Names and titles

Xiang Yu's family name was Xiang while his given name was Ji and his courtesy name was Yu. He is best known as Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu is referred to as the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" or simply "Hegemon-King" (; also translated as "Conqueror-King").

Family background

There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the House of Mi, the royal family of the Chu state. His ancestors were granted Xiang County (; around present-day Shenqiu County, Henan) as their fief by the king of Chu and had since adopted Xiang as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had served in the Chu army for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather, , was a general who was killed in action while leading Chu forces to resist an invasion by the Qin state in 223 BC.

Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC during the late Warring States period when the Qin state started conquering the other six major states. According to the descendants of the Xiang family living in Suqian, Jiangsu, Xiang Yu's father was Xiang Chao, Xiang Yan's eldest son. Xiang Yu was raised by his uncle, Xiang Liang, because his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state unified China and established the Qin dynasty.

Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one eye just like the mythical Emperor Shun and Duke Wen of Jin. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi, or approximately , and possessed great physical strength as he could lift a ding.

Early life

In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang Liang was not very satisfied with him. Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat thousands of enemies." After hearing that, his uncle tried to teach him military strategy, but he stopped learning after he had grasped the main concepts. Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, so he gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.

When Xiang Yu grew older, Xiang Liang killed someone so they fled to the Wu region to evade the authorities. Around the time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area. As Xiang Yu and his uncle watched the emperor's procession pass by, Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him." Shocked by what his nephew said, Xiang Liang immediately covered Xiang Yu's mouth with his hand. After this incident, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.

Revolt against the Qin dynasty

In 209 BC, several uprisings erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty. Some of these rebel groups claimed to be restoring the former six states which were conquered by the Qin state. , the Qin-appointed administrator of Kuaiji Commandery, wanted to rebel against the Qin government as well, so he invited the Xiangs to meet him and discuss. Xiang Yu and Xiang Liang lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him; Xiang Yu killed hundreds of Yin Tong's men during the battle. After that, Xiang Liang started his own rebellion and rallied about 8,000 men to support him, declaring himself the new Administrator of Kuaiji and appointing Xiang Yu as a general. Xiang Liang's rebel group grew in size until it was between 60,000 and 70,000 men. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin as King Huai II of Chu to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin dynasty and restore the former Chu state. At this time, King Huai II was merely a puppet ruler as the Xiangs still controlled the Chu rebel group's armed forces. During this time, Xiang Yu gained a reputation for being a competent general and formidable warrior from participating in battles against Qin forces.

Later that year, after Xiang Liang was killed at Dingtao against Qin forces, control over the Chu rebel group's armed forces fell into the hands of King Huai II and his close aides. In the winter of 208 BC, the Zhao rebel group led by requested for assistance from the Chu rebel group while they were under attack by Qin forces in Handan. King Huai II gave Xiang Yu the title "Duke of Lu" and appointed him as second-in-command to Song Yi, who had been tasked with leading reinforcements to help the Zhao rebel group. At the same time, King Huai II sent Liu Bang to attack Guanzhong, the heartland of the Qin dynasty, promising both Xiang Yu and Liu Bang that whoever entered Guanzhong first would be made King of Guanzhong.

Battle of Julu

Song Yi and Xiang Yu headed to Anyang, some distance away from Julu Commandery, where the Zhao forces had retreated to after their defeat at Handan. At Anyang, Song Yi ordered the troops to make camp for 46 days, refusing to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to advance further. Frustrated at Song Yi's inaction, Xiang Yu took him by surprise during a meeting, accused him of treason, and killed him. Song Yi's other subordinates feared Xiang Yu so they did not stop him from becoming their acting commander. Xiang Yu then sent a messenger to report the situation to King Huai II, who reluctantly approved his command.

In 207 BC, Xiang Yu advanced towards Julu Commandery, sending Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead a 20,000-strong vanguard to cross the river and attack the Qin forces, while he followed behind with the rest of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days and perishing with no hope of turning back. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Chu forces scored a decisive victory against the 300,000-strong Qin army after nine engagements. After the battle, some other rebel groups came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration. When Xiang Yu met them at the entrance of his camp, the other rebel leaders were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not dare to look up at him.

Meanwhile, the Qin general Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin to the Qin capital Xianyang to seek reinforcements and supplies. However, the Qin government, which was under Zhao Gao's control, dismissed the request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin on his way back to Julu Commandery, but Sima Xin survived and returned to report the situation to Zhang Han. Left with no choice, Zhang Han and his 200,000 Qin soldiers surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu did not trust the 200,000 surrendered Qin soldiers and saw them as a liability, so he ordered them to be buried alive at Xin'an (; present-day Yima, Henan]) while sparing Zhang Han and his deputies Sima Xin and Dong Yi.

Feast at Hong Gate

After his victory at the Battle of Julu, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion of the Guanzhong region, the heartland of the Qin dynasty. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin emperor Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang, bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. By the time Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops and knew that Liu Bang had beat him in the race to Guanzhong. Cao Wushang, one of Liu Bang's subordinates, sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu Bang would be King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu Bang's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At the time, Xiang Yu had about 400,000 troops while Liu Bang had only a quarter of that number.

Acting on Fan Zeng's advice, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a feast at Swan Goose Gate and plotted to assassinate Liu Bang during the feast. However, Xiang Yu later listened to his uncle Xiang Bo and decided to spare Liu Bang, allowing Liu Bang to escape halfway during the feast.

In 206 BC, Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang, where he executed Ziying and his family, and ordered the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.

Acting against his followers' advice to remain in Guanzhong and continue with conquering the territories held by the other rebel groups, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his home territory. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamorous outfits. Who would notice that?" One of his followers remarked, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing." Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.

Division of the empire

In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu promoted King Huai II, the nominal ruler of the Chu rebel group, to a more "honourable" title – Emperor Yi of Chu – and divided the territories of the former Qin dynasty into the Eighteen Kingdoms. He declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu states, with his kingdom's capital at Pengcheng (; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). The remaining kingdoms were granted to, among others, Xiang Yu's subordinates, some leaders of the other rebel groups, and the three surrendered Qin generals. The Guanzhong region, which was rightfully Liu Bang's according to the earlier promise by King Huai II, was instead given to the three surrendered Qin generals and collectively known as the Three Qins. Liu Bang, on the other hand, was relocated to the remote Hanzhong and given the title "King of Han".

Among the kings appointed by Xiang Yu, some were followers of the leaders of the other rebel groups, and the leaders themselves should rightfully be the kings instead of their followers. Xiang Yu also did not award titles to some rebel leaders who had not supported him earlier but had contributed to the overthrow of the Qin dynasty. In the winter of 206 BC, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi of Chu to the remote Chen County (; present-day Chenzhou, Hunan), effectively sending the puppet emperor into exile. In 205 BC, while en route to Chen County, Emperor Yi was assassinated by Ying Bu, the King of Jiujiang, who had been acting on Xiang Yu's order.

In late 206 BC, Xiang Yu executed Han Cheng, the King of Hán, and replaced him with Zheng Chang. Some months later, seized control of the former Qi territories – divided into the Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei kingdoms – from their respective kings appointed by Xiang Yu, and declared himself the King of Qi. In the Zhao territories, Chen Yu led an uprising against Zhang Er, the King of Changshan appointed by Xiang Yu, seized control of Changsha and installed as the King of Zhao.

Chu–Han Contention

Battle of Pengcheng

In 206 BC, Liu Bang led his forces to attack the Three Qins in the Guanzhong region. At the time, Xiang Yu was away on a campaign in the Qi territories against Tian Rong and did not pay much attention to Liu Bang's invasion.

The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another five kingdoms and attacked Xiang Yu with a 560,000-strong army, capturing the Western Chu capital Pengcheng.

Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu turned back from Qi and led 30,000 troops to attack Liu Bang, defeating and inflicting heavy casualties on the latter's forces at the Battle of Pengcheng.

Battle of Xingyang

After losing Pengcheng, Liu Bang retreated to Xingyang with Xiang Yu in pursuit. At Xingyang, Liu Bang managed to hold his position against Xiang Yu until 204 BC. Ji Xin, one of Liu Bang's subordinates who resembled his lord in appearance, disguised himself as Liu Bang and pretended to surrender to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learnt that he had been fooled, he had Ji Xin burnt to death.

After the fall of Xingyang, the Chu and Han forces respectively occupied the territories east and west of present-day Henan. On the battlefront north of the Yellow River, Xiang Yu's forces were not faring well as Han Xin, one of Liu Bang's generals, had conquered the Zhao kingdom and defeated Xiang Yu's general Long Ju at the Battle of Wei River. Concurrently, Peng Yue, Liu Bang's ally, was constantly launching guerrilla-style attacks on Xiang Yu's territories in the east.

Treaty of Hong Canal

By 203 BC, the tide had turned in Liu Bang's favour. After a year-long siege, Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father and threatened to boil him alive if Liu Bang refused to surrender to him. Liu Bang remarked that since he and Xiang Yu had become oath brothers earlier in a ceremony in 208 BC, Xiang Yu would, in the eyes of everyone, be deemed guilty of patricide if he killed Liu Bang's father. Both sides ultimately agreed to make peace in an event known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, which divided China into east and west under Xiang Yu and Liu Bang's control respectively. Xiang Yu also released Liu Bang's father and other hostages he had captured earlier.

Battle of Guling

Shortly after, Liu Bang renounced the peace agreement and attacked Xiang Yu while the latter was heading back to Pengcheng. At the same time, he sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting them to join him in attacking Xiang Yu on three fronts. However, Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their forces, so Liu Bang ended up being defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. After his defeat, Liu Bang retreated to strengthen his defences, while concurrently sending messengers to meet Han Xin and Peng Yue again, promising to make them kings and grant them territories if they helped him defeat Xiang Yu.

Defeat and death

In 202 BC, the combined forces of Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Xiang Yu from three fronts and managed to trap Xiang Yu's forces, which were running low on supplies, at Gaixia (; in present-day Anhui). Han Xin ordered his men to sing folk songs from the Chu territories to evoke feelings of nostalgia among the Chu soldiers and create the impression that many Chu soldiers had surrendered and joined the Han forces. The morale of Xiang Yu's forces plummeted and many of them deserted. Xiang Yu, in despair, composed the "Song of Gaixia" while his wife Consort Yu committed suicide.

The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite horsemen on a desperate attempt to break out of the siege, with 5,000 enemy troops in pursuit. After crossing the Huai River, Xiang Yu was left with only a few hundred men. They lost their way so Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp. By the time they reached Dongcheng (; in present-day Dingyuan County, Anhui), Xiang Yu had only 28 men left. There, he made a speech, declaring that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failures.

After that, Xiang Yu led his men to break out of the encirclement, killing one Han officer in the process. He then split his remaining men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up too to attack the groups. In doing so, he took the enemy by surprise and killed another Han officer, inflicting about 100 casualties on them while losing only two men.

Xiang Yu retreated to the bank of the Wu River (; near present-day He County, Anhui), where the ferryman at the ford had prepared a boat for him to cross the river to the Jiangdong region where Xiang Yu's hometown was. The ferryman urged him to retreat to Jiangdong, saying that he still had the support of the people there. However, Xiang Yu replied that he was too ashamed to return home and face the people because all the 8,000 men from Jiangdong he had first brought along into battle had all perished. He refused to cross the river and ordered his remaining men to dismount while asking the ferryman to take his warhorse, Zhui, back home.

Xiang Yu and his men made a last stand against wave after wave of Han forces until only Xiang Yu himself was still alive. Continuing to fight fiercely, he killed over 100 enemy soldiers but also sustained several wounds all over his body. Just then, he recognised an old friend, Lü Matong, among the Han soldiers, so he called out to him: "I heard that the King of Han (Liu Bang) has placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of "Wanhu Marquis" (; "marquis of 10,000 households") on my head. Take it then, on account of our past friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by slitting his throat with his sword. A brawl broke out among the Han soldiers over Xiang Yu's dead body as they were eager to claim the reward; Xiang Yu's body was dismembered and mutilated in the process. Liu Bang eventually divided the reward among Lü Matong and four others who showed up with Xiang Yu's body parts.

After Xiang Yu's death, the rest of Western Chu surrendered and China was unified under Liu Bang's rule, marking the start of the Han dynasty. Liu Bang held a funeral for Xiang Yu in Gucheng (; in present-day Dongping County, Shandong), with the ceremony befitting Xiang Yu's earlier title "Duke of Lu". He also spared the lives of Xiang Yu's relatives, including Xiang Yu's uncle Xiang Bo who had saved his life during the Feast at Swan Goose Gate, and made them marquises.

Evaluation

Classical

The historian Sima Qian, who wrote Xiang Yu's biography in the Shi Ji, described him as someone who boasted about his achievements and thought highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others. In Sima Qian's view, Xiang Yu had not only failed to recognise his own shortcomings, but also failed to make attempts to correct his mistakes. Sima Qian felt that it was ridiculous for Xiang Yu to attribute his downfall to Heaven's will instead of his personal failures. As Xiang Yu had ordered massacres of entire populations of cities even after they had surrendered peacefully, his cruelty had led to cities putting up strong resistance since they believed they would be killed even if they surrendered to him. The most notorious example of his cruelty was after the Battle of Julu when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered Qin soldiers to be buried alive. Other instances included the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. In contrast, Liu Bang was a shrewd and cunning ruler who was sometimes ruthless too, but had made the wiser choice in forbidding his troops from looting the cities they had captured and sparing the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu became an example for Confucianists to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people. Xiang Yu's ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and his death at an early age.

Han Xin once described Xiang Yu as follows: "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft-hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. He was neither able to make good use of capable generals nor able to support Emperor Yi of Chu; he showed no mercy at all in battle. Even though he was a Hegemon-King in name, he had already lost the people's hearts."

The Tang dynasty poet Du Mu mentioned Xiang Yu in a poem: "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong. Who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can made a comeback?" The Song dynasty poet Wang Anshi had a different opinion wrote: "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?" The Song dynasty poet Li Qingzhao wrote: "A hero in life; a king of ghosts after death. Until now, we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."

Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possessed great courage but lacked wisdom, and his character is aptly summarised using the Chinese idiom , meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", or "foolhardy". Another Chinese idiom , was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him", was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on Fan Zeng and failure to actually listen to Fan Zeng's advice.

Modern era

Modern historians have drawn similarities between Xiang Yu's military brilliance and that of his Mediterranean contemporary Hannibal. Researchers emphasised Xiang Yu's strategic thinking, while also exploiting any opportunities to launch a surprise attack in the morning under the cover of darkness, as Xiang Yu was outstanding in this regard. His tactical early morning raids on the enemy fully demonstrated his superb strategy of mobilization and artistic prowess, despite facing unprecedented crises.

Mao Zedong also once mentioned Xiang Yu: "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Hegemon-King." In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: not following Fan Zeng's advice to kill Liu Bang during the Feast at Swan Goose Gate and letting Liu Bang escape; adhering firmly to the terms of the Treaty of Hong Canal without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust; building his capital at Pengcheng.

In popular culture

Song of Gaixia

The "Song of Gaixia" was composed by Xiang Yu during the Battle of Gaixia. The lyrics in English as follows are Burton Watson's translation:

Xiang Yu's prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese folk tales, poetry, and novels, and he has been the subject of films, television, plays, operas, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his wife Consort Yu and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero to his character.

Poetry, folk tales, novels

Xiang Yu's prowess in battle is mentioned in Chinese folk tales and poetry, particularly during the Battle of Gaixia. The Meng Qiu (蒙求), an eighth-century primer by the scholar Li Han, contains the four-character rhyming couplet "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the incident during the Battle of Xingyang in 205 BC when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his troops to distract Xiang Yu and buy time for Liu Bang to escape.

In the 14th-century classical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the warlord Sun Ce is nicknamed "Little Conqueror / Little Hegemon-King" and compared favourably to Xiang Yu by a contemporary just like his historical counterpart. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period.

In another 14th-century classical novel Water Margin, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 Stars of Destiny, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for having an appearance similar to Xiang Yu's.

In the 16th-century novel Jin Ping Mei, Xiang Yu is mentioned as an example of a tragic character in the song at the opening of the first chapter.

The character Mata Zyndu in Ken Liu's epic fantasy novel The Grace of Kings is based on Xiang Yu.

Operas

The Beijing opera The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige's 1993 award-winning film Farewell My Concubine.

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Xiang Yu in films and television series include: Shek Sau in The Battlefield (1985); Ray Lui in The Great Conqueror's Concubine (1994); Hu Jun in The Story of Han Dynasty (2003); Kwong Wah in The Conqueror's Story (2004); Tan Kai in The Myth (2010); Feng Shaofeng in White Vengeance (2011); Peter Ho in King's War (2012); Ming Dao in Beauties of the Emperor (2012); Daniel Wu in The Last Supper (2012); and Qin Junjie in The Legend of Qin (2015).

生平

出身

項氏歷代習武，多人也是楚國將領。前223年，秦將王翦率60萬大軍攻楚。楚將項燕敗於秦軍被殺，楚亡。項羽是項燕之孫。項羽本人據載是目生重瞳，身長八尺，力能扛鼎，才氣過人。項羽少年時讀書輟學，學劍術也中途而廢。其叔父項梁因此不滿，項羽回答：「書足以記名姓而已。劍一人敵，不足學，學萬人敵。」於是項梁不教他讀書與劍術，改教他兵法，但項羽略知大意以後，便不肯全部學完。後來項梁因故殺人，躲避仇家，攜項羽逃亡到吳中（今蘇州）定居。

秦始皇帝三十七年（公元前210年），秦始皇巡遊會稽郡渡錢塘江時，時年22歲的項羽跟項梁一起旁觀皇帝出巡，項羽說：「彼可取而代也」（可以取代他。），嚇得項梁急掩其口，但從此對項羽另眼相看。因此典故，該處一說名掩浦，一名項浦，位於湖州府城東北十六里弁山東。

起兵反秦（前209年—前207年）

秦二世元年（前209年）七月，陳勝、吳廣在大澤起義，開始反秦。到了九月，會稽郡假守殷通（代理太守）欲先發制人發兵反秦，於是找項梁商議。但項梁卻命項羽趁機謀殺了殷通，史書記載當時項羽在殷通府中拔劍斬其頭及擊殺門下近百人。項梁在吳中各縣自行舉兵起義反秦，不久便招募了精兵八千人，俗謂「八千江東子弟」。

項梁自封為會稽郡郡守，項羽則任裨將，率領八千子弟，渡長江，得到一些反秦軍隊歸附，兵力增至六、七萬人，進駐下邳，並消滅了自立為楚王的景駒勢力。范增進言楚地流行「楚雖三戶，亡秦必楚」之說，建議項梁立故楚後人為王，項梁採納，在民間找到楚懷王嫡孫熊心，立他為楚王，仍號「楚懷王」，即楚後懷王，以爭取楚地民心。

巨鹿之戰（前207年）

項梁北伐秦兵，前208年九月在定陶之戰中遇秦兵主力章邯，陣亡。章邯其後率軍攻趙國，大敗趙軍，趙王趙歇退至巨鹿。楚後懷王遷都至彭城（今江蘇徐州），封項羽為長安侯，魯為其食邑，故項羽又稱魯公。懷王與諸將約定，「先入定關中者王之」，即先攻破關中者為關中王。項羽希望懷王命他攻關中，但懷王不聽，而命劉邦攻關中，命宋義為上將軍，項羽為次將，率兵往鉅鹿救趙。

宋義軍到達安陽後停止前進，在當地停留了四十六日。前208年十一月，項羽建議進兵，但宋義不接納，項羽便矯詔殺了宋義，楚軍諸將擁立羽為假（代理）上將軍。項羽派桓楚稟報懷王，懷王被迫任命項羽為上將軍。

項羽進兵巨鹿（今河北平鄉縣西南）。秦軍兵力有王離軍二十萬與駐守糧道的章邯軍二十萬，楚軍只有五萬，兵力遠遠少於秦軍。仔細考察形勢後，項羽決定先派英布、蒲將軍率兩萬楚軍渡漳河，襲擊秦軍糧道，令王離軍乏食，並使章邯軍疲於奔命，而能對王離軍各個擊破。項羽隨後率其餘4萬楚軍渡河，命令部下在渡河後砸碎釜鍋與鑿沉舟船（後世稱之為「破釜沉舟」，意謂豁出一切），全軍僅攜帶三日乾糧，餘者焚之，表明自絕退路，以示士卒必死，無一還心，若不得勝便有死無生。

最後項羽九戰九勝，楚軍無不以一當十，大破秦軍四十萬。當時帶領援兵的諸侯僅作觀戰（即成語「作壁上觀」），待章邯引兵退卻時，諸侯軍乃敢進攻王離、涉間，項羽轅門召見時，諸侯全部膝行而前，莫敢仰視。項羽成為「諸侯上將軍」，為各路諸侯軍隊的統帥。前207年六月，秦將章邯率所部向項羽投降。

進入關中（前206年）

巨鹿之戰後，項羽繼續向關中平原進軍，前207年十一月（前207年12月14日–前206年1月11日），項羽擔心秦降兵生變，於是命楚軍在一夜間在新安城南（今河南省三門峽市義馬市二十里鋪村一帶）坑殺掉降兵二十餘萬人。但劉邦前207年十月已經搶先佔領秦都咸陽，並派軍在函谷關阻止楚軍入關，楚軍以英布為先鋒乃破關直入。劉邦大懼，乃退出咸陽，紮營灞上。劉邦的部下左司馬曹無傷派人向項羽說「沛公欲王關中，使子嬰為相，珍寶盡有之。」項羽大怒。當時項羽統率四十萬軍隊，而劉邦只得十萬人。范增遊說項羽鏟除劉邦，項羽在鴻門（今陝西省西安市臨潼區新豐鎮鴻門堡村）宴請劉邦，范增於席間命項莊借表演劍術為名，意欲刺殺劉邦，後世稱此為「項莊舞劍，意在沛公」。但項伯起身保護劉邦，又加上張良命樊噲衝進來遊說項羽，項羽讓劉邦平安地離去，後世稱此宴為「鴻門宴」。前206年，項羽進入咸陽後，殺秦王子嬰，焚咸陽秦宮室，大火維持三個月，他經過的地方「無不一片廢墟」，關中人民對他大為失望，不得民心。

分封天下（前206年）

這時韓生勸說項羽留駐關中，可成就霸業。項羽沒有留在關中的打算，當時秦宮皆以燒而殘破，又思東歸，他說：「富貴不歸故鄉，如衣繡夜行，誰知之者。」此為成語衣錦還鄉和錦衣夜行的由來。韓生則因為項羽不留關中，批評項羽：「人言楚人沐猴而冠耳，果然。」（聽人說楚國人像是戴帽子的彌猴，果真如此。）項羽聽說後很生氣，烹殺了他。

之後項王使人致命懷王，請示如何分封領地。懷王曰：「如約。」即先入關中的劉邦為關中王。項羽不服，乃尊懷王為楚義帝，欲自己稱王，並分封各路將相：「天下初發難時，假立諸侯後以伐秦。然身被堅執銳首事，暴露於野三年，滅秦定天下者，皆將相諸君與籍之力也。義帝雖無功，故當分其地而王之。」（天下初發難時，我們暫立六國諸侯後代（即懷王）為王伐秦。然而親身披甲執銳起義，戰場奮戰三年，滅秦定天下的，是各位和我的力量啊。不過，義帝雖無功，我們還是分地讓他稱王。）諸將皆曰：「善。」

之後自立為「西楚霸王」，統治梁楚九郡，定都彭城（今江蘇徐州）。他把華夏大地分封給各路反秦將領，故秦關中之地，封給章邯、司馬欣、董翳三位秦朝降將，將劉邦封到漢中郡、巴郡、蜀郡、武都郡、廣漢郡當漢王。也大概在此時，為項羽帳下執戟郎的韓信因不受重用而棄楚投漢，日後成為楚漢戰爭中極關鍵的人物。

不久項羽把義帝流放至長沙國郴縣，暗命英布在半途殺死他。同年齊相國田榮起兵自立為齊王，又派兵支援陳餘擊敗常山王張耳，陳餘復立代王趙歇為趙王。

楚漢相持（前206年—前204年）

前206年8月，漢王劉邦趁項羽討伐齊地田榮時，反叛出兵攻擊三秦（即關中），擊潰楚軍，司馬欣、董翳降漢，章邯被圍困於廢丘，漢軍取得關中。此時韓王信攻韓地，再下十餘城，11月，韓王信受封韓王。漢軍取得關中與韓地，站穩腳跟，準備東進。

前205年3月，漢軍準備萬全，劉邦以項羽殺害楚義帝為名，聯合五國諸侯，兵分兩路，共五十六萬大軍進攻楚國，佔領彭城（今江蘇徐州），漢軍盡收貨寶美人，夜夜笙歌。項羽聞訊，命部屬留守齊地，親率三萬精兵南下。項羽所在的齊地位於彭城北方，項羽仔細考察形勢後，決定繞到彭城西邊，也就是從劉邦攻入彭城，防禦最薄弱的方向從背後予以奇襲。項羽行軍電光石火，先擊敗魯縣的樊噲，呂澤不及回防。項羽在早晨向彭城劉邦的數十萬漢軍發動進攻，至中午大破漢軍，將漢軍壓迫於谷、泗水地區，韓信等各路漢軍潰敗，被殲十餘萬人。楚軍收復彭城，又緊追不捨至睢水上（今安徽淮北市西），漢軍被逼入河中，溺斃十餘萬人，「睢水為之不流」。此時楚軍已經包圍劉邦三層，然而突然大風西北而起，飛沙走石，天昏地暗，楚軍大亂，劉邦趁機與數十騎逃走。太公呂后為楚軍所獲。此戰項羽以楚軍三萬擊潰漢軍五十六萬，為中國歷史上之名戰役。此一大敗讓漢軍元氣大傷，盡失原本佔領關中與韓地的優勢，退守滎陽。

敗逃的劉邦讓繒賀擊楚，阻止了楚軍進攻。。劉邦還派曹參平定了程處在燕縣的叛亂，楚柱天侯在衍氏的叛亂，樊噲在彭城之戰前失了魯地，戰後再次取得魯、梁一帶之地，最後灌嬰、靳歙、曹參、樊噲在「軍于滎陽」，即在滎陽會合。隨後引水灌廢丘，廢丘降，章邯自殺，消滅了章邯。接著劉邦稍收士卒，再加上蕭何亦發關中老弱，都到滎陽助軍，劉邦又以擔任過秦朝騎士的李必、駱甲兩人訓練騎兵。之後在京索打敗追擊的項羽，漢二年五月劉邦西收兵與呂澤在下邑會合。劉邦派人去沛縣找到了彭城之戰失散的劉盈和魯元公主。京索之戰，漢軍穩住陣腳，楚軍也無力突破漢軍防線進攻關中。雙方從此開始在滎、成一帶拉鉅，戰爭進入相持階段。

前204年，劉邦為解除滎陽相持的殭局，命令靳歙擊斷楚軍從滎陽至襄邑的糧道，命令灌嬰擊斷了楚軍從陽武至襄邑的糧道，離開滎陽，攻打楚國後方的二號大本營：魯城，並留下御史大夫周苛、魏王豹、樅公等人守滎陽，劉邦指揮的漢軍正在攻打魯城項冠。周苛認為魏王豹會投降項羽，殺了魏王豹，隨即項羽攻破了滎陽，烹殺了周苛，項羽再破成皋，至鞏縣，直逼洛陽，劉邦完全平定魯城，得知滎陽與成皋已失，項羽逼近洛陽，于是命令靳歙、丁複等單獨攻打楚國後方，丁複在彭城打敗龍且，劉邦與灌嬰回洛陽抵擋項羽，把項羽阻擋在鞏縣不能西進，項羽猛攻洛陽與敖倉，劉邦命令灌嬰去邯鄲調韓信軍回敖倉堅守，任命灌嬰接任御史大夫之職，派酈食其說降齊國。

劉邦在拖住項羽同時，另派數路漢軍分掠楚地，從後方包抄項羽，韓信、曹參、灌嬰、呂澤軍團等漢軍精銳在濰水之戰全殲了楚國大司馬龍且率領的援齊楚軍，平定齊國。彭越、劉賈在楚軍後方往來，斷絕楚軍糧食補給，而英布在楚國後方九江攻城略地，劉賈、盧綰也配合英布作戰。靳歙深入楚軍後方，平定楚國大片領土，東至平定繒、郯、下邳，南至蘄、竹邑，擊敗項悍於濟陽，從後方包圍項羽。灌嬰在淮北大破楚軍最後一支主力項聲軍團，攻下西楚都城彭城。對楚軍實現了戰略包圍，使項羽的處境更趨困難，楚軍糧食缺乏，既不能進，又不能退，完全陷入了困境。

兵敗陳垓（前203年—前202年）

前203年，漢軍士氣大盛，糧草充足，項王士卒疲憊，糧食告絕。項羽早先在彭城之戰擄獲劉邦之父劉太公、劉邦之妻呂雉，此時項羽以劉太公為人質要挾劉邦，但劉邦不理會。「我和你一起接受楚後懷王的命令，結拜為兄弟，我父親就是你父親；你一定要煮你父親來喫，也請分我一杯羹！」項羽大怒，原想殺了劉太公，但因項伯的勸阻而作罷。後來兩方簽訂鴻溝和約，項羽也釋放劉邦家人，率軍撤退。中國象棋棋盤上的「楚河漢界」，就是後人為了紀念此事而命名的。

不久劉邦從張良建議，撕毀和約追擊楚軍。劉邦趁項羽退軍之際率領漢軍發起追殲，在陽夏大破項羽率領的楚軍，俘虜楚國大將周將軍。劉邦到固陵後，命令劉賈渡淮河，攻下壽春，派人策反楚國大司馬周殷，攻占城父，並與灌嬰、靳歙約定好，在陳縣夾擊項羽，斷截項羽逃回會稽的歸路，漢將宣曲侯丁義率領騎兵和汾陽侯靳強率漢軍為先鋒，攻固陵楚軍，便擊破了楚大將鐘離眜的部隊，項羽得知灌嬰、靳歙等率領漢軍東來後，為防自己被包圍，集結著剩餘主力南退守至陳下。

前202年，楚軍東面喪失了龍且軍團、項聲軍團，西面喪失了曹咎軍團，南邊大司馬周殷也已叛楚率領軍團投降，漢將劉賈堵截項羽南逃之路，西楚主力基本損失殆盡。楚軍的糧草又被彭越截斷，人無糧、馬無草，危機重重。

劉邦面對大好形勢，毫不手軟，率領漢軍就主動出擊對陳縣的項羽軍發起追擊殲滅戰。陳下之戰項羽大敗，退逃東南，西楚陳公立即投向漢軍，陳縣歸于漢軍。項羽楚軍主力受到重創後欲撤往會稽，劉賈、周殷、英布攻下城父堵截項羽，項羽逃到垓下，劉邦與劉賈、周殷、英布會合。

韓信、彭越、英布等會合劉邦後，漢軍參戰兵力已超過六十萬人，在垓下將向江南撤退的十萬楚軍層層包圍，此險惡形勢即為後人所稱「十面埋伏」。劉邦以韓信親率三十萬人為前軍，孔將軍（孔聚）在左翼，費將軍（陳賀）在右翼，劉邦坐鎮居中軍在後，絳侯（周勃）、柴將軍（柴武）做為預備隊在劉邦軍後待命。彭越、英布等在楚軍後方，韓信親率前軍發動攻勢，初戰進攻受挫後退，在楚軍追擊時，劉邦讓孔、費兩翼左右包抄夾擊楚軍，同時韓信率領前軍翻身再戰，以及彭越、英布、劉賈、周殷等諸侯從各處圍攻楚軍，楚軍在三面夾擊中被擊敗。項羽被迫退回垓下城。

烏江自刎（前202年）

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垓下之戰敗後，楚軍被包圍在垓下城。是夜，漢軍又以士兵以楚地方言唱歌，讓楚軍誤以為漢軍已渡江佔領了他們的家鄉，楚國已亡。這「四面楚歌」心理戰術，使項羽軍士氣崩潰。項羽和他愛人虞姬在此際唱出了著名的《垓下歌》，唱了一遍又一遍。項羽淚水流了下來，左右部將也泣不成聲，莫能仰視。項羽率剩餘精銳騎兵突圍。

項羽率八百餘人突圍，漢將灌嬰帶五千騎兵緊追不捨。渡過淮水以後，項羽的騎兵只剩下百人。項羽在陰陵迷路，向路邊的農夫問路，農夫謊報路徑，使項羽軍迷失在大澤當中，被漢軍追至，項羽引兵往東。

項羽到達東城時，只剩二十八騎，漢軍騎兵追擊的有數千人。項羽自度不得脫身。跟部將說：「吾起兵至今八歲矣，身七十餘戰，所當者破，所擊者服，未嘗敗北，遂霸有天下。然今卒困於此，此天之亡我，非戰之罪也。今日固決死，願為諸君快戰，必三勝之，為諸君潰圍，斬將，刈旗，令諸君知天亡我，非戰之罪也！」語畢，將二十八騎分為四隊四向。此時數千漢軍已重重包圍上來。項羽跟部將說：「吾為公取彼一將。」命令部將從四面分頭下山，約定在山東面三處會合。接著，項羽大吼著從山上殺向漢軍，望風披靡，如入無人之境，當場斬殺漢軍一將。當時，赤泉侯楊喜為騎將，追殺項羽，項羽沒出手，只回頭瞪眼暴喝一聲，赤泉侯即人馬俱驚，向後逃跑了好幾里遠。下山後，項羽與其騎會為三處。漢軍不知項羽所在，乃分軍為三，再包圍上來。項羽衝上前，再斬殺漢一都尉，又殺數十百人，再聚集部隊，只損失了兩名騎兵。項羽問部將：「何如？」部將皆拜服嘆曰：「如大王言。」

項羽原準備東渡烏江，回到故土江東。烏江亭長準備船給項羽，說：「江東雖小，地方千里，眾數十萬人，亦足王也。願大王急渡。今獨臣有船，漢軍至，無以渡。」項羽哈哈一笑：「天之亡我，我何渡為（為何渡）！且籍（項羽）與江東子弟八千人渡江而西，今無一人還，縱江東父兄憐而王我，我何面目見之？縱彼不言，籍獨不愧於心乎？（縱使他們不說，籍難道不愧於心？）」語畢，再跟亭長說：「吾知公（您）長者。吾騎此馬五歲，所當無敵，嘗一日行千里，不忍殺之，以賜公。」將愛馬烏騅託付給亭長後，項羽與騎兵下馬步行，持短兵與追上的漢軍接戰。獨項羽一人就殺死漢軍數百人。項羽亦身受十餘處傷。此時項羽看見從小一起長大的玩伴呂馬童也在漢軍中，說：「若非吾故人乎？」呂馬童不敢直視，轉頭背對項羽，跟另外一位軍官王翳說：「此項王也。」項羽說：「吾聞漢購我頭千金，邑萬戶，吾為若德（我送禮給你）。」於是自刎而死。王翳搶到項羽的頭，其他追兵為搶奪項羽屍體，光自相殘殺就殺死了數十人；最後郎中騎楊喜、騎兵司馬呂馬童、郎中呂勝及楊武各得一塊屍體。五人將屍體拼湊起來，確實是項羽。劉邦故將屬地分封為五：封呂馬童為中水侯，封王翳為杜衍侯，封楊喜為赤泉侯，封楊武為吳防侯，封呂勝為涅陽侯。

因項羽曾封魯公，故魯地（今山東曲阜一帶）一直不肯降漢，直到漢軍出示了項羽首級，並答允禮葬項羽才肯投降。之後，漢王劉邦在穀城以魯公禮安葬項羽，並親為發哀，哭之而去。

所封諸侯王

從屬

• 范增，項梁時曾建議立楚王之後。項羽尊其為「亞父」，後來不受項羽信任而離開。

• 龍且，項籍麾下將領，濰水之戰為呂澤陳武丁禮韓信聯軍所敗，與留公逃至假密，為漢灌嬰部下所斬。

• 陳平，本魏王咎的太僕，屢次勸諫魏王咎而不被採用，離去。陳平過來後投項羽，隨項羽入關，賜爵平爵卿。楚漢戰爭開始，殷王反楚，陳平率軍平定。不久，漢軍再次進攻殷王，殷王再次降漢，項羽大怒，遷怒于當初平定殷王的人並要殺他們。陳平于離開項羽投奔劉邦。

• 韓信，項籍麾下執戟郎，不被重用而投靠劉邦。

• 鍾離昧，項籍麾下將領，西楚滅亡後隱姓埋名逃回家鄉，後來投奔故交韓信以求庇護，但劉邦下死命大力通緝，自知無活路而自殺身亡，韓信持其頭顱在陳下獻給劉邦。

• 季布，項籍麾下將領，西楚滅亡後由夏侯嬰推薦仕漢。高后時期阻止朝中的主戰派對匈奴用兵，被呂后採納。漢文帝初任河東太守，河東郡時為天下第一大郡，漢長安東部屏障。

• 蒲將軍

• 桓楚，故秦壽春令。秦時項梁犯法，及由他疏通關係找到司馬欣釋放項梁，故為項氏所親信。

• 周殷，項籍信任的親信，任大司馬，陳下之戰前倒戈於劉邦。

• 呂馬童，項籍的同鄉，後來投靠劉邦。

• 叔孫通，於彭城之戰後投靠劉邦。

• 鄭君，項羽敗，高祖令故項羽臣下名籍，鄭君不從，見逐，孝文時去世。子鄭當時武帝時任大司農。

• 武涉，項籍麾下的論客，曾往韓信處勸降，事不成。

• 丁公，項籍麾下騎將，季布和季心的母弟，於彭城之戰放走劉邦，西漢時被劉邦斬首。

• 利幾，陳公，項羽敗亡，降漢，封穎川侯。不久漢高祖六年秋，利幾於潁川反，劉邦乃率軍親征，利幾兵敗被殺

• 蕭公角，彭越反梁地，受田榮將軍印。項羽派其征彭越，反為彭越打敗；

• 留公，姓名不詳，與龍且共救齊，為呂澤韓信聯軍所敗。

• 薛公，姓名不詳，楚漢戰爭後期與項聲共複定淮北，灌嬰回師，戰于下邳，為灌嬰軍所斬。

• 薛公，姓名不詳。項羽敗後投奔滕公夏侯嬰。英布反，在劉邦親征前為其分析形勢，為劉邦所採納

• 周蘭，亞將，從龍且救齊，為灌嬰所俘。灌嬰占領彭城後進攻苦、譙，再次為灌嬰所俘。

• 李將軍，山陰人李左績。魯城守將，在項羽死後仍然堅持不降，劉邦派人把項羽首級送往谷城並為項羽發喪，李將軍逐率軍投降，後自刎殉主。

家族成員

親屬

• 項燕，項羽的祖父，楚國名將。

• 項伯，項羽的叔父，劉邦稱帝賜姓劉，改名為劉纏，封射陽侯。公元前192年去世。射陽位于今江蘇寶應射陽湖鎮一帶。

　• 劉猷，項伯之子，項羽堂弟，劉邦稱帝賜姓劉，改名為劉猷。項伯死後，劉猷獲罪，不得繼承項伯爵位，國除。

• 項梁，項羽的叔父，任楚國武信君，在定陶之戰被章邯所殺

• 項莊，項羽堂弟，在鴻門宴舞劍而出名。

• 項聲，九江王英布為漢，與龍且將楚軍破九江，盡有九江。楚漢戰爭末年，漢將灌嬰攻楚略地至淮，進至廣陵。項羽令項聲率軍複定淮北。及灌嬰回師複渡淮，大破其軍于下邳。

• 項它，項羽敗亡後歸漢，賜姓劉，漢高祖七年（前200年）封平皋侯，孝惠五年（公元前190年）年去世，謚煬侯。後傳共侯遠、節侯光，及至侯勝；漢武帝元鼎五年，坐酹金免。元康四年，它玄孫之孫詔複家。

• 項悍，西楚項氏宗親，項羽麾下親族將領之一。曾在濟陽與漢軍交戰。

• 項冠，劉邦率領灌嬰和靳歙破于魯城，其所部下五樓煩將五人、連尹一人為灌嬰軍斬殺。

• 項襄，項氏親，漢二年從起定陶，去世，謚「安侯」，子哀侯舍嗣。景帝時哀侯舍歷任太僕、御史大夫，周亞夫罷相，繼任丞相，景帝後元年免。

• 項嬰，被項籍派往張耳當監察官，後被張耳所殺。

• 虞姬，項羽側室。史書沒有記載其結局，後世文藝作品通常設定為於垓下之戰中自刎殉夫

後人

唐玄宗年間右威衛左中侯項承暉墓志銘自稱其為項羽後人，還提及其姐為貴妃。

爭議

自殺地點

由於《史記·項羽本紀》、《史記·高祖本紀》及《漢書·灌嬰傳》有提及項羽「身死東城」、「追殺項羽東城」等，有人認為項羽是在東城自刎而不是烏江，但其觀點未有被廣泛接受。事實上，「東城自刎」、「烏江自刎」兩種說法並沒有矛盾，只是地方行政單位的級數不同。烏江即是烏江亭，在東城縣縣境。研究者指烏江亭可能因地處長江渡口、交通要津而設的亭。故完整的說法是：項羽于九江郡東城縣烏江亭自刎。

稱呼

關于項羽到底是「霸王」還是「項王」的稱呼，史書記載並不確定。根據《史記·項羽本紀》記載：「項王自立為西楚霸王，王九郡，都彭城。」，所謂「西楚霸王」在《項羽本紀》中就出現過這麼一次，此後不再出現「霸王」，而是稱項羽為「項王」。項羽最後在東城被圍，自己說：「吾起兵至今八歲矣，身七十餘戰，所當者破，所擊者服，未嘗敗北，遂霸有天下。」最後，太史公稱贊說：「夫秦失其政，陳涉首難，豪傑蜂起，相與並爭，不可勝數。然羽非有尺寸，乘勢起隴畝之中，三年，遂將五諸侯滅秦，分裂天下，而封王侯，政由羽出，號為『霸王』，位雖不終，近古以來未嘗有也。」

有意思的是《漢書·陳勝項籍傳》中，雖然幾乎是同樣的語言，卻沒有用「西楚霸王」，《漢書·陳勝項籍傳》：「羽自立為西楚伯王，王梁、楚地九郡，都彭城。」「然羽非有尺寸，乘勢拔起隴畝之中，三年，遂將五諸侯兵滅秦，分裂天下而威海內，封立王侯，政繇羽出，號為『伯王』，位雖不終，近古以來未嘗有也。」「霸」字變成了「伯」。

《史記考索·〈史記〉紀表書世家傳說例》記載：「項羽自為西楚霸王，霸者，『伯』之借字。伯，長也，猶言諸王之長也。羽既為諸侯長矣，故《本紀贊》曰：『分裂天下而封王侯，政由羽出，號為霸王。』」可見「西楚霸王」實為「西楚伯王」，意思就是諸侯之長。

火燒阿房宮誤解

對於火燒阿房宮一說，起源是出自唐朝詩人杜牧的阿房宮賦，由於杜牧生於中晚唐唐敬宗時間，皇帝荒淫無度、不理朝政、大興土木，杜牧以項羽某些昏庸殘暴事蹟，再添加項羽火燒阿房宮一事來藉古諷今。

不過由中國社會科學院考古研究所和西安市文物保護考古所聯合組成的阿房宮考古隊，對阿房宮遺址進行的考古工作發現，阿房宮從來就沒有建成，僅是完成地基而已，而項羽入關中後，焚燒的是位於渭水北岸的秦咸陽宮，並不是一般認為的阿房宮（位於渭水南岸），考古學家在發掘原咸陽宮遺址時，發現了大量的灰燼和紅焦土，證明項羽確實曾縱火焚燒過咸陽宮。

評價

《史記》作者司馬遷在書中批評項羽：「吾聞之周生曰舜目蓋重瞳子，又聞項羽亦重瞳子。羽豈其苗裔邪？何興之暴也！夫秦失其政，陳涉首難，豪傑起，相與並爭，不可勝數。然羽非有尺寸乘埶，起隴畝之中，三年，遂將五諸侯滅秦，分裂天下，而封王侯，政由羽出，號為『霸王』，位雖不終，近古以來未嘗有也。及羽背關懷楚，放逐義帝而自立，怨王侯叛己，難矣。自矜功伐，奮其私智而不師古，謂霸王之業，欲以力征經營天下，五年卒亡其國，身死東城，尚不覺寤而不自責，過矣。乃引『天亡我，非用兵之罪也』，豈不謬哉！」。司馬遷評論前段部分肯定項羽之功績和勇猛，後半部分批評項羽驕傲自負，不善用人以及不省其過。但是，司馬遷在史記中仍然把項羽的傳記列為本紀，與歷代中國最高統治者平級，是少數享此殊榮而無帝王（皇帝）頭銜的人物。在《太史公自序》作項羽本紀第七。評：「秦失其道，豪桀並擾；項梁業之，子羽接之；殺慶救趙，諸侯立之；誅嬰背懷，天下非之。」

認為是司馬遷怨恨晚年昏聵的漢武帝，所以故意把項羽這劉氏大敵地位提升，不然綜觀史記對項羽貶多於褒，不至於到本紀的高度，同時項羽為人好大喜功、極愛面子。《史記·項羽本紀》：「人或說項王曰：『關中阻山河四塞，地肥饒，可都以霸。』項王見秦宮室皆以燒殘破，又心懷思欲東歸，曰：『富貴不歸故鄉，如衣繡夜行，誰知之者！』說者曰：『人言楚人（暗指項羽）沐猴而冠耳，果然。』項王聞之，烹說者。」《史記·項羽本紀》記載了項羽對平民與降卒的六次大屠殺，全部都是戰勝之後駭人聽聞的屠殺與殺降：第一次襄城屠殺，坑殺全城平民；第二次城陽大屠殺，處決了此前幫助齊郡防禦的全城平民；第三次新安大屠殺，坑殺秦軍降卒二十萬；第四次咸陽大屠殺，殺戮關中平民無計，大燒大殺大劫掠大掘墓；第五次破齊大屠殺，坑殺田榮降卒數目不詳，大劫掠大燒殺，逼反復闢後的齊國；種種大規模暴行之外，項羽又恢復了戰國大煮活人的烹殺，後來又有殺楚懷王、殺秦王子嬰並秦諸公子、大掘秦始皇陵等，使大屠殺的酷烈惡風在秦末之亂中驟然暴長。

揚雄在《法言》中批判：「或問：「楚敗垓下，方死，曰『天也！』諒乎？」曰：「漢屈群策，群策屈群力；楚敦群策而自屈其力。屈人者克，自屈者負。天曷故焉！」」

楚國諸將：「項羽為人僄悍滑賊，諸所過無不殘滅。」（《史記·高祖本紀第八》）

陳平：「項王為人，恭敬愛人，士之廉節好禮者多歸之。至于行功爵邑，重之，士亦以此不附……項王不能信人，其所任愛，非諸項即妻之昆弟，雖有奇士不能用，平乃去楚。」（《陳丞相世家》。此二句意指劉邦待人傲慢無禮，但用人不疑且封賞從不手軟；相較之下項羽仁而愛人，但用人疑神疑鬼且封賞極為小氣，無法留才。）

酈食其：「項王有倍約之名，殺義帝之負；于人之功無所記，于人之罪無所忘；戰勝而不得其賞，拔城而不得其封；非項氏莫得用事；為人刻印，刓而不能授；攻城得賂，積而不能賞：天下畔之，賢才怨之，而莫為之用。故天下之士歸于漢王，可坐而策也。」（《史記·酈生陸賈列傳第三十七》）

劉邦：「項羽有一范增而不能用，此其所以為我擒也！」（《史記·高祖本紀第八》）

韓信曾批評項羽為：「遇強則霸的匹夫之勇，和遇弱則憐的婦人之仁。既不能任用賢能將帥，又曾遷逐楚義帝，用兵趕盡殺絕。雖名為霸王，其實民心盡失。」；「請言項王之為人也。項王喑惡叱吒，千人皆廢；然不能任屬賢將，此特匹夫之勇耳。項王見人恭敬慈愛，言語嘔嘔，人有疾病，涕泣分食飲；至使人有功，當封爵者，印刓敝，忍不能予，此所謂婦人之仁也。」

此二句意為項羽只看眼前而不識大體；好行小惠而不願大封大賞，用人但憑個人好惡而非才學，只記過不記功且心胸狹隘，作風與劉邦完全相反。

高起、王陵對曰：「陛下慢而侮人，項羽仁而愛人。然陛下使人攻城略地，所降下者因以予之，與天下同利也。項羽妒賢嫉能，有功者害之，賢者疑之，戰勝而不予人功，得地而不予人利，此所以失天下也。」（《高祖本紀》）

王充：「項羽惡微，號而用兵，與高祖俱起，威力輕重，未有所定，則項羽力勁。」（《論衡·卷十九·恢國篇第五十八》）

郭嘉：「昔項籍七十餘戰，未嘗敗北，一朝失勢而身死國亡者，恃勇無謀故也。」（《三國志·魏書·程郭董劉蔣劉傳第十四》）

諸葛亮：「昔項籍總一強眾，跨州兼土，所務者大，然卒敗垓下，死於東城，宗族如焚，為笑千載，皆不以義，陵上虐下故也。」（《三國志·卷三十三 蜀書三 後主傳第三》）「昔在項羽，起不由德，雖處華夏，秉帝者之勢，卒就湯鑊，為後永戒。」（《三國志·卷三十五·蜀書五·諸葛亮傳第五》）

劉劭：「若一人之身，兼有英雄，則能長世；高祖、項羽是也。然英之分，以多于雄，而英不可以少也。英分少，則智者去之，故項羽氣力蓋世，明能合變，而不能聽採奇異，有一范增不用，是以陳平之徒，皆亡歸高祖。」

段灼：「秦失其鹿，豪傑競逐，項羽既得而失之，其咎在烹韓生，而范增之謀不用。假令羽既距項伯之邪說，斬沛公于鴻門，都咸陽以號令諸侯，則天下無敵 矣。而羽距韓生之忠諫，背范增之深計，自謂霸王之業已定，都彭城，還故鄉，為晝被文繡，此蓋世俗兒女之情耳，而羽榮之。是故五載為漢所擒，至此尚不知覺悟，……甚痛矣哉！」（《晉書·卷四八·列傳第十八·段灼》）

蔡謨：「夫以白起、韓信、項籍之勇，猶發梁焚舟，背水而陣。」（《晉書·卷七七·列傳第四七·蔡謨》）

李德林：「項羽誅秦摧漢，宰割神州，角逐爭驅，盡威力而無就也。」（《隋書·卷四二·列傳第七·李德林》）

房彥謙：「故蚩尤、項籍之驍勇，伊尹、霍光之權勢，李老、孔丘之才智，呂望、孫武之兵術，吳、楚連盤石之據，產、祿承母弟之基，不應歷運之兆，終無帝主之位。」（《北史·列傳第二十七》）

魏元忠：「假有項籍之氣，袁紹之基，而皆泯智任情，終以破滅，何況複出其下哉。」（《舊唐書·列傳第四十二》）

司馬貞：「秦鹿走，偽楚狐鳴。雲鬱沛谷，劍挺吳城。勛開魯甸，勢合碭兵。卿子無罪，亞父推誠。始救趙歇，終誅子嬰。違約王漢，背關懷楚。常遷上游，臣迫故主。靈壁大振，成皋久拒。戰非無功，天實不與。嗟彼蓋代，卒為凶豎。」（《史記·項羽本紀第七》）

呂蒙正：「楚霸英雄，敗於烏江自刎；漢王柔弱，竟有萬里江山。」（《破窯賦》）

唐代才子杜牧有詩《題烏江亭》：「勝敗兵家事不期，包羞忍恥是男兒。江東弟子多才俊，捲土重來未可知。」但是杜牧天真的想法被王安石仿此詩格式吐槽：「百戰疲勞壯士哀，中原一敗勢難回。江東子弟今雖在，肯與君王捲土來。」

宋蘇洵：「項籍有取天下之才，而無取天下之慮。」

宋蘇軾：「項籍唯不能忍，是以百戰百勝而輕用其鋒。」（《古文觀止》）

宋蘇轍《虞姬墓》的詠嘆是：布叛增亡國已空，摧殘羽翮自令窮。艱難獨與虞姬共，誰使西來敵沛公。

宋陸游《項羽》嘆曰：八尺將軍千里騅，拔山扛鼎不妨奇。范增力盡無施處，路到烏江君自知。

宋文天祥：「項籍、關侯、敖曹擒虎之流。」（《文山集·送彭叔英序》）

宋范浚：「若籍則無能有是，得范增不能用，得陳平不能用，得韓信不能用，皆使之怨僨棄去，徒以匹夫小勇，欲決雄雌于挑戰間，至力蹙勢窮，猶將馳殺一二漢將，以見枝能，此楚所以失天下也。然則籍之亡也，又胡望乎天哉？」

宋何去非：「項羽之于力嘗強矣，以其不知真力之所在，此所以亡。彼項羽以百戰百勝氣蓋于一時，手襲天下以王豪傑而宰制之，自以天下莫能抗也。觀其所賴以為資，蓋有類乎力者矣。雖然，彼之所謂力者，內恃其身之勇，叱吒震怒足以威匹夫；外恃其眾之勁，搏捽決戰足以吞敵人而已。至于阻河山，據形便，俯首東瞰，臨制天下，保王業之固，遺後世之強，所謂真力者，彼固莫或之知也。是以輕指關中天險之勢，燔燒屠戮逞其暴，卒舉而遺之二三降虜，反懷區區之故楚而甚榮。......惟其知奪而不知其有，此所以亡耳。」

劉叔友：「項王有吞岳瀆意氣，咸陽三月火，骸骨亂如麻，哭聲慘怛天日，而眉容不斂，是必鐵作心肝者。然當垓下訣別之際，寶區血廟，了不經意，惟眷眷一婦人，悲歌悵飲，情不自禁。」（《鶴林玉露》）

宋代女詞人李清照詩讚云：「生當作人傑，死亦為鬼雄，至今思項羽，不肯過江東。」

明太祖朱元璋：「項羽南面稱孤，仁義不施，而自矜功伐。高祖知其然，承以柔遜，濟以寬仁，卒以勝之。」（《明史·卷第一三五·列傳第二三·孔克仁》）

王世貞：「嗟乎！古之有天下者，要必有人君之德，而其佐命以功臣終者，要必有人臣之體，人臣之體在才巨而心小其識不凡，而凡不遠而遠乃可保也無君德，而其材非人臣者。偏雄，則項羽、袁紹、李密；委質，則韓信及榮也。」（《王弇州崇論卷之四》）

李晚芳：「羽之神勇，千古無二；太史公以神勇之筆，寫神勇之人。亦千古無二。迄今正襟讀之，猶覺喑嗯叱吒之雄，縱橫馳騁于數頁之間，驅數百萬甲兵，如大風卷籜，奇觀也。」

明末流寇首領張獻忠曾經評歷代帝王，以西楚霸王為第一。

蔡東藩：「惟觀于項王之坑降卒，殺子嬰，弒義帝，種種不道，死有餘辜，彼自以為非戰之罪，罪固不在戰，而在殘暴也。彼殺人多矣，能無及此乎！天亡天亡，夫複誰尤！」

周恩來：「時勢之英雄，固若是其眾也，然非吾之所論于項羽、拿破崙也。夫二氏，世界之怪傑也。具併吞八荒之心，叱吒風雲之氣；勇冠萬夫，智超凡俗；戰無不勝，攻無不取；敵邦聞之而震魄，婦孺思之而寒膽；百世之下，猶懍懍有生氣，豈僅一世之雄哉！是猶其勇之著于外也。若其關繫於世界之進退，人類之盛衰，又非一時豪俊、二三學者所可同日而語。雖以帝王之尊、宗教之力、金錢之勢，莫以易之。故二氏者，吾之所謂造時勢之英雄也。」

孫中山認為，項羽失敗最簡單原因，就是項羽專靠武力，劉邦入關之後，便約法三章，事事總是寬宏大量，以得民心為主。

中國共產黨領導人毛澤東有詞云：「宜將剩勇追窮寇，不可沽名學霸王。」在1964年的一次談話中，毛澤東進一步指出項羽戰敗的三個錯誤：鴻門宴不聽范增的話，放走劉邦；機械遵守鴻溝協定；以及建都徐州（當時叫彭城）。

藝術

文化影響

項羽英勇善戰但下場悲慘，加之他與虞姬的愛情故事，符合大眾對悲劇英雄的觀感而受戲劇與創作歡迎。

中國傳統戲曲中多有與項羽有關的內容，如近代京劇中有名劇霸王別姬。

古琴曲中有〈楚歌〉一曲描寫項羽兵敗垓下的故事。

由於項羽在江邊自盡，世人感念，建廟奉祀，陳朝時甚至尊封為帝。後人則尊為諸「水仙王」之一，希望項羽的英靈可以保佑漁民及水上運輸、貿易的安全。

影視形象

• 香港電視劇《楚河漢界》（1985年）：由石修飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《淮陰侯韓信》（1991年）：由韓再峰飾演。

• 香港電影《西楚霸王》（1994年）：由呂良偉飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《西楚霸王》（1994年）：由寧才飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《漢劉邦》（1998年）：由張林飾演。

• 香港電視劇《楚漢驕雄》（2004年）：由江華飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《楚漢風雲》（2005年）：由胡軍飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《大漢巾幗》（2005年）：由臧金生飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《玫瑰江湖》（2009年）：由鐘漢良飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《神話》（2010年）：由譚凱飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《大將軍韓信》（2010年）：由吳毅將飾演。

• 中國大陸與香港合拍電影《鴻門宴傳奇》（2011年）：由馮紹峰飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《楚漢爭雄》（2011年）：由任程偉飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《楚漢傳奇》（2012年）：由何潤東飾演。

• 中國大陸電影《王的盛宴》（2012年）：由吳彥祖飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《秦時明月》（2014年）：由秦俊傑飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《天意》（2018年）：由于濟瑋飾演。

動漫

• 《天子傳奇3流氓天子》

• 《天子傳奇4大唐威龍》

• 《天子傳奇5如來神掌》

• 《天子傳奇7三國驕皇》

• 《秦時明月》（2007年）：由沈達威配音。

• 《秦漢英雄傳》（2011年）：由張震配音。

• 《秦時明月3D電影龍騰萬里》（2014年）：由沈達威配音。

• 《秦時明月》第五季《君臨天下》新春特別篇（2016年）：由戴超行配音。

遊戲

• 日本手機遊戲《Fate/Grand Order》：由山寺宏一配音，職階為Berserker，被描述為秦始皇製造的半人馬型機關人偶「會稽零式」，寶具是「力拔山兮氣蓋世」。

• 《王者榮耀》中的角色，職業為坦克

• 《神魔之塔》2020第一張新黑金。

　• 種族：人類；屬性：光；星數：7星；主動技能為力拔山河，隊長技分別為純色的無雙之霸與雜色的蓋世之氣。

戲劇

• 台灣金光布袋戲《金光御九界之戰血天道》（2019年）：「血神」角色原型為西楚霸王。

註釋