yu's family and descendants to avenge his father, who was executed by Guan Yu after the Battle of Fancheng in 219.

In 1719, the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty awarded the hereditary title "Wujing Boshi" (五經博士; "Professor of the Five Classics") to Guan Yu's descendants living in Luoyang. The bearer of the title is entitled to an honorary position in the Hanlin Academy.

Appraisal

Chen Shou, who wrote Guan Yu's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on the latter as such: "Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were praised as mighty warriors capable of fighting ten thousand of enemies (萬人敵). They were like tigers among (Liu Bei's) subjects. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei both had the style of a guoshi. Guan Yu repaid Cao Cao's kindness while Zhang Fei released Yan Yan out of righteousness. However, Guan Yu was unrelenting and conceited while Zhang Fei was brutal and heartless. These shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon."

Worship

Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty (581–618), and is still worshipped today as a bodhisattva in Buddhist tradition and as a guardian deity in Chinese folk religion and Taoism. He is also held in high esteem in Confucianism and in new religious movements such as Yiguandao.

In Chinese religion

In Chinese folk religion, Guan Yu is widely referred to as "Emperor Guan" (關帝 Guāndì; dì implies deified status) and "Lord Guan" (關公 Guān Gōng), while his Taoist title is "Holy Emperor Lord Guan" (關聖帝君 Guān Shèng Dì Jūn). Martial temples and shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan Yu can be found across mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea and Japan. Some of these temples, such as the Haizhou Guandi Temple in Shanxi, were built exactly in the layout of an imperial residence, befitting his status as a "ruler". Other examples of Guan Yu temples in China include the Guandi Temple of Jinan and the Guanlin Temple of Luoyang.

Historical veneration

The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higher posthumous titles. Liu Shan, the second emperor of Shu, gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯) four decades after his death. During the Song dynasty, Emperor Huizong bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Duke Zhonghui" (忠惠公), and later the title of a prince. In 1187, Emperor Xiaozong honoured Guan Yu as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (壯繆義勇武安英濟王). During the Yuan dynasty, Emperor Wenzong changed Guan Yu's title to "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (顯靈義勇武安英濟王).

In 1614, the Wanli Emperor bestowed on Guan Yu the title "Holy Emperor Guan, the Great God Who Subdues Demons in the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (三界伏魔大神威遠震天尊關聖帝君). During the Qing dynasty, the Shunzhi Emperor gave Guan Yu the title of "Guan, the Loyal and Righteous God of War, the Holy Great Emperor" (忠義神武關聖大帝) in 1644. This title was expanded to "Guan the Holy Great Emperor; God of War Manifesting Benevolence, Bravery and Prestige; Protector of the Country and Defender of the People; Proud and Honest Supporter of Peace and Reconciliation; Promoter of Morality, Loyalty and Righteousness" (仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德忠義神武關聖大帝), a total of 24 Chinese characters, by the mid-19th century. It is often shortened to "Saint of War" (武聖 Wǔ Shèng), which is of the same rank as Confucius, who is honoured the "Saint of Culture" (文聖 Wén Shèng). The Qing dynasty promoted the worship of Guan Yu among the Mongol tribes, making him one of their most revered religious figures, second only to their lamas.

Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. In the 14th century, his spirit was said to have aided Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, at the Battle of Lake Poyang. In 1402, when Zhu Di launched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse of Japanese invasion of Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Manchu imperial clan of the Qing dynasty was also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlord Yuan Shikai, president and later a short-lived emperor of China.

Guan Yu's messages were received by mediums through spirit writing, later called Fuji (planchette writing) (扶乩/扶箕), since the late 17th century. "By the mid-Qianlong period (1736–96) the number of 'sacred edicts' issued by Guandi ordering people to do good and help those in need became increasingly frequent." In the 19th century, Guandi's messages received through spirit writing assumed a millennialist character. Dates were announced for the end of the world, followed by messages indicating that Guandi had "prevented the apocalypse" and was indeed "the savior of endtimes." In 1866, the Ten Completions Society (Shiquanhui 十全會) was established to propagate the messages of Guandi and promote the charitable work his spirit had ordered to perform. The tradition of Guandi spirit writing continued in Chinese folk Religion well into the 20th century.

Contemporary veneration

Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshipped by the Chinese; he may be worshipped in Martial temples and Wen Wu temples, and small shrines devoted to him are also found in homes, businesses and fraternal organisations. In Hong Kong, a shrine to Guan Yu can be found in every police station. Though by no means mandatory, Chinese police officers worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of the triads and Heaven and Earth Society worship Guan Yu as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshipped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (二哥; Cantonese for "second elder brother") for he was second to Liu Bei in their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason is related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need. Among Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines, Guan Yu is also sometimes known as "Santo Santiago" (St. James) or in Hokkien as "Te Ya Kong" (Hokkien , literally ) or "Kuan Kong" (Hokkien , literally ).

Among the Cantonese people who emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term for Chinese folk religion temples), where his name may be given with various Anglicised spellings, including: Kwan Dai, Kwan Tai or Kuan Ti for Guandi (Emperor Guan); Kuan Kung for Guan Gong (Lord Guan), Wu Ti or Mo Dai for Wu Di (War Deity), Kuan Yu, Kwan Yu, or Quan Yu for Guan Yu. The Mendocino Joss House, a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu (Wudimiao, i.e. the Temple of the Deity of War), or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in the United States.

Guan Yu is also worshipped as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples, with portraits of him being pasted on doors to ward off evil spirits, usually in pairings with Zhang Fei, Guan Ping, Guan Sheng or Zhou Cang.

Apart from general worship, Guan Yu is also commemorated in China with colossal statues such as the 1,320-tonne sculpture in Jingzhou City, Hubei Province, standing at 58 metres.

In Taoism

Guan Yu is revered as "Holy Ruler Deity Guan" (關聖帝君 Guān Shèng Dì Jūn) and a leading subduer of demons in Taoism. Taoist worship of Guan Yu began during the Song dynasty. Legend has it that during the second decade of the 12th century, the saltwater lake in Xiezhou gradually ceased to yield salt. Emperor Huizong then summoned Zhang Jixian (張繼先), a 30th-generation descendant of Zhang Daoling, to investigate the cause. The emperor was told that the disruption was the work of Chi You, a deity of war. Zhang Jixian then recruited the help of Guan Yu, who battled Chi You over the lake and triumphed, whereupon the lake resumed salt production. Emperor Huizong then bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Immortal of Chongning" (崇寧真君 Chóngníng Zhēnjūn), formally introducing the latter as a deity into Taoism.

In the early Ming dynasty, the 42nd Celestial Master, Zhang Zhengchang (張正常), recorded the incident in his book Lineage of the Han Celestial Masters (漢天師世家), the first Taoist classic to affirm the legend. Today, Taoist practices are predominant in Guan Yu worship. Many temples dedicated to Guan Yu, including the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, show heavy Taoist influence. Every year, on the 24th day of the sixth month on the lunar calendar (Guan Yu's birthday in legend), a street parade in Guan Yu's honour would also be held.

In Buddhism

In Chinese Buddhism, Guan Yu is revered by most Chinese Mahayana Buddhists as Sangharama Bodhisattva (伽藍菩薩 Qiélán Púsà) a heavenly protector of the Buddhist dharma. Sangharama in Sanskrit means 'community garden' (sangha, community + arama, garden) and thus 'monastery'. The term Sangharama also refer to the dharmapala class of devas and spirits assigned to guard the Buddhist monastery, the dharma, and the faith itself. Over time and as an act of syncreticism, Guan Yu was seen as the representative guardian of the temple and the garden in which it stands. His statue traditionally is situated in the far left of the main altar, opposite his counterpart Skanda.

According to Buddhist legends, in 592, Guan Yu manifested himself one night before the Chan master Zhiyi, the founder of the Tiantai school of Buddhism, along with a retinue of spiritual beings. Zhiyi was then in deep meditation on Jade Spring Hill (玉泉山) when he was distracted by Guan Yu's presence. Guan Yu then requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple gems and also requested the Five Precepts. Henceforth, it is said that Guan Yu made a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. Legends also claim that Guan Yu assisted Zhiyi in the construction of the Yuquan Temple, which still stands today.

Notable Guandi temples worldwide (outside mainland China)

• Dongmyo (東關王廟) in Seoul, South Korea (built in 1601)

• Miếu Quan Công in Hoi An, Quang Nam, Vietnam (built in 1653)

• State Temple of the Martial God (祀典武廟) in Tainan, Taiwan (built in 1663)

• Old Chinese Temple of Seven Prefectures (七府古廟) in Bien Hoa, Vietnam (built in 1684)

• Kuan Tai Temple (Sam Kai Vui Kun) in Macau (built in 1750)

• Gong Wu Shrine, in Bangkok, Thailand

• Kwan Sing Bio Temple (Klenteng Kwan Sing Bio) in Tuban, Indonesia (built in 1773)

• Hội quán Nghĩa An in District 5, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (built in 1819)

• Chùa Ông Quan Đế Miếu in Bac Lieu, Vietnam (built in 1835)

• Temple of Kwan Tai in California, United States (built in 1854)

• See Yup temple in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (built in 1866 on site of earlier 1856 temple)

• Guandi Temple in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (built in 1887)

• Sam Sing Kung Temple in Sabah, Malaysia (built in 1887)

• Sze Yup Kwan Ti Temple in Glebe, New South Wales, Australia (built in 1898)

• Yiu Ming Temple in Alexandria, New South Wales, Australia (built in 1907)

• Yuqing Temple in Miaoli, Taiwan (built in 1906)

• Chinese Temple of Dili in East Timor (built in 1928)

• Xingtian Temple in Taipei, Taiwan (built in 1967)

• Kwan Kung Pavilion in Cheung Chau Island, Hong Kong (built in 1973)

• Setia Budi Temple at Jalan Irian Barat Medan, Indonesia (built in 1908)

• Santiago Chinese Temple in Santiago, Isabela, Philippines

• Kwan Ti Temple in Serian Sarawak Borneo (direct lineage from China)

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms glorifies Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu is one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel, which accounts for his popular image in Chinese society.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Guan Yu:

• Oath of the Peach Garden

• Battle of Hulao Pass

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu's three conditions

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Yan Liang and Wen Chou

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu crosses five passes and slays six generals

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Cai Yang at Gucheng

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu releases Cao Cao at Huarong Trail

• Sun–Liu territorial dispute#In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Hua Tuo heals Guan Yu's arm

• Lü Meng#In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

• List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Events after Guan Yu's death

In popular culture

Chinese opera

Guan Yu appears in Chinese operas such as Huarong Trail, Red Cliffs, and other excerpts from Romance of the Three Kingdoms. His costume is a green military opera uniform with armour covering his right arm and the knees of his pants. The actor's face is painted red with a few black lines, to represent honour and courage. He also wears a long three-section black beard made of yak hair and carries the Green Dragon Crescent Blade. Traditionally, after the show ends, the actor has to wash his face, burn joss paper, light incense, and pray to Chinese deities.

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Guan Yu in film and television include: Lu Shuming in Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1994); Wang Yingquan in The Legend of Guan Gong (2004); Ti Lung in Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (2008); Ba Sen in Red Cliff (2008–2009); Yu Rongguang in Three Kingdoms (2010); Donnie Yen in The Lost Bladesman (2011); Au Sui-Wai in Three Kingdoms RPG (2012); Han Geng in Dynasty Warriors (2019).

Films which make references to Guan Yu include: Stephen Chow's comedy film From Beijing with Love (1994), which, in one scene, refers to the story of Hua Tuo performing surgery on Guan Yu's arm; Zhang Yimou's Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles (2005), in which the fictional story of Guan Yu slaying six generals and crossing five passes forms a major part of the narrative; the horror comedy film My Name Is Bruce (2007), where Guan Yu's vengeful spirit is accidentally set free by a group of teenagers and he begins to terrorise their town.

Games

Guan Yu appears as a playable character in many video games based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms which are produced by Koei, including: the strategy game series of the same title as the novel; the action game series Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi. Other non-Koei titles in which he also appears include: Total War: Three Kingdoms; Puzzle & Dragons; Sango Fighter; Destiny of an Emperor; and Atlantica Online. He is also referenced in Emperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom, Titan Quest, and Koihime Musō''.

Guan Yu is referenced in the Portal Three Kingdoms of the card game Magic: The Gathering on a playable card.

The hero Jiang Jun that appears in an add-on for the game For Honor, developed by Ubisoft Montreal, is heavily based on Guan Yu. He is introduced in the 2018 DLC Marching Fire Expansion, along with the other characters from the Chinese Wulin faction. The Jiang Jun wields Guan Yu's signature Guandao weapon and is portrayed as a wise older general.

Guan Yu is referenced in the 2020 game Hades by Supergiant Games. The final "aspect", or form, unlocked for the Eternal Spear weapon is the Aspect of Guan Yu, the Frost Fair Blade, which resembles an ornamented Guandao. The Eternal Spear is said to be the same spear wielded by Guan Yu in the future, taking this form.

Coinage

Guan Yu is a popular motif in collector coins series featuring Ancient warriors. The Polish Mint issued a 2oz silver coin featuring him in 2019, and another one in 2021.

In modern politics

During the course of price liberalization debates as part of China's reform and opening up, Deng Xiaoping invoked the fictitious story of Guan Yu crossing five passes and slaying six generals (as described in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms) as part of his rhetoric. "To the Chinese audience familiar with the famous tale of Lord Guan, there could have been no doubt of Deng's determination to push ahead with radical price reforms." As Deng explained in 1986 to a North Korean delegation:

生平

早年生平

關羽約生於東漢桓帝延熹年間。早年逃亡，避難於涿郡。184年（中平元年），劉備（涿郡人）在大商人張世平和蘇雙的資助下，招募民眾，組建軍隊抵禦黃巾軍的掠奪，關羽和張飛加入了這支隊伍。190年，關東各州郡起兵討伐董卓時，劉備投靠公孫瓚。公孫瓚派劉備與田楷前往青州，任命劉備為別部司馬。191年，劉備因功被任為平原相（屬于青州），關羽和張飛任別部司馬，協助指揮部隊。劉、關、張三人情同手足。

194年，曹操攻打徐州陶謙，陶謙向青州刺史田楷求援，劉備與田楷率軍前去救援。陶謙給劉備4千丹陽兵，並推舉他為豫州刺史。劉備就離開田楷，投靠陶謙。陶謙去世後，劉備繼任徐州牧。不久，袁術進攻劉備，劉備被呂布趁機擊敗。劉備向呂布求和，呂布接受了這一請求，以劉備為豫州刺史屯駐小沛。劉備派關羽駐守下邳。曹操上表朝廷，任命劉備為鎮東將軍，封為宜城亭侯。

196年（建安元年），劉備在呂布再次進攻中失敗，關羽隨劉備投奔曹操，曹操推舉劉備為豫州牧。197年，袁術在壽春僭號稱帝。198年，劉備隨曹操在下邳擒殺呂布。曹操任命車冑為徐州刺史。劉備和關羽隨曹操返回許都。劉備被任為左將軍。199年，袁術兵勢日蹙，準備從徐州向北投靠袁紹，曹操派劉備等率軍前往徐州攔截。劉備到下邳後，襲殺車胄，占領徐州，舉兵反曹，命關羽守下邳，自己守小沛。

降曹歸劉

200年（建安五年）正月，曹操擊敗劉備，劉備經青州投奔袁紹，關羽被擒（或投降）。曹操任命關羽為偏將軍，對他禮遇有加。關羽「身在曹營心在漢」，曹操察覺他無意久留，讓張遼試探其心意。關羽坦言：「我深知曹公厚待，但我受劉備大恩，誓與共死，絕不背棄。我會立功報答曹公後再離開。」張遼如實稟告，曹操感嘆：「事君不忘本，乃天下義士。」

二月，袁紹進軍黎陽，準備渡河，同時派顏良等進攻白馬。四月，曹操採用荀攸之計，佯裝欲于延津渡河，誘使袁紹分兵。隨後，曹操親自率軍突襲白馬，命張遼與關羽為先鋒。關羽看到顏良旗幟後，單騎衝入敵陣斬殺顏良後順利返回，袁軍無人能擋，白馬之圍被解。關羽因此功被封為漢壽亭侯。立功後，曹操加倍賞賜試圖挽留，但關羽謝絕所有賞賜，留書告辭，準備回到劉備身邊。此時，劉備藉口南聯劉表離開袁紹集團，率領部隊與劉闢等在汝南騷擾曹操後方，關羽趕去會合。曹操部下建議追擊，曹操制止道：「他各為其主，勿追。」

200年底，曹操在官渡之戰中擊敗袁紹。同年，孫策遇刺，孫權繼掌江東。

鎮守荊州

201年，關羽隨劉備投靠荊州牧劉表，駐軍新野，負責守護荊州北部邊境。

207年，曹操統一北方。

208年（建安十三年），諸葛亮加入劉備陣營，雖然年少，卻深受劉備重視，這引發了關羽和張飛的不滿。直到劉備重申諸葛亮的重要性後，二人才停止抱怨。

208年七月，曹操南征劉表。八月，劉表去世，其子劉琮繼位。得知曹操南下後，劉琮決定投降。九月，曹操收到劉琮的降書後進軍襄陽。劉備準備南逃江陵，派關羽率領部分軍隊先從水路南行，計劃在江陵會合。曹操考慮到江陵儲有軍資，遂率五千精騎追擊。與此同時，江東使者魯肅從江陵北上迎接劉備。三方在當陽長阪相遇，劉備被曹軍擊潰。幸好關羽船隊及時抵達漢津，劉備軍得以乘船撤往夏口。

劉備抵達夏口後，接受魯肅的建議，駐紮樊口（今湖北鄂州），並派諸葛亮隨魯肅去柴桑見孫權。冬天，孫劉聯軍在烏林擊敗曹操，迫使曹操撤軍北返，留曹仁等守江陵。劉備派關羽參與圍攻江陵，試圖從漢水出擊截斷曹仁的退路。至209年底，曹仁撤退。劉備成功占領荊州江南四郡，並被推舉為荊州牧。210年，周瑜去世後，劉備與孫權協商調整荊州勢力範圍，借得南郡，任命關羽為襄陽太守、蕩寇將軍，駐守江北。

211年，劉備應劉璋邀請入蜀，命關羽等留守荊州。期間，關羽曾與曹軍將領樂進和文聘交戰。後來，劉備與劉璋反目，開始攻略益州，調諸葛亮、張飛、趙雲和劉封等從荊州入蜀增援，留下關羽鎮守荊州。得知馬超歸降劉備後，關羽寫信詢問馬超才能。諸葛亮稱讚馬超文武兼備，但不及關羽，令關羽非常滿意。214年，劉備占領益州後，任命關羽督荊州事。

215年，孫權派諸葛瑾前往索取荊州三郡（長沙、桂陽和零陵），遭劉備拒絕。孫權不滿，試圖接管三郡，但關羽迅速驅逐孫權派出的官員。

孫權大怒，決定採取軍事行動，派廬江太守呂蒙率軍占領三郡，同時命令魯肅駐益陽，自己則進駐陸口指揮。劉備得知孫權動向後，親率五萬軍隊從益州趕回公安，並派關羽領兵爭奪三郡。關羽精選五千士兵計劃從上游渡河。吳將甘寧率領一千多士兵前往駐守。關羽遂放棄渡河，選擇在對岸扎營，這個地方後來稱為「關羽瀨」。對峙期間，呂蒙迅速占領三郡並北上與魯肅會合。關羽和魯肅在益陽進行了談判，但沒有達成共識。

同年，曹操進攻漢中，為盡快解決荊州問題並騰出兵力保衛益州，劉備同意與孫權重劃勢力範圍，以湘水為界，將江夏、長沙、桂陽三郡讓給東吳，孫權則退出零陵，並承認劉備對江陵、武陵及零陵的控制。

217年春，孫權為緩和與曹操的關係，派徐詳出使請降。自赤壁之戰後，曹操四次進攻孫權（分別在209年、212年底至213年初、214年、216年底至217年初），而劉備在未與曹操大規模衝突的情況下，獲得了益州和荊州的大部分利益，令孫權心生不滿。同年，魯肅去世，失去這一關鍵紐帶後，孫劉聯盟變得更加脆弱。

魯肅去世後，孫權暫時任命嚴畯管理荊州事務，不久改派呂蒙為荊州上游軍事統帥，鎮守陸口。與魯肅主張維持孫劉聯盟不同，呂蒙認為關羽野心勃勃，憑藉長江上游的戰略地位，擔憂關羽會趁機東進，攻取江東，威脅甚至大于曹操。為此，呂蒙擬定計劃：東吳占領荊州後，由孫皎鎮守南郡，潘璋扼守白帝城防備劉備，自己駐守襄陽防備曹操，蔣欽率軍巡江作為機動部隊，以確保江東上游安全。呂蒙到任後，表面上與關羽保持友好，暗中則籌划進攻和等待時機。

威震華夏

218年（建安二十三年）春，劉備率軍攻打漢中，攻下馬鳴閣後進逼陽平關與夏侯淵對峙。曹操七月西征，九月駐長安。219年（建安二十四年）正月，黃忠在定軍山之戰中斬殺夏侯淵。五月，曹操最終撤軍回長安，劉備得以占領漢中。占領漢中後，劉備派劉封從南鄭（漢中）東下，孟達從秭歸（荊州）北上，共同攻略東三郡（房陵、上庸、西城）。

七月，劉備稱漢中王。關羽列名于漢獻帝上表，仿效東漢初河西五郡推竇融為元帥故事，推劉備為漢中王，拜大司馬。劉備派費詩去荊州，拜關羽為前將軍、假節鉞。

同月，關羽率軍自江陵北上，發起襄樊戰役，攻擊曹仁駐守的樊城，讓糜芳負責守江陵，士仁守公安。曹操派于禁前來增援，于禁統率七軍迅速趕往樊城，曹仁則讓于禁、龐德等屯駐樊北。

八月，連綿大雨導致山洪暴發，漢水驟漲，七軍被淹，于禁無奈投降，其部下幾乎全部投降，副將龐德拒絕投降，活捉後被關羽殺死。關羽隨即加緊進攻樊城，曹仁則固守待援。同時，關羽派遣軍隊包圍襄陽。饒勝文認為，關羽北攻襄陽並非自作主張，而是劉備階段性布局的一部分。劉備在占據漢中後，主要軍事策略即是攻取東三郡，以通過沔水聯通漢中與荊州。沔水作為兩地的關鍵紐帶，在流出秦巴山地後流經荊州重鎮襄陽。劉備意圖打通這條水路通道，以加強漢中與荊州的聯繫，鞏固荊、益二州的戰略連接。因此，關羽在劉封和孟達攻下東三郡後不久便發起了對襄樊的進攻。曹操派任的荊州刺史胡修、南鄉太守傅方等相繼投降關羽。同時，許都以南，梁、郟、陸渾等地盜賊紛紛響應關羽號召，願為其效力。關羽一時之間威震華夏。這一局勢促使曹操與群臣商議遷都，以避關羽鋒芒。司馬懿、蔣濟等人對此表示勸阻，認為關羽得勢後，孫權必然不滿意，可以派人勸說孫權從後方幹擾，並承諾將江南之地封給孫權，從而解決樊城的困境，曹操對此表示同意。

關羽曾請求上庸的劉封和孟達出兵支援，但二人以「人心未附」為由未予響應。關羽北攻襄陽時，呂蒙認為時機成熟。然而，關羽在江陵、公安仍留有重兵，並沿江設防，對江東保持戒備。呂蒙于是假借治病之名，讓孫權公開召他回建業，任命當時不知名的陸遜接替上游防務，暗中繼續籌備進攻。陸遜到任陸口後，多次以謙遜口吻致信關羽，稱讚其重創曹軍的戰功。關羽遂放鬆戒備，將部分守軍調往樊城。于禁七軍覆沒後，沔水圍城，曹仁等人被困固守。受東吳麻痺策略與急于求勝心態的影響，關羽將荊州守軍調至樊城，篤信樊城指日可破。

建安二十四年初秋，沒有人懷疑關羽將攻占樊城、襄陽。

英雄末路

關羽俘獲于禁七軍後，面臨糧草不足的問題，便開始私自奪取湘關的糧食。孫權指使呂蒙展開行動。呂蒙前往尋陽，派士兵假裝成商人，悄悄抓獲關羽設置在江邊的所有哨兵，關羽對此毫不知情。

十月，孫權派使者給曹操上書，表示願意討伐關羽來貢獻自己的力量。孫權希望曹操為其偷襲江陵的行動保密，但董昭認為不應讓孫權輕易得到荊州，建議曹操表面上答應孫權，暗中將消息傳遞給襄樊守軍，預料關羽仗著後方城池堅固不會撤軍，即使撤軍也將和吳軍交戰，同樣能解襄樊之圍。曹操同意。襄樊守軍得到消息後果然士氣振奮，關羽果未撤軍。

十月，曹操調集徐晃、張遼等將領及兗州刺史裴潛、豫州刺史呂貢等前往救援樊城，準備親自征討關羽。屯兵居巢防禦東吳的夏侯惇也到摩陂與曹操會合。

十月，呂蒙任征荊州大督，率兵西進南郡，迅速襲取公安和江陵，守將士仁和麋芳因與關羽有嫌隙而不戰而降。孫權親自率軍前來支援。呂蒙、陸遜逐步控制荊州。

救援樊城的徐晃起初因為部隊多為新兵，認為很難與關羽抗衡，不過，曹操隨後派徐商、呂建等將領及殷署、朱蓋等12營兵馬增援徐晃，最終徐晃出戰擊敗圍困樊城的關羽軍隊。

此時，關羽水軍仍然控制漢水，隔絕襄陽，但孫權襲擊關羽輜重。關羽知悉後方生變，于是南撤，襄陽因此解圍。曹操下令不要追殺關羽，以免孫權改變主意對抗曹軍，也希望坐看關羽與孫權互相交戰。

關羽回軍江陵途中，陸遜任右護軍、鎮西將軍屯駐夷陵，呂蒙任南郡太守駐江陵。期間，關羽不斷派遣使者前往呂蒙處，關羽軍隊家屬多在江陵，呂蒙讓使者到城中傳遞家書，關羽軍因此漸漸潰散。

關羽至當陽，西保麥城。敗走麥城後，士兵繼續逃散，關羽身邊只剩十餘騎。

十二月，關羽偽降，在城牆上立幡旗模仿人樣，藉機率數十騎出逃，一路突圍至臨沮縣章鄉南（今湖北省襄陽市南漳縣）。同月，關羽被馬忠捕殺，孫權將其首級送至洛陽曹操處。《蜀記》記載，孫權一度有意不處決關羽，將他留下做為應對劉備和曹操的戰力；孫權近臣建言：「野狼絕不可豢養，否則一定會帶來禍害。曹操於活捉關羽後沒有立即將他處斬，自取大患，後來受他反攻而甚至一度考慮遷都，主公難道忘記了嗎？關羽萬萬不可活命。」裴松之注則認為，按吳書孫權遣將潘璋逆斷羽退路，羽至即斬，而且臨沮去江陵二三百里，不可能不即時殺關羽，焉有時間議其生死。南北朝時世人普遍認為關羽不願投降而殉節。

身後影響

孫權將關羽首級送給曹操，曹操以諸侯之禮將其安葬于洛陽，通常認為埋葬地點為關林，但現代有觀點認為關莊村關羽墓才是其頭顱埋葬處，而關林只是萬曆年間建造的祀祠場所。孫權以諸侯禮安葬關羽的身軀于當陽，即關陵，也稱當陽大王塚。蜀漢政權在成都為關羽建衣冠塚，即成都關羽墓，以招魂祭祀。後來，關羽故鄉山西運城的解州建立了關帝廟，即解州關帝廟，被認為是關羽魂魄歸返之處。因此民間稱關羽「頭枕洛陽，身臥當陽，魂歸故鄉（或故里/山西）」。

220年正月，曹操逝世。同年，夏侯惇、程昱、劉璋、呂蒙、法正、黃忠相繼去世。

221年四月，劉備登基稱帝。七月，劉備率軍以為關羽報仇之名東征東吳，專程到大王塚祭拜關羽，在玉泉山建關羽祠。同月，張飛被部下暗殺。

222年，蜀漢軍隊在夷陵之戰中被陸遜擊敗，沒能奪回荊州。

223年，劉備逝世。

260年，蜀漢後主劉禪追謚關羽為「壯繆侯」。

263年，蜀漢滅亡。龐會參與魏滅蜀之戰，戰後盡滅關氏家以為父龐德報仇。

人物

關羽個性堅毅忠直但是剛愎驕矜，不甘屈居人下。關羽聽說馬超歸降劉備，便寫信給諸葛亮，問馬超才能可與誰相比，諸葛亮回信說：「馬超文武兼備，氣概雄烈，過於常人，可稱得上一世之豪傑，是黥布、彭越一流之人物，可以與張飛相提並論，但是趕不上美髯公你超逸絕群。」及黃忠官拜後將軍，關羽憤怒地說：「大丈夫終不與老兵同列！」幸得諸葛亮和費詩勸解，關羽才接受。他看不起才能平庸的人，對這些人都會毫無掩飾的鄙視厭惡，其中麋芳、士仁十分怨恨關羽輕視自己，樊城一戰失利與他們見死不救投奔東吳有莫大關連，只有才能或品德受關羽認可的人，關羽才願意友善來往，諸葛亮、張飛、廖化和忠節著名的趙累都與他交好，當年身處魏營時徐晃、張遼也與之友好。

關羽交友喜好與張飛相反，關羽愛護武士、輕視儒生；張飛則喜親近文人、待士兵嚴苛。

諡號見解

關羽身故後，蜀漢後主為其立諡號「壯繆侯」，然繆字語意有負面含意，被認為罪咎未守住荊州兵敗身死之意，然與繆與謬二字讀音相通及通用字有關，繆字用在宗廟追諡時讀音與涵義通穆字，與綢繆相搭時讀音作謀。盧弼綜合了各種意見，如程敏政認為「按繆、穆古通用，若秦穆、魯穆在《孟子》，漢穆生、晉穆彤在史，皆為『繆』」，梁章矩則認為「壯繆並非美謚，不知當時何以取此」，盧弼自己則傾向于程敏政二字互通的見解，「程說極允，梁說非是」。

因而關羽的諡號「壯繆侯」中的「繆」字是善諡或惡諡，端看繆字的讀音應用場合（漢字字意普遍有一字多種涵義情況）。

軼事

• 一次，曹操和劉備一起打獵時，關羽勸劉備趁機殺死曹操，但劉備沒有聽從。

• 據《三國志》裴注及《蜀記》和《華陽國志》記載，關羽在曹操圍困呂布于下邳時，多次請求曹操娶呂布部將秦宜祿的前妻杜氏為妻。曹操懷疑杜氏的美貌，城破後親自見了她，果然被吸引，便將她占為己有。關羽因此感到不安。

• 《江表傳》提及關羽喜歡閱讀《春秋左氏傳》，甚至還背得琅琅上口。呂蒙向魯肅獻策時也有提及。

• 關羽北伐後期聽到呂蒙襲取江陵縣城後引軍還荊州回防，他看到江陵縣城時說：「這城當初是我建造的，攻是攻不下的。」於是放棄進攻江陵。

家庭

先祖

• 清文宗咸豐五年（1855年）追封關羽的曾祖關氏為「光昭王」，祖父關審為「裕昌王」，父親關毅為「成忠王」。

妻

• 不詳，《華陽國志》記載關羽因妻無子，故向曹操請求納秦宜祿妻（即杜氏）。清代馮景撰《關侯祖墓碑記》稱關羽妻胡氏，名玥，即關平之母。

妾

• 正史並未記載關羽妾為何人，但民間的戲劇對於中國古代四大美女之一貂蟬的故事作一點延伸，並常常提到關羽，在《關公月下釋貂蟬》中，貂蟬就被關羽釋放，最後不知所終。而《關公蒙面斬貂蟬》就借姜太公蒙面斬妲己為藍本並道出紅顏禍水，關羽害怕其傾國傾城之貌會為天下帶來大亂，所以有些稗官野史中稱貂蟬與呂布分開以後，成為關羽之妾。

子女

• 關平，關羽長子，跟隨關羽征戰，與關羽一同被斬於臨沮。《三國演義》寫作義子。

• 關興，關羽次子，少已有名聲，深得諸葛亮器重，弱冠後擔任侍中、中監軍，數年後死去。

• 關氏，關羽之女，民間稱為關銀屏，孫權曾為子求婚，遭關羽所拒，並罵辱來使。在民間傳說中嫁給了李恢之子李遺，現在澄江存有夫婦二人的合墓。

• 關索，關羽三子，明朝成化年間說唱詞話《花關索傳》人物，後被補充進《三國演義》，正史並無記載。

孫

• 關統，關興之子，娶公主，官至虎賁中郎將，無子而終。

• 關彞，關興庶子，在關統逝世後承襲其位。

後裔

• 據裴松之引《蜀記》注《三國志·關羽傳》，蜀漢滅亡後，龐德之子龐會盡殺關氏為父報仇。但這段記載的可信度有爭議。後世解州、當陽、洛陽等地關姓氏族，常自稱為關羽後裔，然多無可查考。《新唐書·宰相世系表》記載唐德宗年間宰相關播為關興後人。

自稱為後裔

• 關樾，據說是關平長子。《三國志》並無記載，只記載於某些地方志以及傳說。

• 後世解州、當陽、洛陽等地關姓氏族。

• 《新唐書·宰相世系表》記載唐德宗年間，宰相關播為關興後人。

• 清朝《江陵縣志》等記載關平在江陵有後人。

• 雍正十年七月六日（1732年8月25日），授關羽五十二代孫關朝泰為五經博士，准其世襲。

評價

時人評價

• 陳壽評曰：「關羽、張飛皆稱萬人之敵，為世虎臣。羽報效曹公，飛義釋嚴顏，並有國士之風。然羽剛而自矜，飛暴而無恩，以短取敗，理數之常也。」（《三國志·蜀書·關張馬黃趙傳第六》）

魏

• 曹操：「事君不忘其本，天下義士也。」（《三國志·蜀書·關張馬黃趙傳第六》）

• 張遼：「羽受公（曹操）恩，必立效報公而後去也。」（《三國志·蜀書·關張馬黃趙傳第六》）

• 溫恢：「關羽驍銳，乘利而進，必將為患。」（《三國志· 魏書·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳第十五》）

• 程昱：「關羽、張飛皆萬人敵也。」郭嘉：「備有雄才而甚得眾心。張飛、關羽者，皆萬人之敵也，為之死用。」劉曄：「諸葛亮明於治而為相，關羽、張飛勇冠三軍而為將，蜀民既定，據險守要，則不可犯矣。」董昭：「備勇而志大，關羽、張飛為之羽翼，恐備之心未可得論也！」「羽為人彊梁（也作『強梁』），自恃二城守固，必不速退。」（《三國志·魏書·程郭董劉蔣劉傳第十四》）

• 徐晃：「得關雲長頭，賞金千斤。」（《三國志·蜀書·關張馬黃趙傳第六》）

• 傅幹：「張飛、關羽勇而有義，皆萬人之敵，而為之將；此三人者，皆人傑也。」（《三國志·蜀書·先主傳第二》）

• 袁准：「張飛、關羽與劉備俱起，爪牙腹心之臣，而武人也。」（《三國志·蜀書·諸葛亮傳第五》）

• 曹丕詔問群臣令料劉備當為關羽出報吳不。眾議咸云：「蜀，小國耳，名將唯羽。羽死軍破，國內憂懼，無緣複出。」

吳

• 孫權欲活關羽以敵劉備、曹操，左右曰：「狼子不可養，後必為害。曹公不即除之，自取大患，乃議徙都。今豈可生！」（《三國志·蜀書·關張馬黃趙傳第六》）

• 周瑜：「劉備以梟雄之姿，而有關羽、張飛熊虎之將，必非久屈為人用者。」（《三國志·吳書·周瑜魯肅呂蒙傳第九》）周瑜稱關羽、張飛「熊虎之將」，並認為如果像他這樣的人能率領其中的一個攻戰，就可定大事。

• 呂蒙：「斯人長而好學，讀左傳略皆上口，梗亮有雄氣，然性頗自負，好陵人。」、「今東西雖為一家，而關羽實熊虎也，計安可不豫定?」（《三國志·吳書·周瑜魯肅呂蒙傳第九》）、「羽素勇猛，既難為敵，且已據荊州，恩信大行，兼始有功，膽勢益盛，未易圖也。」（《三國志·吳書·陸遜傳第十三》）、「關羽分土接境，知羽驍雄，有併兼心。」

• 陸遜：「羽矜其驍氣，陵轢於人。始有大功，意驕志逸，但務北進，未嫌於我，有相聞病，必益無備。」、「陛下（孫權）以神武之姿，涎膺期運，破操（曹操）烏林，敗備（劉備）西陵，禽羽（關羽）荊州，斯三虜者當世雄傑，皆摧其鋒。」（《三國志·吳書·陸遜傳第十三》）

• 韋昭：「關背德，作鴟張。割我邑城圖不祥。」

• 張儼：「羽圍襄陽，將降曹仁，生獲于禁，當時北邊大小憂懼，孟德身出南陽，樂進、徐晃等為救，圍不即解。」

蜀

• 諸葛亮書與關羽：「孟起兼資文武，雄烈過人，一世之傑，黥、彭之徒，當與益德並驅爭先，猶未及髯之絕倫逸群。」（《三國志·蜀書·關張馬黃趙傳第六》）

• 楊戲的《季漢輔臣贊》中贊關雲長、張益德：「關、張赳赳，出身匡世，扶翼攜上，雄壯虎烈。藩屏左右，翻飛電發，濟於艱難，贊主洪業，侔跡韓、耿，齊聲雙德。交待無禮，並致姦慝，悼惟輕慮，隕身匡國。」（《三國志·蜀書·鄧張宗楊傳第十五》）

• 廖立：「是羽怙恃勇名，作軍無法，直以意突耳，故前後數喪師眾也。」（《三國志·蜀書·劉彭廖李劉魏楊傳第十》）

後人評價

關羽和張飛在當時及後世都成為勇猛善戰與義士的代名詞：

• 「值天下大亂，（劉）遐為塢主，每擊賊，率壯士陷堅摧鋒，冀方比之張飛、關羽。」（《晉書·劉遐傳》）

• 禿髮傉檀：「臣子逃歸君父，振古通義，故魏武善關羽之奔。」（《晉書·卷一百二十六·載記第二十六》）

• 「（閻）負、（梁）殊曰：『……驍勇多權略，攻必取，戰必勝，關、張之流，萬人之敵者，則前將軍新興王飛，建切將軍鄧羌，立忠將軍彭越，安遠將軍范俱難，建武將軍徐盛。』」（《晉書·苻生載記》）

• 「李庠，字玄序，特第三弟也。少以烈氣聞。……趙廞深器之，與論兵法，無不稱善，每謂所親曰：『李玄序蓋亦一時之關、張也。』」（《晉書·李特載記》）

• 「傉檀曰：『吾今新牧貴州，懷遠安邇之略，為之若何？』（宗）敞曰：『涼土雖弊，形勝之地，道由人弘，實在殿下。段懿、孟禕，武威之宿望；辛晁、彭敏，秦、隴之冠冕；斐敏、馬輔，中州之令族；張昶，涼國之舊胤；趙昌、張穆、邊憲、文齊、楊班、梁崧、趙昌，武同飛、羽。』」（《晉書·禿髮辱檀載記》）

• 「崔公，古之關張也。」（《魏書·崔延伯傳》）

• 「史臣曰：『長孫肥結髮內侍，雄烈知名，軍鋒所指，罔不奔散，關、張萬人之敵，未足多也。』」（《魏書·長孫肥傳》）

• 「當世推其驍果，皆以為關、張弗之過也。」（《魏書·楊大眼傳》）

• 「薛彤、（高）進之並道濟腹心，有勇力，時以比關羽、張飛。』」（《宋書·檀道濟傳》）

• 「又有西域胡，妙於弓矢，弦無虛發，眾軍尤憚之。及將戰，（吳）明徹謂摩訶曰：『若殪此胡，則彼軍奪氣，君有關、張之名，可斬顏良矣。』」（《陳書·蕭摩訶傳》）

• 「武人略陽垣歷生、襄陽蔡道貴，拳勇秀出，當時以比關羽、張飛。」（《南史·文惠太子傳》）

• 「（從弟京杲）後從李光弼出井陘，督趫盪先驅，戰嘉山尤力，（唐）肅宗異之，召見曰：『黥、彭、關、張之流乎！』」（《新唐書·辛雲京傳》）

• 「退闕關羽殉節之忠。」（《南齊書·曹虎傳》）

• 「羽為曹公所厚而忠不忘其君，可謂賢矣。然戰國之士亦能之。曹公得羽不殺，厚待而用其力，可謂賢矣，然戰國之君亦能之。至羽必欲立效以報曹公，然後封還所賜，拜書告辭而去，進退去就，雍容可觀，則殆非戰國之士矣。曹公內能平其氣，不以彼我為心；外能成羽之忠，不私其力于己，是猶有先王之遺風焉。吾嘗論曹公曰：是人能為善而不能不為惡，能為善，是以能享國；不能不為惡，是以不能取天下。」（唐庚《三國雜記》）

• 「衛尉卿兼檢校左金吾衛大將軍涼國公李延昌，克樹勛庸，遍該韜略，關張萬人之敵，勇不顧身；程李二將之名，忠於衛主。」（《冊府元龜·備御》）

• 李暠：「詠群豪之高軌，嘉關張之飄傑，誓報曹而歸劉，何義勇之超出！據斷橋而橫矛，亦雄姿之壯發。」（《晉書•列傳第五十七》）

• 虜主元宏遺虎書曰：「卿進無陳平歸漢之智，退闕關羽殉節之忠，嬰閉窮城，憂頓長沔，機勇兩缺，何其嗟哉！」（《南朝梁·南齊書列傳第十一》）

• 「朱異之徒，積受金貝，遂使咸稱胡、趙，比昔關、張，誣掩天聽，謂為真實。」（《梁書•列傳第五十》）

• 「齊孫臏晏嬰、晉程嬰公孫杵臼、燕樂毅、漢曹參陳平韓信周亞夫衛青霍去病霍光、蜀昭烈帝關羽張飛諸葛亮、唐房玄齡長孫無忌魏徵李靖李績尉遲恭渾瑊段秀實等，皆勛德高邁，為當時之冠。」（《宋史·志第五十八·禮八》）

• 「關羽則為仇國所禽，張飛則遭帳下所害。凡此名將，悉皆人雄。」（《宋史·列傳第一百九十八·文苑一》）

• 「關張比疆治，將相俱和同。」（《梁父吟》）

• 「楚、漢未分，絳、灌所以宣力；曹、劉競逐，關、張所以立名。然則名立資草昧之初，力宣候經輪之會，攀附鱗翼，世有之矣。」（《隋書·列傳第二十九》）

• 「公結髮戎旅，妙善孫吳 。如雲如鳥之形，因山背水之勢，莫不深明權變，躬先士卒。雙鞬並帶，二戟兼提。滕灌之驍雄，關張之勇扞，複見於茲矣。」（《大周使持節少傅大將軍大都督恆夏靈銀長五州諸軍事恆州刺史普安壯公墓志銘》）

• 「爾久從征伐甚有戰功語其威名乃關張之比也。」（《冊府元龜·誡勵》）

• 「衛尉卿兼檢校左金吾衛大將軍涼國公李延昌，克樹勛庸，遍該韜略，關張萬人之敵，勇不顧身；程李二將之名，忠於衛主。」（《冊府元龜·備御》）

• 「蜀之乃祖乃父，或士或人，而皆內稟忠貞，外資驍果，武負關張之氣，文傳揚馬之風，迎大駕以涉岷峨，合諸軍而定關輔忠氣冠乎日月，勳業著乎山河，凡在幽遐，皆所傳達。」（《冊府元龜•傳檄》）

• 「關羽、張飛，爪牙悉標于西廡。威生戶牖，武耀庭除。」（《蜀先主廟記》）

• 「乃若關雲長、張益德，雖曰萬人之敵，而程昱等輩奇之，然功業之著見者蓋鮮矣。」（《十先生奧論注》）

• 「楚、漢未分，絳、灌所以宣力；曹、劉競逐，關、張所以立名。然則名立資草昧之初，力宣候經輪之會，攀附鱗翼，世有之矣。」（《隋書·列傳第二十九》）

• 「索苞有文武材，舉孝廉，除郎中，每征伐克敵，勇冠三軍，時人比之關羽。宋澄於金城，為步羌三千人所圍，窮守孤堆，垂當破沒，苞以完騎五千，奮劍突陣，徑入與澄對坐，捶頭拊掌大笑。羌皆佩盾、擢刀四面直前。苞謂澄曰：「君但安心，觀我擊之。」乃除區弓接矢，繞捶射之，莫不應弦而倒，皆陷盾通中，立殺三十餘人，創夷者百計，羌即散走。稱神。」（《敦煌實錄》）

• 「子彥少嘗墜馬折臂，肘上骨起寸余，乃命開內鋸骨，流血數升，言戲自若。時以為逾于關羽。」（《魏書·列傳第十三》）

• 「留贊鷙猛壯烈，萬人敵也。其剚刃信足與雲長之刮骨，何以異哉？心有主而不動，視疾痛死生若無與於已者，壯士之勇也。況複得其死哉！」（《續後漢書·列傳第六十七》）

• 「公專逹西南則卻地千里，東北則獻俘億計。至若挫魏勝觧趙圍，斬顏良於萬人之中，伏孟獲於七縱之際。皆公之任也！」（《文苑英華·巻三百六十九》）

• 「惟公少稱弘量，喜慍不形，尤長武略，仁而有勇。及感會風雲，立功成務，謙虛下物，始終無改。雖複關羽有國士之風，祭遵懷儒者之操，無以加也。」（《文館詞林·巻四百五十三》）

• 「武帝伐廣固，仲德為前驅，戰輒破之，大小二十餘戰。論曰：王仲德受任二世，能以功名始終。入關之役，檀、王咸出其下。元嘉北討，則受督于人，有藺生之志，而無關公之憤，長者哉。」（《南史·列傳第十五》）

• 張輔：「張飛關羽，皆人傑也。」（《名士優劣論》）

• 葛洪：「咸謂勇力絕倫者，則上將之器；洽聞治亂者，則三九之才也。然張飛關羽萬人之敵 ，而皆喪元辱主，授首非所。」

• 陸雲：「關羽滔天，作雲西土。帝曰將軍，整爾熊虎。」（《吳故丞相陸公誄》）

• 石重貴評張彥澤：「猛若關張，氣吞荊聶，薦膺委寄，每著勤勞。鳴鏑離弦，既得吟猿之妙；青萍出匣，久彰斷兕之名。營陣之間，皆推果毅。」（《親征契丹命將制》）

• 尹義尚：「徐元直西蜀之謀士，關雲長劉氏之驍將，須歸即遣，知叛弗追，今之與古，何其異趣？」（《與徐僕射書》）

• 常璩：「河東關羽雲長，同郡張飛益德，並以壯烈，公壯羽勇銳，拜偏將軍 。」（《華陽國志·劉先主志》）

• 張茂：「曜可方呂布、關羽，而雲孟德不及，豈不過哉。」（《十六國春秋》）

• 崔鴻：「劉淵別將劉翼，驍勇過人，能一手舉殿柱，跳過平陽門，時人擬之關張。」（《十六國春秋》）

• 薛安都：「時人云關羽斬顏良不是過也。」（《南史·薛安都傳》）

• 庾信：「公入仕四十五年，身經一百六戰。通中陷刃，疾甚曹參；刮骨傅藥，事多關羽。而風神果勇，儀表沉雄，事親無隱無犯。學不專經，略觀書籍；兵無師古，自得縱橫。」（《周柱國大將軍紇幹弘神道碑》）

• 郎士元：「將軍秉天資，義勇冠今昔。走馬百戰場，一劍萬人敵。誰為感恩者，意是思歸客。流落荊巫間，徘徊故鄉隔。離筵對此宇，灑酒暮天碧。去去無復言，銜悲向陳跡。」（《壯繆侯廟別友人》又稱《關羽祠送高員外還荊州》）

• 王維：「非關羽之絕倫，何以廁跡虎臣、儀形麟閣？」（《為曹將軍謝寫真表》）

• 元結：「何人恩信過於田橫？何人壯勇等於關羽？」（《問進士（永泰二年通州問）·第五》）

• 虞世南頌關羽：「利不動，爵不縶，威不屈，害不折，心耿耿，義烈烈，偉丈夫，真豪傑，綱常備，古今絕」。

• 張士貴：「乃絳州義軍都頭目薛懷玉也。此人勇若關張，智同伊尹，堪當大用。」（《薛仁貴征遼事略》）

• 賀遂亮：「關羽萬人之敵，聲雄百代。捐軀殉國之志，冒流鏑而逾堅；輕生重義之（闕四字）而難（闕一字）心懸水鏡，鬼神無以蔽其形；質過松筠，風霜不能改其色。」（《大唐平百濟國碑銘》）

• 張元晏：「禰衡垂一噪聲之名，關羽藎萬人之敵。御眾布投膠之德，禮賢懷比飯之恭。智略出群，忠果成性。」（《授馮行襲昭信軍節度使制》）

• 董侹：「惟將軍當三國之時，負萬人之敵，孟德且避其鋒，孔明謂之絕倫。」（《荊南節度使江陵尹裴公重修玉泉關廟記》）

• 李儉：「黃霸為列郡之雄，關羽乃萬人之敵。」（《銀青光祿大夫太子中允贈工部尚書清河張公神道碑銘》）

• 楊炯：「攻城野戰，張飛、關羽；奇策密謀，荀攸、賈詡。」（《瀘川都督王湛神道碑》）、「陶公相宅，郭璞占墳。麵丹鳳而背元龜，兆青烏而徵白馬。三百篇之後，卜筮何從？二千石之榮，子孫無替。長男仁叡、男中仁楷、少男仁護、仁昉等，或體窮三變，藩、陸不足以昇堂；或力敵萬夫、關、張不足以扶轂。」（《唐上騎都尉高君神道碑》）

• 杜甫：「孰與關張並，功臨耿鄧親。應天才不小，得士契無鄰。」（《謁先主廟》）

• 杜牧：「天下無雙將，關西第一雄。授符黃石老，學劍白猿翁。矯矯雲長勇，恂恂卻縠風。」（《題永崇西平王宅太尉愬院六韻》）

• 唐僖宗：「前左武軍大將軍宋皓，負關張勇智，有韓白英雄，累著戰功，再居環衛。」（《討王郢詔》

• 王勃：「以先主之寬仁得眾，張飛、關羽萬人之敵，諸葛孔明管、樂之儔，左提右挈，以取天下，庶幾有濟矣。」（《三國論》）

• 李德裕：「蜀先主與關羽、張飛同臥起，而稠人廣坐，侍立終日。皆用此道，故能成功。夫御英傑，使猛將，與見道德之人，接方正之士不同也，不可以繁禮飾貌，以浮辭足言，宜洞開胸懷，令見肝肺。氣懾其勇，恩結其心，雖踞洗召之，不為薄矣。祿山，夷狄之譎詐者也，非將門英豪，草萊奇傑，其戰鬥之氣，擊刺之才，去關、張遠矣！」（《英傑論》）；「魏得關羽，則張遼挾以前驅。故能挫強楚之鋒，取顏良於麾蓋。」（《授何清朝左衛將軍兼分領蕃渾兵馬制》）

• 徐夤：「雖倚關張敵萬夫，豈勝恩信作良圖。能均漢祚三分業， 不負荊州六尺孤。綠水有魚賢已得，青桑如蓋瑞先符。 君王幸是中山後，建國如何號蜀都。」（《蜀》）

• 陳淵：「當時先主得關張，能使西川弱勝強。」（《默堂集·卷九》）

• 貫休：「龔遂劉寬同煦嫗，張飛關羽太驅馳。」（《賀鄭使君》）

• 岑參：「虜騎無數來，見君不敢當。漢將小衛霍，蜀將凌關張。」（《東歸留題太常徐卿草堂》）

• 趙蕤：「（虞世南）曰：彼孔明者，命世之奇才，伊呂之儔匹，臣主同心，魚水為譬，但以國小兵弱，斗絕一隅，支對二方，抗衡上國；若使與曹公易地而處，騁其長算，肆關、張之武，盡諸葛之文，則霸王之業成矣。」（《長短經》）

• 崔致遠： 「軍名定難，雅稱關張之聲；縣號宜君，克符堯舜之德。」（《賀殺黃巢賊徒狀》）；「斯乃司徒相公鏡於心而寬兮綽兮，枰於事而無偏無黨，網羅雋彥，籠罩驍雄，於儒則沈謝呈才，於武則關張效力。」（《初投獻太尉啟》）；「所謂有非常之人，然後有非常之事，絳灌亦一時俊傑，關張非累世勛庸，鏤姓名於金鼎玉鍾，飾儀形於雲台煙閣，永言盡美，孰敢爭先？」（《徐州時溥司空·第二》）

• 桑叔文：「漢有汲黯，當朝為之正色。若非功高衛霍，名比關張，孰能有此榮貴。」（《唐故淮南節度討擊副使光祿大夫試殿中監兼泗州長史上柱國北平縣開國伯田府君墓志銘》）

• 徐鉉：「唐室崩離，諸侯角逐。吳武王奮桓文之舉，我先君效關張之用。摧（生字「⼇凶」，即腦字無月）略地，所向無前。功加于時，慶鐘于後。」（《洪州豐城縣李司空碑文》）

• 孔平仲：「狄青字漢臣。元昊叛，屢將兵出戰，四年間大小二十五陣，八中流矢，人呼『狄天使』，上觀其儀表曰：『朕之關張。』」（《孔氏談苑》）；「鼉鳴魚躍尚恐懼，萬一敵至誰敢當？邀看大船載旗鼓，聞說乃是關雲長。」（《詠于將軍詩》）；「北人更欲生關羽，猶倚糜芳信士仁。 曹操雄心懷白馬，董昭空自弄精神。」（《詠史下·關羽四首》）

• 曹勛：「帝謂關張勇，氣吞豺虎群。忠誠昭白日，始卒翊明君。滅沿台躔耀，哀榮鳳口墳。傳家有賢嗣，淚血入江雲。」（《楊和王挽章五首》）

• 李邦直：「天下義士，雲長之徒掉臂而徐去，管寧之屬浮海而避之。」（《魏論》）

• 謝採伯：「孫權運籌於內，劉備、諸葛亮、周瑜、關侯等，合謀並智，方拒得曹操，敗之於赤壁，亦未為竒政縁。」（《密齋筆記·卷二》）

• 文天祥：「項籍、關侯、敖曹擒虎之流。」（《文山集·送彭叔英序》）

• 陳子微：「廈傾木不支，鼎重足先折。關張不終身，儀秦亦無舌。」（《本堂集·卷二十九》）

• 劉知幾：「關張以傲誕為將，桑霍以滿盈居職。」（《思慎賦》）

• 員興宗：「吾鄉所遣騎，乃探騎耳。豈人人關張乎！」（《九華集·卷二十四》）；「時乎不渾護強中擒呂布，神乎不蓋藏萬眾取顏良。」（《九華集·卷二十四》）

• 綦崇禮：「以頗牧之才，關張之勇，盡護諸將，獨殿一方，鏖兵苦戰，則大敵為殲，據險守堅，則嚴師莫犯。」（《北海集•卷十一》）

• 李廌：「駢英雄則關張奮其武，登雋良則龐蔣善其職。」（《濟南集·卷五》）；「三方各虎踞，猛將皆成群。屹然萬人敵，惟髯稱絕倫。仗節氣蓋世，橫矟勇冠軍。」（《關侯廟》）

• 黃履翁：「古之烈士才略，則向寵、柳渾、蔡道貴、鮑昭。或曉暢軍事，料敵萬里；或勇比關張，或治績顯太原。」（《古今源流至論·別集卷四》）

• 汪藻：「決勝重圍，飛、羽有萬人之敵。」（《浮溪集·韓世忠除兩鎮節度使制》）

• 蕭常：「羽飛萬人之敵勇有餘，而不知跡其行事。皆有國士之風，然羽剛而自矜，飛暴而少恩，此其所以敗也。」（《續後漢書》）

• 劉克莊：「骨已朽黃泉下，傳猶列青史中。猛樸時來宰相，關張運去英雄。」（《即事六言四首》）；「甘寧關羽至今傳，名將為神自古然。生不封侯三萬戶，死猶廟食數千年。」（《即事六言四首》）

• 方回：「萬人為翰墨，無一曹思王。萬人握幹殳，無一關雲長。」（《題來將軍括蒼送行卷》）

• 賈似道：「要知斗處關張勇，頭小牙長體似金。」（《促織經·琵琶翅》）

• 何溟：「四海紛紛漢鼎移，將軍委質願扶持。欲除曹氏眼前害，豈料吳兒肘後欺？報國忠心千載著，複仇遺恨幾人知。我因王事行郊邑，特向高墳酬一卮。」（《題大王塚》）

• 趙秉文：「壯如破敵，勢甚擒賊，至如關羽義勇，張綱奮烈。取鯨鯢于堅陣，叱豺狼之當轍。」（《滏水集·古賦·海青賦》）

• 李俊民：「鼎足相吞勢未分，誰能傾蓋得將軍？曹吳不是中原手，天下英雄有使君。」（《襄陽詠史·關將軍廟》）

• 吳箕：「關雲長有功于魏，舍之而去，不畔先主，此有古國士風，亦足以見先主之得人心。」（《常談》）

• 岳飛：「一死何足道，要使後世書策知有岳飛之名，與關張輩功烈相仿佛耳。」（《金駝續編·卷二十八》）

• 龔開：「大刀關勝，豈雲長孫。雲長義勇，汝其後昆。」（《宋江三十六贊》）

• 郭允蹈：「關雲長以萬人之敵，弘護荊州，昭烈君臣以為長城，而輕躁寡謀，墜呂蒙之詭計。昭烈勇于一決，以爭荊州，君臣于是俱失之矣！或謂：是後也，昭烈不自將，而孔明長嘯以下荊州，則何如？曰：非孔明之志也。孔明固謂孫權可以為援而不可圖之。又謂國賊曹操非孫權，又謂法孝直在，必能諫止上此行，孔明蓋亦難之矣。曰：然則荊州遂可置之度外乎？曰：向使雲長自江陵出襄陽，而益德、黃權有一人焉，為居守之計。則固可震撼中原，而無後顧之憂矣。雲長既死，雖孔明亦未如之何也。」（《蜀鑒 ·昭烈敗績于猇亭》）

• 鄭咸：「侯諱某，姓關氏，以忠義大節事蜀先主昭烈皇帝，為左右禦侮之臣，官至前將軍，假節鉞。侯之名聞天下後世，雖老農稚子，皆能道之。然謂侯英武善戰，為萬人敵耳，此不足以知侯也。曹孟德以奸雄之資，挾天子以令中原，虎視鄰國，謂『本初猶不足數，而況其下乎？』獨先主區區，欲較其力，而與之抗。然屢戰而數敗矣。士於此時，懷去就之計者，得以擇主而事之。苟不明於忠義大節，孰肯抗強助弱，去安而即危者？夫爵祿富貴，人之所甚欲也。視萬鍾猶一芥之輕，比千乘於匹夫之賤者，豈有他哉，忠盡而義勝耳。侯以為曹公名為漢臣，實漢仇也。而先主固劉氏之宗種，侯嘗受漢爵號矣。苟為擇其所事，則當與曹乎？當與劉乎？曹、劉之不敵，雖愚者知之。巴蜀數郡，以當天下之半，其成功不可待也，而侯豈以此少動其心哉？秋霜之嚴，見日見則消；南金之堅，遇剛則折。而侯之忠義凜然，雖富貴在前，死亡居後，不可奪也。孔融、楊彪皆巨德元老，一日少忤曹公，乃戮而囚之。侯為曹公所得，不敢加無禮焉；比其去也，熟視而不敢追。然則侯之所本，勝曹公多矣。蓋有以服其心而折其氣，豈在行陣間乎！侯本解人，廟於郡城之西。廟久不治，里中父老相與經營，加完新焉。時維太守張公，別乘張公，相與為雍容鎮靜之政，而解民熙然樂之，日有餘暇，可以致力於神矣。然則神安其宅，厥有由哉。」（《重修廟記》）

• 張商英：「月缺不改光，劍折不改鋩。月缺白易滿，劍折尚帶霜。勢利尋常事，難屈志士腸。男兒有死節，可殺不可量。」（《詠辭曹事》）

• 張仲宣：「張遼運籌之方，可以歸之於先軌；關羽搴旗之效，可以論之於後塵。」（《對知合孫吳可以運籌決勝策》）

• 南濤：「及刺顏良于東郡，曹公即錶王漢壽亭侯。」（《紹興重修廟記》）

• 黃茂才：「氣蓋世，勇而強。萬眾中，刺顏良。」（《武安王贊》）

• 葉適：「（耿）豪雖凶粗不足取，而以關張比之，則又其細爾。」（《習學記言·卷三十五》）

• 朱熹：「正如關羽擒顏良，只知有此人，更不知有別人，直取其頭而歸。」、「關羽恃才疏鹵，自取其敗。」（《朱子語類》）

• 孫銳：「千載人，百世士。知正統，明大義。漢丞相，蜀先主。同公心，燭三光。為岳瀆，為星雲。今不死，髯將軍。」（《雲長公贊》）

• 陸游：「顏良文丑知何益，關羽張飛死可傷。等是人間號驍將，太山寧比一毫芒。」（《讀史》）

• 洪邁：「自古威名之將，立蓋世之勛，而晚謬不克終者，多失于恃功矜能而輕敵也。關羽手殺袁紹二將顏良、文丑于萬眾之中。及攻曹仁于樊，于禁等七軍皆沒，羽威震華夏，曹操議徙許都以避其銳，其功名盛矣。而不悟呂蒙、陸遜之詐，竟墮孫權計中，父子成禽，以敗大事。」（《容齋隨筆·卷十一》）

• 陳亮：「夫關羽好勇而無謀，恃氣而驕功，此其勢甚易譎也。」

• 陳元靚：「劍氣凌雲，實曰虎臣。勇如一國，敵萬人。蜀展其翼，吳折其鱗。惜乎中勇，前後絕倫。」（《事林廣記後集》）

• 火魯胡達：「來謁崇寧廟，遺容古貌寒。奮戈扶寒祚，斬將報曹瞞。忠烈條山並，英靈解土安。未能雄吳魏，常使後人嘆。」（《謁解州廟》）

• 郝經：「羽、飛昭烈啑血起義，夙定君臣之分，期複漢室，百折興王。闞如兩虎嘯風從龍，夾之以飛，雄猛震一世，號稱萬人敵。羽報效于操，致書而去，飛瞋目橫矛，而與操決。矯轎義烈，上通于天，漢于是乎不亡。」；「羽儀狀雄偉，嶽嶽尚義，儼若神人。」（《續後漢書·卷十六》）；「昔魏武之於關侯，梁高祖之於賀拔勝，孔明之於徐庶，皆謀臣猛將，反覆去就，知其無留，意猶不固止。」（《與賈丞相書》）；「雲長萬人之敵，而呂蒙襲取。昭烈一世之雄，而陸遜摧破。漢之義師，不複東征。祗保梁益，吳遂蹈跨荊揚。操不可圗，丕乃禪代曺氏。遂有中國，而天下三分，殆非人謀亦天意也！」（《續後漢書·卷五十六》）；「躍馬斬將萬眾中，侯印賜金還自封。橫刀拜書去曹公，千古凜凜國士風。跨有荊、益事戰攻，直指許、洛期一戎。操為喘氣謀避鋒，權為鯨梟示象恭。」（《重建廟記》）

• 迺賢：「 昔游玉泉寺，系馬松樹林。獨坐大石上，浩歌梁父吟。老衲林下來，示我三古印。連環絡螭紐，篆畫蝕蒼暈。將軍觔無敵，勁氣橫九州。志在複漢鼎，豈事身封侯？昭烈勢孤危，恃侯作堅壘。威震曹家啊，膽落中夜起。浮雲幾變滅，瑑刻良可摹。今人千載下，拂拭空嗟籲。」（《賦關將軍印》）

• 周午：「三分鼎峙裂九州，群飛擇木各為謀。雲長天挺萬人敵，不事他人獨事劉。分雖君臣情骨肉，此豈漢賊所能祿？仲謀不度來求婚，遣使甘言只屈辱。奮髯北伐將徙都，白衣狙詐勞仁呼。赤帝不靈天既厭，荊蜀中斷絕一隅。人亦各為其主耳，南昌局量非操擬。嵯峨一塚余千年，長使英雄淚如水。」（《題大王塚》）

• 程嚴卿：「將軍氣作漢長城，此身肯與賊俱生？一時成敗風雲散，千古精誠日月明。最恨含沙多鬼蜮，堪憐失水制鯤鯨。九京莫喚英雄起，餘子紛紛論甲兵。」（《題大王塚》）

• 朱元璋：「克敵在勇，全勝在謀。昔，關羽號萬人敵，為呂蒙所破，為無謀也，爾宜深戒之。」（《明實錄·太祖實錄·卷一》）

• 楊博：「維帝忠義昭宇宙，功業垂史冊，祀祠遍天下，黃髮稚齒，極海窮邊，靡不崇重。而帝之隨在者靈，威蓋顯赫，千載一日。」

• 李贄：「雲長信義，不設機械，觀其待徐公明可見也。到底是個君子，不比小人，外厚其貌而衷薄甚也。」

• 鐘敬伯： 「雲長信義性成，機械不生，故徐晃自詐而彼自誠也。其威鎮華夏，忠貫古今，真聖而不可知之之謂神乎？」

• 王夫之：「吳、蜀之好不終，關羽已死，荊州以失，曹操以乘二國之離，無忌而急于篡，關羽安能逃其責哉？羽守江陵，數與魯肅生疑貳，于是而諸葛之志不宣，而肅亦苦矣。肅以歡好撫羽，豈私羽而畏昭烈乎？其欲併力以抗操，匪舌是出，而羽不諒，故以知肅心之獨苦也。」 、「關羽，可用之材也，失其可用而卒至於敗亡，昭烈之驕之也，私之也，非將將之道也。」（《讀通鑒論·卷九》）

• 李鑒：「炎漢阿危配此身，垂成功業委枯榛。傅糜俱罪生狂計，蒙遜陰謀繆見親。自許以南俱失望，吞吳而下豈無因？三分往事成陳跡，椽筆稱量自有神。」（《題大王塚》）

• 胡琦：「孰若雲長大勇憤發，心不忘義，事漢昭烈，誓同生死。守荊州九年，賊畏之如虎，討樊之舉，鼓忠烈之氣，破奸雄之膽，可不謂壯哉！惜乎事機垂成，禍生于所忽，乃守其志，終始不回，卓然為漢忠臣，獨見稱于後世。廟食玉泉，至今不絕。四方祈謁，靈應如響，不亦盛乎！及考其事跡本末具存，國志所不載者散在眾籍，文字交錯，難用檢尋，覽之者無不病焉。」（《新編實錄序》）

• 張珣：「憶昔天下初三分，猛將並驅誰軼群。桓桓膽氣萬人敵，臥龍獨許髯將軍。威吞曹瞞欲遷許，中興當日推元勛。惜我壯繆功不就，竟令豺兕還紛紛。血食千年廟貌古，歲時歌舞今猶勤。君不見天都、靈武巢未覆，撫髀常思漢壽君。」（《義勇行》）

• 程敏政：「古今稱之者，以其忠義大節，足以仰高于後也。」（《讀將鑒博議》）

• 畢沅：「吳國公戒之曰：『克敵在勇，全勝在謀。昔關羽號萬人敵，為呂蒙所破，為無謀也，爾宜深戒之。』」（《續資治通鑑》）

• 劉緯：「鞍馬平生百戰身，可憐于此臥荒榛。俘來于禁元輕敵，釁起孫吳為結親。魚水君臣終不忝，功名竹帛擬重新。玉泉寂寂悲黃鳥，千載英靈漢代人。」（《題大王塚》）

• 乾隆帝:「關帝力扶炎漢，志節懍然，陳壽撰志，多存私見。正史存謚，猶寓譏評，曷由傳信？今方錄四庫書，改曰忠義。武英殿可刊此旨傳末，用彰大公。」（《清史稿》卷84）

• 清代趙翼的《廿二史劄記》卷七關張之勇的部份，詳細整理了古人以關羽、或關張用作皆為勇將代名詞的資料，並且認為「漢以後稱勇者必推關張」。

• 蔡東藩：「赤膽忠心誓報劉，越江討賊死方休；東吳不念東風惠，萬古江潮咽恨流。」

現代評價

• 毛澤東：「關雲長大體上是不懂統一戰線的，這個人並不高明，對待同盟軍搞關門主義，不講政策。」

• 何茲全在他的《三國史》中寫道：「關羽和張飛，都很雄壯威猛，被時人稱為萬人敵。但從失荊州上可以看出，他傲慢、無智謀、無籌略，遠不是他所遇到的對手們的敵手。在一次戰鬥或一個戰役中，像斬顏良、誅文丑，或水淹七軍，他是強手，但對戰略政略他是一竅不通的。呂蒙、陸遜一給他戴高帽，他就上當、昏頭轉向，飄飄然不知所以。孫權和他聯姻，當然也是政治婚姻，即使關羽同意，結為兒女親家，為了奪取荊州，孫權也會一翻臉，把女兒犧牲掉。但即使不願聯姻，也不要罵人。關羽在前方打仗，麋芳、士仁守江陵、公安，這是何等重要的職務，即使對他們不能完成任務不滿意，也不能說『還，當治之』。」

• 王仲犖在他的《魏晉南北朝史》中寫道：「應該說，關羽北攻襄、樊，並沒有錯，錯的是襄陽長期進攻不下，應該估計到自己後方虛弱，及早回師，以待再舉。關羽的最大缺點，是沒有把脆弱的吳、蜀同盟鞏固住。孫「權遣使為子索羽女，羽辱罵其使，不許婚」​（​《三國志·蜀志·關羽傳》​）​。作為策略來講，這是很大的失著。還有，關「羽善待卒伍而驕于士大夫」​（​《三國志·蜀志·張飛傳》​）​。關羽和他的僚屬（文職人員）的關係很緊張，像潘濬這樣一個優秀人物，關羽不知重用，關羽死後，反而被孫權爭取過去了。麋芳是劉備的小舅子，時為南郡太守，守江陵；將軍傅士仁屯兵公安，他們投降孫權，都和關羽同他們的緊張關係有關。這些事情，結合起來，關羽就一敗塗地，不可收拾了。江陵、公安的失守，這在蜀漢政權方面來講，不僅喪失了荊州基地，被封閉于三峽之內；而且脆弱的吳、蜀聯盟，宣告破產，盟友變成敵人，這對劉備的打擊是太大了。」

• 中國魏晉南北朝史學會前會長朱大渭：「關羽並非只有一般名將英勇戰鬥的作風，以及武藝超群的素質，而且具有指揮大型戰役的能力，荊州的失守，主要責任不在關羽，而是蜀國戰略方針失誤造成的。關羽雖有一定責任，但其忠於職守，以身殉職，應無所非議。」「關羽從小受儒家思想薰陶，因而在處身立事道德規範上，同劉備、諸葛亮可算同道中人。劉備甚有知人之明，他之所以特別看重關羽，深知其德才兼備，後來將留守荊州以及北伐的重任交給他，其原因也在於此。」

• 歷史學家、《萬曆十五年》作者黃仁宇：關羽剛傲而缺乏處事的謹慎周詳，他不顧利害讓自己兩面受敵，弄到戰敗授首，比曹操早死一個月。可是千百年之後關公仍被中國人奉為戰神，民間崇拜的不是他的指揮若定，而是他的道德力量。關羽『義重如山』，至今秘密結社的團體仍有些奉之為師祖。

• 柏楊在其《白話版資治通鑑》裡點評：「關羽是二三世紀之交、東漢王朝末年的名將，他的英勇被當時以及後世所肯定。然而，他在中國曆史上的地位和在人民心目中的形象，得以永垂不朽，歷時一千六百年而始終光芒四射，卻不由于他的英勇，而由于他對劉備個人的效忠，這種效忠，被解釋為「道義」​。尤其是十七世紀清王朝，以滿洲民族控制漢民族之後，在關羽身上找到政治號召的取向，強調道義、強調滿洲人跟漢人是異姓兄弟，海枯石爛，情義不變。不僅中國人崇拜關羽，就是在朝鮮半島，也遍地都是關羽廟，受到萬家香火。跨國英雄，關羽是第一人。然而，拋開《三國演義》這本影響力最大的小說，僅就史書上提供的資料，關羽實在沒有資格在歷史上占據一席之地。他雖然英勇，但事實上不過一個莽漢，既缺謀略，又缺修養，而且心胸狹窄、不識大體。他眼睛只有一個主子和一個小圈圈。一開始就排斥諸葛亮，是劉備把他說服；繼而排斥黃忠，如果不是費詩能言善道，誰都不能逆料它的演變：那將是，劉備如果不支持關羽，關羽可能生出貳心；如果支持關羽，黃忠可能背叛，麋芳、傅士仁就是例証。」

• 李定一：「清人入主中國，自視為金人的後裔，對于抗金的岳飛被尊為武聖人頗不自安。且時人多好讀《三國演義》，清人遂因勢利導，改尊關羽為「武聖人」，以小說對關羽忠于「結拜兄弟」的描述，去潛移默化岳飛忠于民族國家的精神，以期有利于其統治。這個釜底抽薪之計相當成功。清政府已隨風而逝 (1911) 它殘留在民間的惡劣虛相，何時消失?」

• 廈門大學人文學院教授易中天：「關羽確實有令人崇敬之處，那就是特重情義。民間崇拜關羽雖然有道理，但有些信仰和習俗也很奇怪。比方說剃頭匠奉關羽為祖師爺，就匪夷所思。關羽並沒有當過剃頭匠呀！再說東漢時也不剃頭。想來想去，也就是他們手上都有一把刀。不過關老爺手上的刀是殺頭的，不是剃頭的。清代有一剃頭舖門前掛一對聯云：『問天下頭顱幾許，看老夫手段如何』，倒很像關羽的口氣。還把關羽奉為財神，什麼民營企業啊，個體戶啊，供個關羽當財神，難道他們的錢是靠打架搶來的嗎？你說關羽一個武將封個戰神不就行了嗎？怎麼還當起財神了呢？依我看啊，關羽，遲早要被民間推崇為愛神。因為他對愛情的追求是很執著的。據《三國志·關羽傳》裴松之註引《蜀記》和《華陽國志》，關羽曾經愛上了一個女人，一再向曹操表示要娶其為妻。這話說多了以後，曹操便『疑其有異色，先遣迎看。』一看，果然國色天香，結果『因自留之』，害得關羽很是鬱悶（羽心不自安）。此事如果屬實，曹操就太不厚道了。」

• 中國社會科學院研究員尹韻公：「關羽是一個心機較深、善於處理人際關係、左右逢源的人，無論在敵友哪一方皆可受到厚待，可能這是他在黑白兩道都吃香的緣故了。正史中的關羽並非如人們所崇拜的那個關公高大完美。乃是隨著歷史的發展，根據心理和社會需要不斷改造而成的一個來自於現實而又大大超現實的一個偶像。」

• 禚夢庵《三國人物論集》：「建安二十四年十月，曹操與孫權都已親自出馬，為了戰一關羽，魏吳兩國幾乎動員了傾國人馬，上下費盡心機，則關羽之勇猛善戰可知了。 這次戰役，關羽雖敗猶榮，但蜀漢克復中原的希望，也隨關羽俱逝了。本來萬人之敵的猛將，很少不剛而自矜的，只要用之得當，剛猛正是優點。這種剛烈人物，古今中外，代不乏人。即以吾國而論，如楚之項籍，漢之關羽，宋之岳飛，近人吳子玉，都是這一類型。這類人物，也同高人義士一樣，為歷史增加不少光彩。但他們成功最快，失敗也最速，只留下許多可歌可泣的故事，供人憑弔而已！」

• 首都師範大學歷史系教授宋傑：「關羽在行政管理、外交、軍事方面都犯有錯誤，荊州兵不血刃地落入敵手，屬于他嚴重的失職。作為當地的最高軍政長官，身有守土之責，別無旁貸，確實辜負了劉備給他的這份重任。不過，關羽只是一介武夫，領兵上陣廝殺是其所長，而運籌帷幄、處置政務和外交聯絡都是他的短處，因此並不具備總管荊州軍政要務的才幹和能力，派遣他「董督荊州事」可以說是劉備的用人不當，最終造成了無法彌補的損失。」

• 饒勝文在《大漢帝國在巴蜀》總結：「劉備在戰略上的失策，經由關羽平庸的統帥才能，遂在荊州釀成災難性的後果。」

• 華杉：「關羽是典型的百戰百勝，一敗而亡。《孫子兵法》說，真正的善戰者，無智名，無勇功，因為善戰者不打那麼多仗，只打容易的仗，不打跌宕起伏的仗，沒有那麼多可歌可泣的故事。故事都是講給老百姓聽的，關羽則恰恰和孫子的勝將標準相反，他威名赫赫，在民間是集道德、智慧、武功于一身的千古第一人，而在專業人士看來，關羽實誤國之臣也。」

• 芥川龍之介：「在中國，像關羽、岳飛這些深受萬眾敬仰的英雄全都是單純之人。」

出生爭議

《三國志》、《資治通鑑》等正史以及三國魏晉時期的其它資料等並沒有可以被用來推測關羽出生年月的相關信息，唯一牽涉到年齡長幼的信息是關羽比張飛年長數歲，不過張飛的年齡也無任何記載。

但是伴隨著關羽從北宋開始在民間藝術形象及各統治政權對其推崇的不斷提高，此後關于其出生時間開始出現了多種不同信息，諸如：

• 宋孟元老《東京夢華錄》 六月六日 未指明年份。

• 元胡琦《關羽年譜》 延熹三年六月二十四日。

• 明崇禎二年（1629年）立於石磐溝關羽祖塋的《祀田碑記》延熹三年六月二十二日。

• 清康熙十七年（1678年），解州州守王朱旦據傳在浚修古井時發掘出關羽的墓磚，磚上刻有關羽祖、父兩世的表字，生卒年月等，還提到關羽的家庭狀況。他因而寫了《前將軍關壯穆侯祖墓碑銘》。依銘所記，關羽生於桓帝延熹三年（160年）六月二十四日。

• 清張鎮于乾隆二十一年（1756年）編修的 《解良關帝志》 延熹三年六月二十二日。

• 周廣業 《關王事跡徵信編》 郭茂泰 《荊州府志》等認為是五月十三日。

《關帝志》內容多出自《三國演義》，非嚴謹的史料；《祀田碑記》和《前將軍關壯穆侯祖墓碑銘》未經嚴格考究。現在，關于關羽出生日期的考証仍舊在繼續，諸如田福生就認為延熹三年六月二十四日（160年8月13日）最可信，此外延熹三年（160年）六月二十二日等說法也有相關証據。

各種說法都缺乏「決定性証據」，值得注意的是所有出生年相關的資料首次出現的時間相距三國時期都超過一千年，可考証和確信程度均不大。當然近年來開始也有史學家指出陳壽的《三國志》也有記載錯誤。

明清官方祀典堅持一年兩祭，以五月十三為關帝君聖誕，每年南京六部太常寺官祭，今日民間主要以農曆六月二十四日作為神明關公聖誕日，五月十三則視為官方生日。

民間藝術

演義以前

關羽於民間的形象，至宋代即與今日相去不遠。洪邁的《容齋隨筆》按理是史論，但其中已有「關羽手殺袁紹二將顏良、文醜於萬眾之中」的傳說。而膾炙人口的三英戰呂布、千里保皇嫂、華佗為關羽刮骨療毒、水淹七軍等民間傳說，都已見於《三國志平話》，《三國志平話》所敘事跡雖多為民間傳說、然卻初步架構了三國歷史進程的故事。元代關漢卿所作戲曲《關大王獨赴單刀會》有提到關羽過五關，可見《三國演義》中過五關斬六將的情節亦早已在民間流傳。《水滸傳》中，關勝為關羽後裔，穿著武器同關羽相若。

三國演義

章回小說《三國演義》作者羅貫中著力將關羽這個人物形象，刻畫成繼呂布後的三國武藝第一人，頗有「武聖」之風。總成過往傳奇、野史、戲曲、地方世代說法、被官史避畏說法、說部話本及民間傳說中關羽的故事，和史書中關羽的事蹟有所出入，如關羽溫酒斬華雄為漢末、魏晉以來的傳說，按史華雄實為孫堅所殺；土山約三事是關羽戰敗而投降；文醜死因存見地方史料以及東晉王羲之父子的二王尺牘集和容齋隨筆。而桃園結義、戰呂布、過五關斬六將、戰黃忠、手持青龍偃月刀、坐騎赤兔馬、身高樣貌等都為三國演義小說中所雕塑。而後人更引此形象將關羽神話，造就了民間偶像。

《三國演義》對於關羽忠勇自負的性格也加以誇大、轉嫁，如諸葛亮問關羽若曹、孫同時來侵，關羽回答要分兵拒之，關羽不滿馬超授官而起妒，改寫為要入川與馬超比武，關羽拒婚時罵孫權的兒子是犬子等等，都是小說的藝術創作。

文化形象

從傳統戲曲至現代，各類文化作品對關羽多有演繹。

戲劇

中國傳統戲曲中關羽的角色，以民間傳說、野史及《三國演義》的描寫而創作，其臉譜為揉紅臉，表示忠勇，「紅臉忠勇」之說法即由關羽臉譜而來。勾丹鳳眼，雙眼俊秀。加上關羽有「美髯公」之稱，所以都會加上演關羽時專用的大髯口，稱為「五綹」或「關公髯」。手執青龍偃月刀和紅馬鞭，頭戴專有的綠色盔頭，綴黃絨球配後兜，兩耳垂白飄帶和黃絲穗，著綠蟒。因後世對關羽的信仰普遍，具有神格，為表示對關羽的敬畏，所以會特意在面譜上加一黑點或加一條金線，稱做「破臉」，代表不敢完全模仿他。而且關公亮相姿式就有48種之多，稱為「關公48圖」。

而在舊時上演關公戲曲時，有許多規矩：如扮演關羽的演員在演出前三到十天要齋戒淨身，不近女色；出場前要給關帝像燒香、奉茶、燒紙錢祭拜，常用牲禮，甚至殺雞殺豬；演員要在頭盔或者前胸挂有關帝像的黃表附，演出結束要用此紙拭臉，並拿到關帝像前焚化，以示感謝關帝的庇護；演《單刀會》時，周圍不可有嬉鬧聲、在演《走麥城》時，更要台上台下燒檀香、點蠟燭。據說如果違犯戒律，關帝就會顯靈，演員要出事故，戲園要出亂子。清朝後宮演戲時，每臨關公出場，皇帝、后妃都得離座走幾步，然後才能坐下看戲。一些有損于關帝形象的劇目，如《斬熊虎》、《怒斬關平》、《關公辭曹》等，宮廷及燕京的著名戲園皆禁止上演。而現今也有對演關羽的演員有不少禁忌，如當演員上了妝後，不可大笑、有邪淫，其他人看到上妝後的關羽也不能舉動失儀。

以關羽為主角的京劇劇目稱關羽戲（簡稱關戲，也稱老爺戲）。最初，演員在演出時以唱為主。同時，劇目僅有《戰長沙》、《華容道》、《斬華雄》等幾齣。有作者認為在20世紀初，王鴻壽（老三麻子）豐富了關羽戲的劇目。並通過他在臉譜、服飾、念白、唱腔等方面的革新創造，使關羽的形象更為高大完美。

影視劇

有關於關羽或有其角色的電影、電視劇集，及曾飾演關羽的演員亦有不少，例如有（依年份）：

• 1956年《關公月下釋貂蟬》、1957年《關公千里送嫂》（麗星影片公司電影）：由關德興飾演

• 1957年《關公守華容 劉備過江招親》（寶華影業公司電影）：由靚華亨飾演

• 1968年《桃園三結義》（國益影業公司），由丁強飾演。

• 1969年《武聖關公》：由楊群飾演

• 1974年《武聖關公》（中視電視劇）：由郎雄飾演

• 1976年《三國春秋》（麗的電視本港台電視劇集）：由劉志榮飾演

• 1976年《戰神》（別名：《關公大戰外星人》）（陳洪民執導電影）

• 1984年《關公保嫂過五關》（華視台語午間電視劇）：由李隆華飾演

• 1985年《諸葛亮》（中國湖北電視劇）：由鄭軍飾演

• 1985年《諸葛亮》（香港電視劇）：由鄭雷飾演

• 1989年《三國志：關公》（楊吉友執導電視劇）：由侯少奎飾演

• 1992年《醫神華佗》（無綫電視翡翠台電視劇集）：由尹揚明飾演

• 1992年《鹿鼎記》（王晶執導電影)）：由吳孟達飾演 海公公扮關羽剌殺 鰲拜

• 1993年《關公》（別名：《關公傳奇》）（太原電視台電視劇）、2002年《貂蟬》（深圳電視臺電視劇）：由張山飾演

• 1994年《三國演義》（中國中央電視台電視劇集）：由陸樹銘飾演

• 1996年《關公》（中華電視公司電視劇）：由陳俊生（青年）、勾峰（中年）飾演

• 1996年《諸葛孔明》（電影）：由馬泉來飾演

• 1998年《超時空要愛》（黎大煒執導電影）：由王衛國飾演

• 1999年《一代梟雄曹操》（柯俊雄執導電影）：由馬泉來飾演

• 1999年《曹操》（中國中央電視臺電視劇）、2001年《呂布與貂蟬》（陳凱歌執導電視劇）：由楊凡飾演

• 2000年《江湖告急》（林超賢執導電影）：由黃秋生飾演

• 2001年《關公》（電視劇）：由李田野（青年）、王英權（中年）飾演

• 2002年《武聖關公出解梁》（電視劇）：由陳思成飾演

• 2004年《武聖關公》（電視劇）：由王英權飾演

• 2008年《見龍卸甲》（李仁港執導電影）：由狄龍飾演

• 2008年《赤壁》（吳宇森執導電影）：由巴森飾演

• 2009年《終極三國》（八大電視電視劇）：由胡宇崴飾演

• 2010年《越光寶盒》（劉鎮偉執導電影）：由方力申飾演

• 2010年《三國》（中國大陸電視劇）：由于榮光飾演

• 2011年《關雲長》（麥兆輝、莊文強執導電影）：由甄子丹飾演

• 2012年《回到三國》（無綫電視翡翠台電視劇集）：由歐瑞偉飾演

• 2012年《銅雀台》（趙林山執導電影），由成宗煥飾演

• 2014年《曹操》（胡玫執導電視劇），由張益群飾演

• 2015年《半為蒼生半美人》（梁辛全執導電視劇），由于彥凱飾演

• 2016年《武神趙子龍》（國建勇執導電視劇），由李田野飾演

• 2017年《終極三國》（優酷網路劇）：由SpeXial-子閎飾演

• 2020年《新解釋·三國志》（福田雄一執導電影）：由橋本哲飾演

• 2021年《真·三國無雙》 （周顯揚執導電影）：由韓庚飾演

• 2021年《青龍偃月刀》（代藝霖、陳思銘執導網路電影），由陸樹銘飾演

• 2022年《大話三國之三國志霸道》（亞洲心動娛樂手機網路劇）：由傷心強尼飾演

• 2023年《大話三國2之三國志霸道》（亞洲心動娛樂手機網路劇）：由傷心強尼飾演

漫畫

在三國漫畫中，關羽被刻畫成是繼呂布之後的天下第一猛將，與張飛各自擁有萬夫莫敵的實力。而且在諸多的三國漫畫的劇情中，經常可以看見關羽獨戰呂布的場面，如：王欣太的《蒼天航路》、陳某的《火鳳燎原》、池上遼一的《》、本宮宏志的《吞食天地》等，也許是在人們的心目中認為關羽是武聖，而呂布是戰神的原因，所以才把這兩人設定為死敵。

動畫

• 《三國志》

• 《三國演義》

• 《橫山光輝三國志》（橫山光輝）

• 《蒼天航路》（王欣太）

• 《幻想三國誌 -天元靈心記-》

傳說俚語

在關羽家鄉解縣，傳說關羽本名馮賢，生在有文化教養的農家，青少年時期在家習文練武兼作農事，娶胡氏為妻，更在光和元年五月十三（178年6月16日）生了關平。大約在關羽24歲時，即183年，因斬殺惡豪呂熊而逃離家鄉至幽州涿郡，並改姓為關。

於明朝時，仍有關羽有一子關索一說，但關羽不認他，最後成為蜀漢一員將領，不過學者一般認為關索只是傳說，歷史上並沒有關索此人。

在陶弘景《古今刀劍錄》一書中，曾記載關羽當時為劉備重任，不惜親自採都山的鐵，鑄成二刀，銘為萬人。後來關羽兵敗，將二刀投入水中。

明朝小說《三國演義》中，將關羽所使用的武器設定為青龍偃月刀，然根據文獻記載及出土文物中，偃月刀係在宋朝才開始出現，但因《三國演義》廣為流傳，後世也將青龍偃月刀稱為「關刀」。因關羽善使關刀，故俚語以「關公面前耍大刀」來稱在專家面前賣弄本事、不自量力的意思。

因為《三國演義》故事家喻戶曉，所以產生不少與關羽有關的歇後語，如關羽過江赴會、單騎千里、義薄雲天、威震華夏、喝酒看不出來臉紅、華容道放曹操一念舊情等。

又因關公鬍子漂亮，因此有外號「美髯公」之稱。

武器和坐騎

南梁（此時南北朝，距離關羽生活年代約300年）陶弘景《古今刀劍錄》記載：「關羽為先主所重，不惜身命，自採武都山鐵為二刀，銘曰在萬人。及羽敗，惜刀，投于水。此記載較為可信，歷史上的關羽很可能用的是兩把環首刀。

正史上並未記載關羽使用的武器，受《三國演義》等的影響，現代關羽的形象一般使用偃月刀（青龍偃月刀），不過考古學上並無漢晉時期使用此類武器的証據。正史上也沒有對于關羽坐騎戰馬的特別記載，不過《三國演義》講述了曹操將原為呂布騎乘的赤兔馬轉送于關羽的故事，深入民心。據小說家言，赤兔馬在關羽成仁之後絕食而死，故今日祭祀關羽的廟宇或大堂等，常會有一尊赤兔馬的雕塑像。戲曲劇目中，亦會為關羽安排服侍赤兔馬的一位馬童。

遊戲

三國無雙是1997年在PS平台上出現了一款對戰遊戲，直到2000年，光榮在PS2借用新平台製作了第一部真三國無雙。這種獨特的遊戲方式可以讓玩家體會到一騎當千的感覺，在遊戲界一亮，受到玩家歡迎。無雙系列除了它獨特的遊戲方式以外，它的人設也是頗為出色的。主要受到《蒼天航路》這部漫畫所影響。相同的是，和呂布爭鋒的不是趙雲，而是關羽。二人也被設定為死敵。另外在吞食天地II 赤壁之戰、三國戰紀作為主要角色也很受歡迎。

• 《三國殺》

對關羽的神化和信仰

歷代崇奉

關羽自唐代起被佛教天台宗開始奉為神明，進行私人祭祀。天台宗創始人智����（538年—597年）隋朝時創建了位于湖北當陽縣西約30里的玉泉寺，靠近關羽的殞命之地。寺內設有供奉關羽的「顯烈廟」，尊其為護法伽藍神。《重修玉泉寺關廟記》記載智����曾遇見自稱關羽的神靈，並受贈土地建寺，關羽神靈被認為能掌控國家興衰和影響農作物豐歉。

755年安史之亂後，唐朝國力衰退。760年，唐肅宗封太公望為武成王，提升太公廟為武成王廟，與文宣王孔廟同等，配享十位古今名將（孫武​、吳起​、田穰苴、樂毅、白起、韓信、張良、諸葛亮、李靖、李勣）。782年，關羽被列為六十四位名將之一，以蜀前將軍和漢壽亭侯的身份開始享有國家祭祀，但這一祭祀到786年便中止，僅持續五年。此外，武廟還供奉其他三國武將（諸葛亮、張遼、鄧艾、張飛、周瑜、呂蒙、陸遜、陸抗、羊祜和杜預），關羽此時並未受到特殊的信仰。

進入宋代，關羽的地位逐步提升。970年，趙匡胤表彰二十三位古今忠臣義士，關羽名列其中，為其墳墓設立守墓人進行祭祀。1013年，朝廷出資修繕玉泉寺的顯烈廟。祭祀逐步變為官方活動。宋仁宗時期​，關羽再次成為武成廟的從祀。1096年，宋哲宗賜玉泉寺「顯烈」匾額。北宋末年，戰事增多，徽宗先後封關羽為「忠惠公」和「武安王」，寄託對抗北方民族入侵的期望。這些封號儀式多在顯烈廟舉行，使其成為官方祈願所。靖康之變後，南宋繼續加封關羽為「壯繆義勇王」等，但南宋也封諸葛亮為「威烈武靈仁濟王」，關羽並非唯一的國家守護神。

北宋作為五代的繼承者，平定了長江流域的十國，實現了中國的統一。為彰顯正統性，北宋將曹魏視為正統，司馬光在《資治通鑑》中質疑蜀漢的正統地位。南宋朱熹對此激烈反對，認為諸葛亮是三代以來唯一楷模。朱子學在南宋受到重視，民眾和文人普遍支持蜀漢，諸葛亮北伐理想成為南宋的英雄象徵，關羽信仰也在此背景下擴展。

宋朝軍事力量相對較弱，主要依賴發達的商業來抵抗北方侵略。在財政中，鹽稅占據了重要地位。晉商憑藉山西的地理優勢和良好的商業環境，成為鹽業的主要參與者。關羽本身是山西人，且其故鄉解縣是當時最大的鹽產地，因此晉商將其尊奉為守護神。隨著晉商勢力和地位的提升，關羽的信仰也得到了相應的擴展。

元朝滅南宋後，鹽稅在稅收中占據八成。元代以鹽稅和東西方貿易為經濟基礎，這為鄰近都城大都（今北京）的晉商提供了商機。晉商在元代勢力進一步壯大，關帝信仰隨之盛行。他們在各地經商時修建關帝廟，並設立表演戲曲的舞台。老百姓通過戲曲接觸到關帝信仰，並逐漸普及開來。元代曾一度廢止科舉取士，許多漢族士人成為元曲創作者。元末明初，長江流域的出版商大量印刷並普及據稱由羅貫中整理的《三國志通俗演義》。

明太祖朱元璋廢除武成廟，認為身為臣子的封號屬于僭上，剝奪了以孔子和太公望為代表的封號，關羽的封號恢復為「壯繆侯」。

在明代萬曆年間（1573—1620年），總理河道都御史潘季馴因關羽在治河中顯靈，請求賜封。1582年，萬曆帝封關羽為「協天大帝」，1590年，加封為「協天護國忠義大帝」。1614年，再封為「三界伏魔大帝神威遠鎮天尊關聖帝君」，舉行儀式極大地改變了關羽信仰在國家祭祀中的地位。萬曆帝為了祈求神明保佑軍事勝利，積極推動關羽信仰。在迎擊豐臣秀吉的朝鮮，萬曆帝下令在今首爾東大門外修建祭祀關羽的東廟（即東關王廟），在南大門外修建南廟（即關聖廟，朝鮮戰爭中焚毀）。明軍將領要求朝鮮國王在五月十三日關羽生辰這天前往祭拜。

明代中葉以後，面對外患的情況下，晉商努力承擔邊境地區的軍事物資供給，從而加強了與國家的聯繫，贏得了鹽法改革帶來的便利，得以進入中國經濟最發達的揚州及長江流域，逐漸發展成為與徽商並列的兩大商人勢力之一，關帝信仰也隨之擴大。

從元朝開始，關羽的封號逐漸加上「真君」「帝君」「聖」等神祇的名號，直到清朝光緒時最後追封的稱號為「忠義神武靈佑仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德關聖大帝」，開始大規模塑像建廟供奉。民間祭祀中，關羽為武財神，有別於文財神趙公明。據此而有《關聖帝君覺世真經》。官府推其忠，百姓崇其義。關羽作為勸忠勸善的神明，各朝皇帝多半敬奉非常，其「侯而王，王而帝，帝而聖，聖而天」的過程請參考下表：

元文宗至順二年（1331年）敕封的官職最多，其次為清德宗光緒帝的「忠義神武靈佑仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德關聖帝君」封號，共26個字，採用了眾多美好的文詞。

關羽的祠廟遍佈各地，為最多祠廟的中國神明之一。唐初開始便有武廟，但主祀的是輔佐武王克殷的周朝宰相姜子牙，而關羽則為從祀之神。如平日出征，則祭拜佛教四大天王中掌管北方的毘沙門天王，並繪製毘沙門天王旗，以保佑戰爭勝利。

關帝信仰，可能肇始於宋代，完成於明代。關羽信仰由來已久，至宋朝更趨昌盛，至遲宋朝末年，民間供奉關羽的廟宇已經「郡國州縣、鄉邑間井皆有」，宋朝皇帝也多追封關羽為王。元代朝廷雖崇信藏傳佛教，但未箝制民間信仰，因此民間對關羽的崇信有增無減，元朝皇帝且曾遣使致祭。明代不立武廟，然而明太祖朱元璋嘗以「漢壽亭侯關羽廟」列為京師金陵祀典之一，之後明朝歷任皇帝不斷追封關羽，關羽漸漸成為明朝「所最崇奉」。明朝尊奉關羽，甚至要求藩屬朝鮮官方修建「關王廟」。隨著明朝追封關羽為帝，明朝人對關羽的尊稱也由「關王」漸漸升格為「關帝」，沿襲至今。

明清以降，供奉關羽的廟宇不僅遍佈漢地，且延伸至蒙古、西藏。而朝鮮、越南、日本、琉球亦有供奉關帝的廟宇。

佛教也視關羽為護法神，漢地佛教尊奉為伽藍菩薩，源於隋代創建天台宗的智者大師。後來藏傳佛教亦尊關羽為護法神。民間宗教中也有尊關帝為主神的，如神武靈拳。隨著關羽地位變得顯赫，關羽更被尊稱為「武王」、「武聖人」，與孔子並肩而立，合稱「文武二聖」。也正因為關羽如此顯赫，除了軍人、武師奉他為行業神崇拜外，就連商業、煙業、描金業、香燭業、教育業、命相家等等不相干的行業也推崇關羽，所以也信奉他為財神、五文昌。在香港，香港警察和香港黑幫等黑白兩道都有信奉關羽的習俗。如香港警察在1930年代起有供奉關帝的習慣，以祈求關帝庇佑。而香港黑幫在接收新會員的入會儀式時，亦會有關帝象坐鎮。

藏傳佛教也逐漸將關羽視為護法神，尤其是噶瑪噶舉派的大寶法王。

注釋