Family background

Ma Chao was from Maoling County (茂陵縣), Youfufeng Commandery (右扶風郡), which is located northeast of present-day Xingping, Shaanxi. He was the eldest son of Ma Teng, who descended from Ma Yuan, a general who lived in the early Eastern Han dynasty. Ma Teng's father, Ma Ping (馬平), whose courtesy name was Zishuo (子碩), served as a military officer in Tianshui Commandery (天水郡) during the reign of Emperor Huan. After losing his post, Ma Ping went to live among the Qiang tribes in the region, married a Qiang woman and had a son, Ma Teng. Ma Teng, along with Han Sui and others, were warlords who held considerable influence in Liang Province (covering parts of present-day Shaanxi and Gansu) towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and were reluctant to submit to Han rule. In 192, Ma Teng accepted the appointment of General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) from the Han imperial court and garrisoned his army at Mei County (郿縣). However, he rebelled against the Han dynasty later and attacked the city of Chang'an but failed to conquer it so he retreated back to Liang Province.

Early career

During the early Jian'an (建安; 196–220) era, Ma Teng and Han Sui battled against each other. Around age twenty, Ma Chao was famous for his strength and fought on his father's side. During a battle, Yan Xing stabbed him with his spear. As the spear broke, he used it to strike Ma Chao's neck and nearly killed him. Conflict between Ma Teng and Han Sui ended in 200, when Zhong Yao and Wei Duan (韋端) convinced them to reconcile.

In 197, the warlord Cao Cao – who had become the de facto head of the Han central government – placed Zhong Yao, the Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隷校尉), in charge of guarding the Guanzhong region. Zhong Yao wrote to Ma Teng and Han Sui, explaining to them the benefits of submitting to the Han court and the negative consequences of not doing so. When Cao Cao became the Imperial Chancellor (丞相), he wanted to recruit Ma Chao to serve in the Han government, but Ma refused.

In 202, when Cao Cao was on a series of campaigns to unify northern China after his victory over Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu two years earlier, he ordered Zhong Yao to attack Yuan's allies Gao Gan and Guo Yuan in Pingyang (平陽; in present-day Linfen, Shanxi). Ma Teng sent Ma Chao to assist Zhong Yao. Ma Chao served as an Assistant Officer Who Supervises the Army (督軍從事) under Zhong Yao. During the battle, he was hit by a stray arrow in the foot, but he wrapped his foot in a pouch and continued fighting. His subordinate Pang De slew Guo Yuan and they defeated the enemy.

Ma Teng got into conflict with Han Sui later, so he requested to leave Liang Province and work in the capital. He was granted permission and appointed as the Minister of the Guards (衞尉) by the Han court. Ma Chao was appointed as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍), made a Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯), and placed in charge of his father's troops in Liang Province. Ma Chao's younger brothers Ma Xiu (馬休) and Ma Tie (馬鐵) were appointed as a Commandant of Equipage (奉車都尉) and a Commandant of Iron Cavalry (鐵騎都尉) respectively, and were ordered to bring all their family members with them to Ye (in present-day Handan, Hebei). Only Ma Chao remained behind in Liang Province.

Uprising against the Cao Cao controlled Han Government

Battle of Tong Pass

In 211, Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. They were due to pass through the Guanzhong region along the way. Ma Chao suspected that Cao Cao was planning to attack him, so he contacted Han Sui to form an alliance. He told Han Sui, "Previously, Zhong Yao ordered me to harm you. Now, I know that the people from Guandong (east of Tong Pass) cannot be trusted. Now, I abandon my father, and I'm willing to acknowledge you as my father. You should also abandon your son, and treat me like your son." Han Sui's subordinate, Yan Xing, urged his superior not to cooperate with Ma Chao but Han still agreed to the alliance. Ma Chao also contacted Yang Qiu, Li Kan (李堪), Cheng Yi (成宜), Hou Xuan (侯選), Cheng Yin (程銀), Zhang Heng (張橫), Liang Xing (梁興), Ma Wan (馬玩) and others, and they formed a 100,000 strong coalition army to attack Tong Pass (present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi). Liu Zhang, the governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), wanted to marry his daughter to Ma Chao to build ties with Ma, but Wang Shang (王商), a commandery administrator under Liu Zhang, opposed the idea and said that Ma Chao was courageous but inhumane and untrustworthy.

Cao Cao led an army to Tong Pass to attack Ma Chao and the coalition, resulting in the Battle of Tong Pass. After both sides clashed in a few engagements, Cao Cao had talks with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao relied on his great strength and secretly harboured the intention of dashing forth and capturing Cao Cao when they met. However, he did not dare to make his move when Xu Chu, one of Cao Cao's close aides, glared at him. Cao Cao later followed Jia Xu's strategy to sow discord between Ma Chao and Han Sui and make them become suspicious of each other. Taking advantage of the hostility between Ma Chao and Han Sui, Cao Cao launched an attack on the northwestern warlords and defeated them.

Earlier on, when Cao Cao's forces were at Puban (蒲阪; east of present-day Dali County, Shaanxi) and were planning to cross the Wei River and head west, Ma Chao told Han Sui, "We should resist them at the north of the Wei River. Within 20 days, their supply stores on the east of the river will be depleted, after which they will definitely retreat." However, Han Sui rejected his idea and said, "We should send our forces to engage the enemy on the river. Isn't this more direct?" When Cao Cao heard of Ma Chao's plan, he remarked, "If the young horse doesn't die, I can't have a proper burial place."

Battles in Guanzhong

Ma Chao retreated further west after his defeat at Tong Pass. Cao Cao pursued him to Anding (安定; around present-day Pingliang, Gansu) but gave up on the pursuit and headed east after receiving news about unrest in northern China. Yang Fu warned Cao Cao, "Ma Chao has the courage of Han Xin and Ying Bu, and both the Qiang and Rong peoples deeply respect him. If we retreat now and don't station defences here, we'll forfeit all the territories in this area." After Cao Cao left, as Yang Fu predicted, Ma Chao led the various tribes in the region to attack the commanderies and counties in Guanzhong, while the people responded to his call and joined him in the revolt. Ma Chao killed Wei Kang, the Inspector (刺史) of Liang Province, and seized control of Liang Province's capital Jicheng (兾城; in present-day Gangu County, Gansu) and forced Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. He then appointed himself General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) and Governor (牧) of Bing Province, and took charge of military affairs in Liang Province.

While Ma Chao besieged Wei Kang, Xiahou Yuan wanted to lead reinforcements to help him but arrived too late as Ji had already fallen to Ma Chao with Xiahou Yuan still more than 200 li away from Ji. Ma Chao led an army out to face Xiahou Yuan who would prove unable to defeat Ma Chao and decided to withdraw his troops when he heard that the Di tribes in Qian County (汧縣) had started a rebellion.

Wei Kang's former subordinates – Yang Fu, Jiang Xu, Liang Kuan (梁寬), Zhao Qu (趙衢) and others – were unhappy with Ma Chao so they plotted to get rid of him. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu rebelled against Ma Chao in Lucheng (鹵城; in present-day southeastern Gansu), while the others in Jicheng pretended to urge Ma to suppress the revolt. Ma Chao followed their advice and led an army to attack Lucheng but could not conquer the city. When he returned to Jicheng, he saw that Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu had closed the city gates and barred him from entering. Zhao Qu and the others also killed Ma Chao's wife and child(ren) in Jicheng.

In the summer of 212, about a year after Ma Chao rebelled against the Cao Cao controlled Han court, Cao Cao forced Emperor Xian to issue a decree ordering the execution of Ma Chao's father Ma Teng and the rest of his family who were with him at the time in Ye (in present-day Handan, Hebei).

Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong, where he borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu, and returned to attack those who drove him out of Guanzhong. He besieged Jiang Xu, Zhao Ang and their allies at Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) for about 30 days until reinforcements led by Cao Cao's generals Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He showed up and lifted the siege.

Service under Zhang Lu

Ma Chao returned to Hanzhong Commandery after his defeat at Mount Qi and sought shelter under Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu planned to marry his daughter to Ma Chao, but one of Zhang's aides advised him against it, saying, "If a person can't even love his family and relatives, can he still love others?" Zhang Lu then aborted his plan.

On one New Year's Day, a relative of Ma Chao who had also escaped to Hanzhong came to visit him. Ma Chao beat his chest, coughed blood, and said to his relative, "A big family with over a hundred members all sharing the same fate in one day. Now, are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?"

Ma Chao constantly asked Zhang Lu to give him some troops to attack Liang Province. Zhang Lu agreed, but Ma Chao failed to make any gains from the campaign. Yang Bai (楊白), an officer under Zhang Lu, was jealous of Ma Chao's ability and wanted to harm him. When Ma Chao heard about it, he escaped from Wudu (武都; around present-day Longnan, Gansu) and went to live with the Di people around the area.

Service under Liu Bei

Around 214, the warlord Liu Bei was fighting for control over Yi Province with the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Ma Chao distrusted Zhang Lu and felt that he was not capable of great achievements, so he planned to defect to Liu Bei. When he heard that Liu Bei was besieging Liu Zhang in Chengdu (Yi Province's capital), he wrote a secret letter to Liu Bei, expressing his desire to serve the latter. Liu Bei was pleased to receive Ma Chao's letter and he exclaimed, "Yi Province is mine." He then sent Li Hui to meet Ma Chao and provide supplies and additional troops to Ma, after which Ma led his forces to the north of Chengdu and joined the siege. When the people of Chengdu saw Ma Chao and his troops below the city walls, they were greatly demoralized and fearful. Within ten days of Ma Chao's arrival, Liu Zhang gave up resistance and surrendered to Liu Bei.

After occupying Yi Province, Liu Bei appointed Ma Chao as General Who Pacifies the West (平西將軍) and put him in charge of Linju (臨沮; northeast of present-day Yuan'an County, Hubei). Liu Bei defeated Cao Cao in the Hanzhong Campaign in 219 and declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王), after which he appointed Ma Chao as General of the Left (左將軍).

In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established the state of Shu Han. He appointed Ma Chao as General of Agile Cavalry (驃騎將軍) and Governor (牧) of Liang Province. Ma Chao was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Tai District (斄鄉侯). Liu Bei's imperial edict to Ma Chao was as follows:

Peng Yangs case

When Peng Yang, an official under Liu Bei, was about to leave Chengdu to assume his new appointment in Jiangyang, he visited Ma Chao and told him: "You are outside while I am inside. The Empire can be pacified." Ma Chao had recently joined Liu Bei's forces and he was often fearful that he would get into trouble. After hearing what Peng Yang told him, he was shocked as he thought that Peng Yang was asking him to participate in a coup d'état against Liu Bei. However, he remained silent and did not respond. After Peng Yang left, Ma Chao secretly reported him and caused him to be arrested and executed.

Conflict with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei

The Shanyang Gong Zaiji (山陽公載記; Records of the Duke of Shanyang), by Yue Zi (樂資), recorded an incident as follows:

Pei Songzhi, who annotated Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi, disputed the Shanyang Gong Zaiji account as untruthful and nonsensical. He commented as follows:

Death

Ma Chao died in 222 at the age of 47 (by East Asian age reckoning). His cause of death was not recorded in history. Before his death, he wrote to Liu Bei: "Over 200 members of my family were killed by Cao Cao. I only have my cousin Ma Dai left with me. He will be the one to continue my family line. I entrust him to Your Majesty's care. That is all I have to say." In October or November 260, Liu Bei's son and successor, Liu Shan, granted Ma Chao the posthumous title "Marquis Wei" (威侯).

Family and relatives

Ma Chao's title, Marquis of Tai District (斄鄉侯), was inherited by his son, Ma Cheng (馬承). Ma Chao's daughter married Liu Bei's son Liu Li (劉理), the Prince of Anping (安平王).

Ma Chao had at least two spouses. The first was Lady Yang (楊氏), who was with him when he seized control of Liang Province after the Battle of Tong Pass. She probably bore Ma Chao at least one child, because the Sanguozhi mentioned that Zhao Qu (趙衢), Yin Feng (尹奉) and others killed Ma's family (wife and child(ren)) when they rebelled against him and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao had a second wife, Lady Dong (董氏), who bore him a son, Ma Qiu (馬秋). When Ma Chao escaped from Zhang Lu and defected to Liu Bei, he left them behind in Hanzhong Commandery. Zhang Lu was later defeated by Cao Cao, to whom he surrendered. Cao Cao gave Lady Dong to Yan Pu (閻圃), a former adviser to Zhang Lu, and gave Ma Qiu to Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu personally killed Ma Qiu. It is not known who the mother(s) of Ma Chao's two other children (Ma Cheng and the daughter) were, but she (or they) was probably neither Lady Yang nor Lady Dong.

Ma Chao's younger cousin, Ma Dai, served as a general in Shu Han. His highest appointment was General Who Pacifies the North (平北將軍) and he was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Chencang (陳倉侯).

Ma Ying-jeou, the President of Taiwan from 2008 to 2016, is an alleged descendant of Ma Chao. Researchers purportedly visited the old residence of Ma's father, Ma Ho-ling, in Kaiyun Town, Hengshan County, Hunan, where they discovered a genealogy book stating that Ma descended from Ma Chao.

Appraisal

Ma Chao was known for his exceptional strength and for the great admiration he possessed among the ethnic tribes of the North. Chen Shou, who wrote Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on him as such: "Ma Chao relied solely on his relation with the foreign tribes (Xirong people) and his martial valor yet caused the extermination of his entire clan. What a great pity! However, he was able to break free from danger and finally reach peace, did all of his actions led him to a better fate?"

Guan Yu once wrote to Zhuge Liang to ask who could compete with Ma Chao when he heard that Ma had recently joined Liu Bei's force. Zhuge Liang replied, "Mengqi (Mao Chao) is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue. He can compete with Yide, but is not as good as the peerless beard."

Yang Fu, one of the officials who opposed Ma Chao in Liang Province, once visited his colleague and relative Jiang Xu and Jiang Xu's mother. He lamented about Ma Chao's murder of Wei Kang and forceful occupation of Liang Province: "... Ma Chao betrayed his father, rebelled against the Emperor, and massacred the officers in our province. ... Ma Chao is strong but iniquitous. He is morally weak and susceptible to temptation and trickery." Yang Fu, Jiang Xu and several others later plotted against Ma Chao and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao fought his way into Licheng (歷城) and captured Jiang Xu's mother. She scolded him, "You're an unfilial son who betrays his own father and a treacherous villain who murders his superior. Heaven and Earth will not forgive you. You should die immediately. How dare you look at me straight in the eye!" Ma Chao was furious and he killed her.

Yang Xi, who wrote the Ji Han Fuchen Zan (季漢輔臣贊; pub. 241), a collection of praises of notable persons who served in the Shu Han state, appraised him as follows: "General of Agile Cavalry (驃騎將軍; Ma Chao) rose up, formed alliances, started an uprising in the Three Qins, and conquered the river and Tong Pass. He rebelled against the imperial court, regardless of whether his followers agreed or disagreed with him. In doing so, he provided an opportunity for the enemy to sow discord between him and his men, resulting in the destruction of his family and forces. He defied morals and ethics, and ended up having to rely on dragons and phoenixes."

The Jin dynasty historian Sun Sheng compared Ma Chao's betrayal of his father Ma Teng to other historical examples of extreme cruelty and inhumaneness, including:

• the conflict between the Zhou dynasty and the vassal state of Zheng in 720 BCE;

• in 203 BCE, after Xiang Yu captured Liu Bang's father and threatened to boil him alive if Liu Bang did not surrender, but then Liu Bang asked Xiang Yu to share a bowl of his father's flesh with him;

• Wei Ao (隗嚣) raising troops against Liu Xiu (Emperor Guangwu of Han) despite his son being a political hostage at Liu's court; Liu later killed Wei's son.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Ma Chao is featured as a prominent character in some chapters in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. However, in the novel, the descriptions of his character and personality, as well as the order of some events involving him, had been modified to very large extents for dramatic effect. In the novel, he was nicknamed "Ma Chao the Splendid" for his elaborate armour and grand skill as a warrior, and was one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei.

Ma Chao is introduced in Chapter 10, where he participates in a campaign led by his father and Han Sui against Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an in 192, during which he slays the enemy officers Wang Fang (王方) and Li Meng (李蒙). He does not reappear until Chapter 57, in which he suggests to his father that he could lead the army against Cao Cao at Xuchang in 211 to follow Emperor Xian's orders to slay Cao Cao, but his father tells him to remain in Liang Province and command the Qiang troops there. After his father is killed by Cao Cao, Ma Chao, Han Sui and another eight officers fight against Cao Cao at the Battle of Tong Pass, during which Ma Chao fights with Cao Cao's generals Xu Chu, Yu Jin, Cao Hong and Zhang He, and slays Li Tong. Later, Cao Cao's strategist, Jia Xu, suggests to Cao Cao to send a letter containing errors and markings (making it seem as though the recipient has something to hide) to Han Sui to make Ma Chao falsely believe that Han Sui is maintaining secret contact with Cao Cao. Ma Chao gradually becomes more suspicious of Han Sui, who also has the intention of defecting to Cao Cao's side after learning that Ma Chao no longer trusts him. Han Sui manages to escape when Ma Chao tries to kill him, but his left hand is cut off by Ma during the fight. Ma Chao is eventually defeated by Cao Cao's forces, but manages to escape and find shelter among the Qiang tribes.

Ma Chao later joins forces with Zhang Lu to attack Cao Cao, but fails to make any significant gains. Zhang Lu, who distrusts Ma Chao, sends Yang Bo to spy on Ma, but Yang Bo is later killed. Ma Chao then helps Liu Zhang, the governor of Yi Province, deal with an invasion on Yi Province by Liu Bei. He duels with Liu Bei's sworn brother, Zhang Fei, at the Battle of Jiameng Pass. Later, he is convinced by Li Hui to defect to Liu Bei, who accepts him and makes him a general. He fights for Liu Bei in the Hanzhong Campaign and is later posted to Xiping, where he defends Liu Bei's strongholds from the Xianbei chieftain Kebineng.

Although Ma Chao historically died in 222, in the novel, he is mentioned to be still alive during Zhuge Liang's southern campaign against the Nanman and is in charge of guarding Hanzhong from possible attacks by the state of Cao Wei. He died of illness after Zhuge Liang returned from the campaign. Zhuge Liang tells Zhao Yun that Ma Chao's death felt like the loss of an arm to him.

In popular culture

Ma is sometimes venerated as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples in Hebei and Henan, usually in partnership with Ma Dai or Zhao Yun.

Ma Chao appears as a strong general in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series.

Ma Chao appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Ma Chao, Western Warrior" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.

He appeared as a playable character in Total War: Three Kingdoms, being featured as the heir of Ma Teng's faction.

生平

將門虎子

馬超出生于176年，為馬騰庶長子，也是諸子中武勇最為出眾者。建安七年（202年）曹操與袁紹交戰時，馬騰曾派馬超出任司隸校尉鍾繇的督軍從事，討伐於平陽的袁紹將領郭援、高幹。馬超的腳中箭受傷，但仍大破敵軍，其麾下龐德更斬殺郭援，馬超因功被拜徐州刺史，但並未赴任。曹操任丞相時，曾想將馬超召進京，拜諫議大夫。但馬超不接受。

此後馬騰與自己的義兄弟鎮西將軍韓遂不和，韓遂殺馬騰妻兒。曹操派鍾繇、韋端前去勸和，升馬騰為前將軍，改屯槐里，假節，封槐里侯。張既勸說馬騰放棄軍隊，入朝為官，馬騰一度猶豫，馬騰自見年老，最終答應，來到鄴城，曹操上表封馬騰為衛尉，馬超的嫡出兄弟馬鐵馬休等家人也都搬到曹操所在的鄴郡，馬超因庶出緣故令其留守涼州，被封為偏將軍、都亭侯，代領其父的軍隊。

起兵反曹

211年（35歲），曹操不聽諫議，堅持派遣司隸校尉鍾繇、夏侯淵率領軍隊，試圖經過馬超等涼州軍閥的領地進攻漢中的張魯。馬超等人都懷疑這是針對自己用兵，于是馬超對韓遂說：「之前鍾司隸曾命我謀害將軍，關東之人已經不可以相信了。現在我放棄我的父親，如父親一樣對待將軍，將軍也應該放棄你的兒子，如兒子一樣對待我。」 韓遂部下閻行進諫韓遂，不希望他與馬超聯合起兵反叛朝廷，韓遂回答：「現在諸將不約而同舉兵，似乎是天意啊。」故韓遂決意與馬超等多位涼州軍閥起兵反曹，率領十萬人馬（包括漢兵、羌兵、胡兵）進逼至潼關。曹操採用賈詡的計策，對馬、韓二人使用離間計，令馬、韓內訌，加上曹操戰術成功，馬超大敗逃亡。曹操想乘勝追擊，不過因田銀、蘇伯於河間造反，所以退兵。但留在鄴城的馬超父親馬騰及親眷兩百多人，卻因馬超起兵，在馬超起兵後的第二年，皆為曹操所族誅。

投奔張魯

213年（37歲），馬超再度起兵反曹，發起長達八個月的冀城之圍，迫使涼州刺史韋康投降，佔據冀城，自稱征西將軍，自領并州牧，督涼州軍事，並在冀城外二百里擊敗了曹操派來的夏侯淵的救援軍隊。氐王楊千萬也與他結盟。可是他挾持名士賈洪、殺死投降的韋康、潛出城外求救的閻溫等行為令他失去人心，不久便被楊阜、姜敘、梁寬、趙衢、趙昂及其妻王異等十幾人聯合設計，由楊阜等人起兵，趙衢說服馬超出城後關閉冀城門，殺馬超妻兒。馬超退無所據，襲歷城，歷城守軍聽信傳言以為馬超已奔漢中，無備，以為是姜敘回軍。馬超入城殺姜敘母及子，燒了城郭，帶著從弟馬岱、部將龐德投奔漢中的張魯。

張魯任命馬超為都講祭酒，馬超正妻楊氏死於冀城，張魯有意將自己的女兒嫁給他，遭人勸阻說，馬超為人無情，連父親、兄弟等至親的命都不顧惜了，怎麼會愛張家的千金呢？張魯因此而作罷。馬超數次請求張魯派兵給他進攻涼州，雖然張魯派了兵，但曹軍有夏侯淵、張郃等坐鎮，每次的結果也都是無功而還。張魯手下楊白等人嫉妒馬超受寵欲加害于他，於是馬超便從武都逃入氐中。

歸降劉備

214年（38歲），馬超認為不能與張魯共計天下大事，時劉備正將劉璋圍於成都，劉備秘密派遣李恢、出使漢中接觸馬超，馬超於是密書於劉備投降，劉備大喜；馬超投降劉備的消息令成都內人人震驚，很快開城投降。劉備成功佔領益州後，封馬超為平西將軍，駐於臨沮，封為前都亭侯。後又參加北伐漢中，但不成功，與張飛先撤退。

219年（43歲），劉備稱漢中王，封馬超為左將軍，假節。

某日治中從事彭羕不滿劉備對其疏遠，置其為外郡官員，因而主動接觸馬超。馬超先問彭羕：「你有非凡才幹，主公（指劉備）亦曾十分重視閣下，說你能與孔明（諸葛亮）、孝直（法正）等人並駕齊驅，如今卻封你外郡之職，似乎很令你失望？」彭羕一時忿怒，衝口而出：「老革荒悖，可復道邪？」（這個老兵這麼昏庸，我還能說甚麼？）接著又對馬超說：「卿為其外，我為其內，天下不足定也。」當時馬超剛投奔劉備，結束流浪生涯不久，親戚骨肉又因自己屢次叛亂而被誅滅，開始懷有危懼之心，怕有人疑其心懷異志，所以他聽到彭羕的話後嚇了一跳，默然不答。彭羕走後，馬超便將彭羕的言辭上呈劉備，不久彭羕下獄待罪，並遭到誅殺。（《三國志·蜀志十·彭羕傳》）

當時蜀國西邊羌患極為嚴重，到了當地漢人婦女都會持兵器協防的地步，馬超對羌人等遊牧民族素有威名，在鎮懾威嚇羌族這方面有極大貢獻。

託主顧弟

221年（45歲），劉備稱帝，馬超遷任驃騎將軍，領涼州牧，進封斄鄉侯。

222年（46歲）劉備率軍伐吳。同年八月馬超病逝，終年四十六歲，他生前最擔心的就是他唯一在世的親人堂弟馬岱。《三國志卷三十六.馬超傳》記載：（馬超）臨沒上疏曰：「臣門宗二百餘口，為孟德所誅略盡，惟有從弟岱，當為微宗血食之繼，深托陛下，餘無複言。」

逝世後追諡為威侯，故後世亦稱其為馬威侯。

軼事

馬超勇猛善戰，曾大敗曹操，曹操部下楊阜說其有如韓信、英布一般勇猛。甚得羌人、氐人之心。

馬超入蜀之時，他的妻子董氏及兒子馬秋留依張魯。後來張魯兵敗，馬超家人落入曹操手中，曹操把董氏賜給閻圃，把馬秋交給張魯，張魯更親手殺掉了馬秋。馬超常對家族彌夷唏噓痛心，在馬超未抗曹時，他的妻弟董種留在三輔，後來馬超戰敗，種先入漢中，所以倖得保存性命。在馬超依附張魯的第二年元旦，種到馬超家中拜賀，馬超卻捶胸哀道：「闔門百口，一旦同命，今二人相賀邪？」悲傷乃至於吐血。在馬超臨死前向劉備上書中也道：「臣門宗二百餘口，為孟德所誅略盡，惟有從弟岱，當為微宗血食之繼，深託陛下，餘無復言。」

據《山陽公載記》記載馬超因為看到劉備厚待自己，跟劉備對話時，常稱呼劉備表字（玄德），因此致使關羽氣得請求劉備殺馬超。劉備回：「他就是走投無路才會來歸順於我，你們為馬超稱呼我表字而生氣，還想要殺了馬超，我怎麼跟天下人交代？」張飛答：「如果是這樣，那就讓他看看甚麼是禮貌。」第二天大會，馬超被請來後，關羽和張飛都持刀肅立，馬超沒看到關羽、張飛的座位，見到他們站著後，大吃一驚，第二天馬超嘆息：「我現在知道我錯在哪了，稱呼主公的表字，幾乎被關羽和張飛所殺。」自此開始對劉備禮敬。

然而，裴松之在《三國志注》對此記載做出質疑，認為馬超只是一個降將，受劉備封爵，怎麼會對主公劉備這麼傲慢，還稱呼其表字。而且關羽當時坐守荊州，從來都沒進過益州，關羽甚至還在馬超投降時，寫信給諸葛亮問「超人才可誰比類」，人在荊州的關羽怎麼可能同時跑去益州跟張飛站在一起呢？一般人做事都是因為認為可以做的才去做，不可以做的就不會去做了。馬超若真的稱呼劉備為「玄德」，就代表他認為這是對的，即使關羽請求殺了馬超，馬超也不會知道是為了這件事，馬超又怎會因為看到關張二人站著，就知道這是因為自己直稱劉備的表字，還說「差點被關張二人所殺」？講話如此毫無道理，實在讓人氣憤。袁暐、樂資等人常寫一些虛構的故事，多到數不清。

墓園

中國現有兩個馬超墓，一個在四川成都市新都區，另一個在陝西勉縣。

位於新都的馬超墓，歷代均受到重視，據說明代四川按察使楊贍、成都知府王九德、新都知縣邵年齊等官員，均曾於馬超墓前立碑，又於道旁立華表。清代雍正、道光年間，當地知縣亦保持修繕墓地的習慣。四川提督馬維祺就曾親自拜謁馬超墓，寫下「英風常振」匾額，更撰《馬公墓誌》命人刻石放存墓旁，以示敬慕之情。

中華人民共和國成立後，當地居民更在當地營辦馬超村小學。文化大革命期間，新都馬超墓遭到嚴重破壞，墓石全被取空，僅存土丘碑刻等頹垣敗瓦。1985年，新都縣人民政府將馬超墓列為縣內重要文物遺址，並且立碑加以保護。1987年，新都縣文物普查，將兩塊碑石遷到升庵桂湖，現立于桂湖碑林。

家庭

父

• 馬騰（？－212年），字壽成，東漢末年群雄之一，後因馬超起兵反曹失敗被殺。

兄弟

• 馬休，馬超之弟。被召進京為奉車都尉。後因馬超起兵反曹被殺。

• 馬鐵，馬超之弟。被召進京為騎都尉。後因馬超起兵反曹被殺。

• 馬岱，馬超堂弟。一直跟隨馬超，位至平北將軍，成為蜀漢重要將領並在諸葛亮死後聽從楊儀之命斬殺魏延。

另有兄弟為韓遂所殺。

妻

• 楊氏，馬超妻。

• 董氏，馬超庶妻，馬超投劉備時，留於漢中。曹操打敗張魯後，將其賜給張魯的下屬閻圃。

子女

• 馬秋，馬超和董氏之子。馬超投劉備時，留於漢中。曹操打敗張魯後，將其交給張魯處置，張魯殺了他。

• 馬承，馬超之子，嗣侯。

　• 馬桓，馬承之子，馬超之孫，嗣侯。

• 馬氏，馬超之女，嫁給劉備之子安平王劉理。

另有和楊氏之子在冀城為梁寬、趙衢等所殺。

評價

• 陳壽在三國志評曰：「超阻戎負勇，以覆其族，惜哉！能因窮致泰，不猶愈乎！」；「先主複領益州牧，諸葛亮為股肱，法正為謀主，關羽、張飛、馬超為爪牙，許靖、麋竺、簡雍為賓友。」

• 楊阜：「超有信、布之勇，甚得羌、胡心。若大軍還，不嚴為其備，隴上諸郡非國家之有也。」；「超強而無義。」；「馬超背父叛君，虐殺州將，豈獨阜之憂責，一州士大夫皆蒙其恥。」

• 曹操：「馬兒不死，吾無葬地也。」；「幾為小賊所困。」；「幾為狡虜所欺。」；「關西兵精悍，堅壁勿與戰。」

• 劉備：「朕以不德，獲繼至尊，奉承宗廟。曹操父子，世載其罪，朕用慘怛，疢如疾首。海內怨憤，歸正反本，暨于氐、羌率服，獯鬻慕義。以君信著北土，威武並昭，是以委任授君，抗颺虓虎，兼董萬里，求民之瘼。其明宣朝化，懷保遠邇，肅慎賞罰，以篤漢祜，以對于天下。」

• 荀彧：「關中將帥以十數，莫能相一，唯韓遂、馬超最彊。」

• 張魯部下：「有人若此不愛其親，焉能愛人？」

• 諸葛亮：「忠之名望，素非關、馬之倫。」

• 諸葛亮書予關羽：「孟起兼資文武，雄烈過人，一世之傑，黥、彭之徒，當與益德並驅爭先，猶未及髯之絕倫逸群。」

• 周瑜：「今北土既未平安，加馬超、韓遂尚在關西，為操後患。」

• 王商：「超勇而不仁，見得不思義，不可以為唇齒。」

• 潘勖：「馬超、成宜，同惡相濟，濱據河、潼，求逞所欲。」

• 陳琳：「近者關中諸將複相合聚，續為叛亂，阻二華據河渭，驅率羌胡，齊鋒東向，氣高志遠，似若無敵。」

• 彭羕：「卿為其外，我為其內，天下不足定也。」

• 楊戲的《季漢輔臣贊》中贊馬孟起:「驃騎奮起，連橫合從，首事三秦，保據河、潼。宗計於朝，或異或同，敵以乘釁，家破軍亡。乖道反德，託鳳攀龍。」

• 孫盛：「是以周鄭交惡，漢高請羹，隗囂捐子，馬超背父，其為酷忍如此之極也。」（《三國志‧高柔傳》裴注）

• 楊侃：「昔魏武與韓遂、馬超據潼關相拒，遂、超之才，非魏武敵也，然而勝負久不決者，扼其險要故也。」

• 姜敘母：「你背父（馬騰）之逆子，殺君（韋康）之桀賊，天地豈久容你，而不早死，敢以面目視人乎！」

• 常璩：「漢末大亂，雄桀並起。若董卓、呂布、二袁、韓、馬、張楊、劉表之徒，兼州連郡，眾逾萬計，叱吒之間，皆自謂漢祖可踵，桓、文易邁。」

• 趙蕤：「袁本初虎視河朔；劉景升鵲起荊州；馬超、韓遂，雄據於關西；呂布、陳宮，竊命於東夏；遼河海岱，王公十數，皆阻兵百萬、鐵騎千群，合縱締交，為一時之傑也。」

• 孔穎達：「漢末曹操與馬超對語，徐晃與關羽對語，皆仇敵交言，而不能相取，亦何怪古之人乎？」

• 李商隱：「隴首雲歸，端溪遽逐。角豈觸藩，臀終困木，海闊天盡，山深霧毒。許靖他鄉，有名無祿；馬超正色，宜歌反哭。何為善之無憑，而降災之甚速！」

• 戎昱：「能持蘇武節、不受馬超勛。」

• 裴松之：「于時韓、馬之徒尚狼顧關右，魏武不得安坐郢都以威懷吳會，亦已明矣。」

• 徐鉉：「公侯必複，關西靡孟起之威。文武未墜，南郡被季長（馬融）之德。存乎譜牒，無俟闡揚。」

• 李覯：「曹公用兵，不謂不善，而弗能以一矢加于孫權者，非持山川之險，亦以馬超、韓遂在關西故也。」

• 何去非：「馬超、韓遂之所糾合以拒公者，皆劇賊也。」

• 唐庚：「先主始王漢中......馬超卒......基業未就而一時功臣相繼淪謝，如有物奪之者。」

• 徐積：「蜀之將關張已先死，而姜維馬超又後出。方戮力以戰時，所用惟魏延。馬謖數子又皆庸將，則蜀之所恃一武侯而已。」

• 蕭常：「超去危即安，轉禍為福，忠帥屬士卒，前無堅對。」

• 程公許：「智勇絕倫，足以當一面。」

• 陳鬱：「諸葛武侯薦馬超于先主，關羽恐其出己右，移書問之，武侯曰：『可與益徳並驅爭衡，然非髯將軍比也。』羽聞而喜，余謂武侯此語，既不掩超之美，又有以結羽之心，深沉大畧可涯涘。」

• 郝經：「馬超父子勇冠西州，與韓遂頡翥為寇，殘滅三輔，墾傷漢室，董卓因之肆其蛇豕，漢遂以忘，天下分裂，不能歸命有德，卒墮操手。闔門誅夷，債踣不悔，有勇無義，君子悼諸。然潼關之役，操幾不免，孤劍來歸，即廁關張之列，超亦人豪也哉。」；「超幾獲操，一時之雄！」

• 胡一桂：「蔣琬負社稷之器，馬超兼文武之資，黃忠勇冠三軍，龐統冠冕南州，董和、黃權、李嚴、吳壹、費觀、彭羕、劉巴之徒。咸擢顯要，盡其器能，謂宜可以複漢，祚吊遺黎，然卒局于一隅之蜀，而不能取中原塊土！」

• 胡三省：「當此之時，關西之兵最為精強，而破于操者，法制不一也。」

• 陳亮：「關西諸將皆不足畏，所可憚者惟一馬超。」；「曹公所以南失荊、西失蜀，而孫劉爭雄，天下分裂。蓋其失止于留馬超，取荊州而患之。不可支卒至于此，故夫取天下之大計，不可以不先定也。」

• 趙居信：「勇冠三軍則馬超。」

• 羅貫中：「威震西涼立大功，渭橋六戰最英雄。」；「西川馬孟起，名譽震關中。信、布齊誇勇，關、張可並雄。渭橋施六戰，安蜀奏全功。曹操聞風懼，流芳播遠戎。」

• 李贄：「養子如馬超，得人如許褚，俱快事也。」

• 謝肇淛：「漢季關、張稱萬人敵，豈獨以勇力勝，忠肝義烈，蓋有國士之風焉；不然，彼典韋、許褚、馬超、曹彰等，非不並驅中原，碌碌何足比數也？」

• 徐孚遠：「時則周東遷而依鄭，唐西狩而相畋。蓋有橫海將軍，閉門節度。獨屯汧隴，馬超不逐騰歸；為定廣韶，劉隱知迎薛至。徒屬五百，田橫之島可居；男女數千，徐市之洲且據。于是永嘉流寓、京洛衣冠，都為王粲之依荊，曷異韋莊之入蜀。若張公煌言、曾公櫻、沈公宸佺等，皆在于是。公以部黨舊齒、宗匠盛名，非吳質之游于南皮，有應劭之甘于北面。儒術若盧植，皇甫許其起兵；名德惟李膺，景毅自言師事。遂乃同居軍帳，亦聯卿班；期勵新勛，言敦昔款。李訴之敬裴度，能屈櫜鞬；王猛之在苻堅，恆商樽俎。凡有大事，相諮而行。」

• 張大齡：「當漢之衰，馬超提一旅，曹孟德幾為所摧，況其餘乎？嗚呼！此涼之所以為涼也。」

• 陸深：「單馬潼關會，阿瞞來送虜。不恨事無成，但恨事不武。馬將軍人中虎，力能捉曹公。眼當空許禇，英雄成敗常有幸，舞陽殺人十四五。」

• 顧祖禹：「馬超、韓遂挾羌胡之士而東，以曹操之用兵，幾覆于潼關。幸而超、遂亦兩相攜貳，智計不立，卒以解散耳。終魏之世，關隴有事，必舉國以爭之。故以武侯、姜維之才智，而不獲一逞也。」

• 毛宗崗：「五虎將中，關、張、趙、黃皆大將才也。若馬超，則丁為戰將，而不可為大將。其殺韋康，屠百姓，不得謂之仁矣；其不疑楊阜，不得謂之智矣。前既惑於曹操，而攻韓遂；後復歸於張魯，而拒玄德：此其識見，當在四人之下。」

• 覺浪道盛：「後周宇文護以母在齊而緩之，馬超棄父擇主，固何如李傕也。無故使人縮高其親，豈能望竇建德赦李勣之父乎。何可不審？獨孤寒曰：『達人知事執之，固然先幾遠引，不受人之職，即可不殉人之難，此莊子休所謂養親盡年者乎。』杖人嘆曰：『既落人間業緣難避！』」

• 英廉：「若夫虎臣羆士，折衝宣力、馬超囊足、銚期攝幘、渴賞捐軀實不乏人，而一聞如是者。」

• 王夫之：「兵之初起也，群雄互角，而操挾天子四面應之而皆碎。此無異故，呂布倏彼倏此而為眾所同嫉，袁術則與袁紹離矣，袁紹則與公孫瓚競矣，袁譚、袁尚則兄弟相讎殺矣，韓遂則與馬超相疑矣，劉表雖通袁紹，視紹之敗而不恤矣，皆自相滅以授曹氏之滅之也。」

• 蔣超伯：「此奏先列馬超者，蓋以馬氏為西州右族，曹瞞所畏，新來歸附，故首列之。」

• 李桓輯：「韓遂、馬超；不離之，卒難破也。」

• 曾衍東：「回憶祝髮，空王曾下長門之淚；堪笑割須，渭水空驚孟起之軍。」

• 文祥：「初六日，由寶雞起程，複渡渭水，河寬浪急船少，人多紛紛競渡，恍如曹軍之遇馬超焉！」

• 徐鼒：「蓋聖人大公無我之心，前後一揆。若執趙苞不孝之義，律以馬超背父之條，則敝屣之棄，大舜可處海濱；杯羹之分，漢祖忍于置俎！英雄之事，非聖賢之心歟！」

• 盧弼：「馬超勇力善戰，撫有羌、胡，既兼隴右之眾，又得張魯之助，宜其所向無敵。」；「或遂、超各別單馬會語，與超語時慮超之勇，而以褚隨耳。」

• 蔡東藩：「馬超猛將，韓遂庸奴，兩人皆非曹操敵手。但操先輕視馬超，當引兵北渡時，危坐不動，微許褚之翼操下船，幾已為馬超所斃矣。及已知超勇，始用賈詡計議，立馬語遂，抹書間超，超剛而遂愚，適墮操計，此用兵之所以尚謀也。」；「馬超多勇無謀，卒致上害父母，下及妻孥；設非投入劉備，則其身尚不能保，遑問與曹操為敵乎？」

• 馮玉祥：「千古英名基事漢，一篇遺疏痛仇曹。」

• 周大荒：「以人材論之，呂布馬超之與張繡，蓋在伯仲之間。」

• 尤俊：「官莫尋謝知縣，將莫遇馬威侯。」

• 萬自律：「勇媲關張，威宣北魏；功昭蜀漢，績著西涼。」

• 謝紹禎：「若論風貌詩書品，雄秀當推錦馬超。」

民間藝術

《三國演義》中的馬超

• 《三國演義》中的馬超登場於第十回，當時他輔助父親馬騰於涼州起兵，打算攻打長安，殺李傕、郭汜以勤王。馬超其時十七歲，勇猛莫當，連斬李蒙、王方二將，可惜該次起兵因為內應密洩而無功而還。

• 後來曹操將馬騰誘入京師加以殺害，作為長子的馬超便領兵攻曹，展開了著名的潼關之役。其間馬超大戰曹將許褚，渭城七戰更殺得曹操割鬚棄袍。此戰西涼軍本來初佔上風，後來卻中了賈詡的離間計，內部崩潰，將士離心，馬超只能帶領族弟馬岱、部將龐德投靠羌族。

• 不久，馬超再次起兵，然而很快便被夏侯淵、楊阜等人擊退。馬超帶領餘眾投奔張魯。

• 其時，劉備正攻打益州的劉璋，馬超奉命赴援，並與劉備軍大將張飛進行大戰。

• 劉備甚欲收攬馬超，於是在諸葛亮的設計下，賄賂張魯部下楊松，迫得馬超進退不得。最後派遣辯士李恢，說服馬超歸降。

• 劉備進受漢中王後，封五虎大將，馬超是第四名五虎大將。

• 馬超於小說中的武器是長槍，亦曾以寶劍斬韓遂、力敵西涼五將。正史無記載馬超所用之武器為何。而且關於馬超的武器在民間流傳了很多不同的說法，其一是使「虎頭湛金槍」，槍身乃混鐵精鋼打造而成，長一丈一尺三，槍頭為鎦金虎頭形，虎口吞刃，乃白金鑄就，鋒銳無比。其二是善於使用「鉤鐮槍」，又名「龍吟槍」、「龍吟鉤鐮槍」。

• 劉備死後，魏國在司馬懿的調度下分五路大軍伐蜀。諸葛亮知道羌人以馬超為「神威天將軍」，所以命馬超率軍對付羌兵，果然令羌兵不戰而退。

• 諸葛亮征討南蠻回國時，馬超已因病去世。

戲劇／電影

• 中國大陸中央電視台電視劇《三國演義》（1994年）：由安亞平飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《曹操》（1999年）：由李躍震飾演。

• 香港電影《三國志之見龍卸甲》（2008年）：由孟和烏力吉飾演。

• 台灣民視/八大電視劇《終極三國》（2009年）：由邵翔飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《三國》（2010年）：由陳奕霖飾演。

• 中國大陸電視劇《武神趙子龍》（2016年）：由張曉晨飾演。

• 中國大陸優酷網路劇《終極三國》（2017年）：由SpeXial-易恩飾演。

電玩遊戲

• 真三國無雙系列／無雙OROCHI系列（光榮公司開發，服卷浩司配音）

• 王者榮耀 定位為戰士／刺客

• 三國殺名將傳 定位為暴力隊肉盾

動漫作品

• 三國志

• 三國演義

• 《橫山光輝三國志》（橫山光輝）

• 《蒼天航路》（王欣太）

• 《火鳳燎原》（陳某）

注釋列表