Youth and accession

Zhu Houzhao, the future Zhengde Emperor, was born on 14 November 1491 as the eldest son of the Hongzhi Emperor, who ruled as the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty from 1487. His mother was Empress Zhang, the only wife of the Hongzhi Emperor. In 1492, the Hongzhi Emperor named him crown prince. The father saw himself in his son and took him with him when he traveled, supporting his interests in riding and archery, and pampering him. The Crown Prince was an excellent student, fulfilling his duties with care and courtesy.

The Hongzhi Emperor died on 8 June 1505. On his deathbed, he called upon his closest aides, grand secretaries Liu Jian, Li Dongyang, and Xie Qian, to faithfully serve his son. He assessed Zhu Houzhao as an intelligent young man, but also fond of comfort and pleasure. Therefore, he asked them to guide him on the right path.

On 19 June 1505, Zhu Houzhao ascended the throne as the tenth Ming emperor. His era name, Zhengde, comes from a quote from the Book of Documents and means "the rectification (zheng) of the people's virtue (de)".

Style of government

Upon ascending to the throne, the Zhengde Emperor was confronted with three major issues that had been passed down to him: insufficient state revenue, a vulnerable military presence on the northwestern border with the Mongols, and conflicts between the imperial eunuchs and officials regarding problem-solving methods. The emperor tended to side with the eunuchs, disregarding the counsel of the grand secretaries. This disagreement between the ruler and his officials was partly due to a generational gap, as the Zhengde Emperor was young and the youngest grand secretary was fifty-six years old.

In contrast to his father, who exercised imperial authority sparingly, delegated power effectively, and dutifully fulfilled his responsibilities, the Zhengde Emperor showed little concern for state affairs. His restless spirit rebelled against official orthodoxy and he disregarded the meticulously prescribed ceremonial and ritual duties of an emperor. He resisted the objections and demands of officials, but readily fulfilled the requests and desires of the eunuchs. In the early years of his reign, he actively avoided official audiences and discussions on Confucian topics. This behavior was seen as a major concern for the Confucian-minded bureaucracy, as they believed that a monarch who adhered to all ceremonies, precedents, and duties was crucial for the functioning of the state. However, the Zhengde Emperor had a wide range of other interests, including riding, archery, hunting, and music. He was particularly fond of composing songs and singing, and he promoted music throughout the court. He also enjoyed playing games with his eunuchs, leading to the establishment of several imperial shops run by them. He supported various forms of entertainment, such as wrestling, acrobatics, magic, and fireworks. He often indulged in these activities with the eunuchs, neglecting his studies and getting drunk for days on end. He even refused to attend to state affairs, much to the dismay of the officials. In fact, he would often roam the streets of Beijing incognito in search of entertainment, causing great consternation among the officials.

One year after his accession, he married a daughter from an officer's family with the surname Xia and made her empress. He also took two other girls as consorts. However, he soon stopped living with the empress. At the suggestion of Yu Yong, a guard officer in Embroidered Uniform Guard who was of Central Asian origin, he summoned Uyghur dancers. His unrestrained behavior regularly shocked Confucian moralists, but it also made him famous in popular folklore.

Like his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor, the Zhengde Emperor was drawn to Lamaism. He built a new temple for Tibetan monks in the Forbidden City and awarded them high titles and rewards. He also learned their script and participated in their ceremonies, even dressing in Tibetan clothing. He even involved them in the rituals at the funeral of Empress Wang (the wife of his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor) in 1518.

He held a negative view of officials, viewing them as corrupt and incompetent. As a result, he entrusted state affairs to eunuchs, appointing them to military and financial positions from the beginning of his reign. He actively avoided interacting with officials and instead relied on eunuchs to handle matters, as they never questioned his orders. He also valued their intelligence and entrusted them with supervising the armies on the borders and quelling rebellions within the country. They were also responsible for overseeing the production of silk and porcelain goods, as well as managing regional authorities. The emperor generously rewarded them for their services, often granting their relatives aristocratic titles.

The emperor's financial irresponsibility worsened the already dire state of state finances. While the Ministry of Revenue theoretically brought in 1.5 million liang in silver (equivalent to about 56 tons), the actual amount was much lower due to tax remissions and arrears. In the first year of his reign, the emperor spent 1.4 million liang on donations and rewards, disregarding the advice of conservative officials who urged austerity. The eunuchs, on the other hand, were resourceful in finding new sources of revenue, such as transit taxes, taxes on pastures and wastelands, and levies on imperial estates. This further strengthened the emperor's support for the eunuchs.

Court under Liu Jin

Concerned about the emperor's actions and the influence of the eunuchs, a group of high officials, led by grand secretaries Liu Jian and Xie Qian, formed an alliance with prominent eunuchs. They accused the eunuchs in the emperor's inner circle, known as the "Eight Tigers" (including Liu Jin and seven others), who had been promoted in 1505, of wrongdoing. The officials demanded that Liu Jin be executed and the others punished. The eunuchs, feeling threatened by the rise of the "Eight Tigers", initially only wanted Liu Jin to be transferred to the south, but on 27 October 1506, the Minister of Revenue, Han Wen, petitioned for the execution of all eight. The emperor refused, but agreed to punish them. However, at the last minute, the "Eight Tigers" convinced the emperor that their accusers were conspiring against them in an attempt to gain power. Enraged, the emperor exiled the eunuchs who had allied with Liu–Xie group and promoted the members of the "Eight Tigers". Liu Jian, Xie Qian, and others were forced to resign, while Li Dongyang remained in the Grand Secretariat, joined by Jiao Fang (; 1436–1517), an ally of Liu Jin who had informed him of the accusations and other allies of the "Eight Tigers".

From October 1506 to September 1510, the eunuch-official alliance, led by Liu Jin, dominated the court. During the initial months of his rule, Liu Jin eliminated his opponents from the Beijing authorities. In December 1506, Han Wen was dismissed due to accusations of abuse of power, and in February 1507, twenty-one officials who protested against the resignation of the grand secretaries were punished. Other officials were beaten, torture, and dismissal. By the summer of 1507, Liu Jin had complete control over the government, and no important documents were approved without his consent.

So far, the emperor has been spending without any restrictions. In September 1507, he paid 350 thousand liang (13 tons) of silver just for the lanterns for the Lantern Festival. Additionally, the buildings in the imperial park south of Beijing were rebuilt, and he even built the "Leopard Quarter" (Bao Fang) northwest of the Forbidden City. As a result, Liu Jin focused on increasing the emperor's income. He used the threat of heavy fines to force the officials responsible for finances and taxes to bring in the exact amount of money to Beijing. This caused great concern among government officials, as he also demanded levies and supplies from officials on the northern border and Beijing, which left their families impoverished. Furthermore, his agents extorted additional silver payments from mines in Fujian and Sichuan, and even organized illegal sales of salt beyond the quotas. When officials arrested them, they were arrested themselves.

The influence of the eunuchs continued to grow, as evidenced by the fact that in March 1507, the eunuch intendants in the provinces were granted equal status to the leading provincial officials. This gave them the authority to handle administrative and legal matters. Liu Jin attempted to reorganize the administration of the empire based on the principle of equality or even subordination of civilian and military officials to eunuchs. These reforms sparked strong opposition from officials, who were forced to comply through brutal terror. He also faced hostility from other eunuchs, including the remaining seven "Tigers". In response, he established a new agency to investigate the resistance among the eunuchs.

While Liu Jin focused on governing the state, the emperor indulged in the pleasures of the new "Leopard Quarter", surrounded by flattering eunuchs, officers, musicians, lamas, and beauties. The emperor had particular favorites, including Qian Ning, an officer of the "Embroidered Uniformed Guards" known for his strength and archery skills, and actor Zang Xian, who was appointed deputy director of the Music Bureau for his musical talent. These favorites held significant influence over many officials and office seekers.

Prince of Anhua rebellion and the fall of Liu Jin

Improving state income through higher taxation of military households caused widespread discontent in the borderlands. This led to a rebellion in Liaodong, which was eventually quelled by distributing 2,500 liang of silver among the malcontents. Zhu Zhifan, Prince of Anhua, took advantage of the discontent and attempted to seize power during rebellion in May 1510. Zhu Zhifan resided in Ningxia, a crucial fortress city on the Mongolian-Chinese border in northwestern Shaanxi. This city served as the headquarters for one of the nine border military regions. Believing himself to be a potential candidate for the throne, Zhu Zhifan gathered a group of loyalists, including officers from the Ningxia garrison and members of the local gentry. In the spring of 1510, he gained the support of other officers and on 12 May, he took control of Ningxia and its surrounding areas, declaring a campaign against Liu Jin, but the rebellion did not spread as the commanders of the garrisons in Lingzhou and Yansui opposed the rebels. By 30 May, the prince was captured a pro-government general, who had apparently joined the uprising. The rebellion quickly collapsed and all the rebels were captured within days.

Meanwhile, the emperor, after consulting with his grand secretaries and ministers, implemented a comprehensive set of counterinsurgency measures. He appointed Shen Ying, Earl of Jingyang, and Yang Yiqing, Censor-in-chief, to oversee the situation in Ningxia. Both had previous experience in the region, making them well-equipped to handle the task successfully. In addition, he promoted several officers from the Ningxia garrison, offered amnesty to lower-ranking rebels, and promised rewards for those who returned to the government's side. He also allocated a significant sum of money for this purpose. As a precaution, he granted amnesty for minor offenses to all princes. Furthermore, he dispatched the eunuch Zhang Yong (one of the "Eight Tigers") to Ningxia with a force of 30,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison. This was the first time in the history of the Ming dynasty that a eunuch had been given a separate command. To support the troops in Xuanfu, Datong, and Yansui, the commanders were provided with a million liang of silver to cover the costs of troop movements.

During the campaign, Yang Yiqing convinced Zhang Yong to turn against Liu Jin by warning him that his life was in danger due to Liu Jin's plans for another coup. Upon returning to Beijing, Zhang Yong joined forces with the other six "Tigers" and on 13 September 1510, they accused Liu Jin of plotting against the emperor. It was reported that Liu Jin intended to assassinate the emperor and place his own great-nephew on the throne. Despite the emperor's initial reluctance to believe the accusations, the group was able to persuade him. The following day, Liu Jin was transferred to Nanjing and his property were seized. When the emperor saw the vast amount of weapons and treasures that Liu had accumulated, he ordered his execution, despite Liu's insistence on his innocence. On 16 September, Liu Jin was arrested and his three-day execution began on 27 September.

As a result of Liu's downfall, his allies were also removed, and his reforms were reversed. Any documents related to his proposed reforms were destroyed, effectively rendering his efforts to change the administrative structure of the Ming Empire and increase the emperor's direct control through eunuch officials futile.

Rebellions in northern and central China

The northern provinces of the Ming Empire were relatively poor, despite the presence of the capital city, and even the North Zhili metropolitan area was impoverished. Many poor people from the surrounding areas of Beijing chose to be castrated in hopes of gaining wealth and influence as eunuchs in the emperor's court. During the Zhengde era, over 3,500 eunuchs applied for positions in the Forbidden City, but only a small percentage were successful. The majority of unsuccessful applicants were forced to live on the fringes of society or turn to a life of crime. The presence of imperial estates, the land of the imperial family, and the aristocracy further exacerbated the problems in the northern region. According to modern estimates, these estates covered 15–40% of the land in the North Zhili erea. These estates were often beyond the control of local authorities, as they were responsible for collecting taxes and levies themselves, which amounted to about a third of the harvest. On the other hand, the owners of these estates preferred to manage them directly, often hiring eunuchs and administrators to oversee their operations. These administrators often recruited individuals who were not registered in official population records, including deserters and local criminals.

In the summer of 1509, the security situation south of Beijing deteriorated as Liu Jin's attempts to raise levies on military households resulted in desertions. This led to banded deserters plundering the countryside. In 1510, a large number of these deserters organized into a unified group based in Wen'an, located 130 km south of Beijing, and began planning a rebellion. Although their leader was captured, the rebellion still flared up. By February 1511, the rebels had amassed several thousand horsemen and were attacking cities. However, the government's army sent to stop them was ineffective. The officials leading the troops preferred negotiations, and the soldiers avoided fighting. In August 1511, the rebels even besieged Wen'an. Reinforcements were called in from the borderlands and the command was changed, but there was no success. In fact, in one ambush, the bandits burned a thousand ships that were importing grain to the capital via the Grand Canal. In November 1511, the command of the government troops was once again changed, but it had little impact. In January 1512, the rebels launched an attack on Bazhou, which is located 100 km south of Beijing. The army received reinforcements from the borderlands—Xuanfu, Datong, and Liaodong—but it was not until the summer of 1512 that the rebels were finally defeated. Some of them retreated south across the Yangtze River to Jiangxi, while others went east to Shandong, and the remaining rebels headed southwest to the city of Wuhan on the Yangtze River. From there, with a force of 800 men, they sailed downstream and plundered before being destroyed by a typhoon off Tongzhou on 28 August and they were slaughtered by a government force at Langshan, near the mouth of the Yangtze River, on 7 September 1512. This event marked the formal end of the campaign.

The security and supply of the capital were no longer under threat, but banditry continued to be a problem in Jiangxi, Henan, and central Sichuan. The first instance of trouble with rebels occurred in Sichuan in 1508. By 1509, these rebels had joined forces with those from Shanxi, forming a single army of 100,000 men. This posed a threat not only to the security of Huguang, but also to the surrounding areas. The rebel leaders declared themselves kings (wang) and began to establish their own administrative systems. Another group of rebels was active in southern Sichuan and carried out raids in Guizhou and northern Sichuan. The government attempted to use non-Chinese tribes to fight against the rebels, but the Miao tribes instead joined forces with the southern Sichuan rebels. Despite this, the government was able to gradually suppress the rebellion in Sichuan and ultimately eliminate it by 1514.

In 1511, there were also rebel groups in the mountains of Jiangxi, which were eventually defeated with the help of mercenaries from non-Chinese tribes from neighboring provinces in 1513. In 1517, another rebellion erupted in the south of Jiangxi, and Wang Yangming was sent to the area as a grand coordinator to restore order in 1518.

New favorites: Qian Ning and Jiang Bin

After the downfall of Liu Jin, the emperor faced financial difficulties and, due to the refusal of officials to change the established order, he turned to eunuchs for extraordinary acquisitions. Those who opposed this were harshly punished. One of the leading eunuchs was Wei Bin, who took over the Directorate of Ceremonial. The emperor's attention was also drawn to military matters and officers due to problems with bandits near the capital. Among the officers, Qian Ning, the commander of the palace guard, became the emperor's favorite. He impressed the emperor with his archery and military skills, and later by catering to his personal preferences by procuring musicians, Muslim women for the harem, and Tibetan monks who were experts in tantric Buddhism.

In 1512, a twenty-year-old officer named Jiang Bin from the Xuanfu garrison caught the attention of the emperor after his bravery in a battle against rebels the previous year. Despite being hit by three arrows, including one in the ear, Jiang Bin continued to fight and became the emperor's new favorite. He proposed a rotation of units, suggesting that experienced soldiers from the borderlands be brought to Beijing to fight the rebels, while the soldiers from the capital would be sent to the borders instead. Grand Secretary Li Dongyang strongly opposed this idea, arguing that the soldiers from Beijing lacked combat experience and would struggle on the border, while the border guards would struggle to maintain order in the capital. Li Dongyang resigned in protest in February 1513 after the emperor refused to listen to his objections. Despite this, the emperor went ahead with the plan and the first soldiers from Xuanfu began serving in Beijing in February 1513.

Border guards were stationed in four camps within the Imperial City area, with the Zhengde Emperor viewing them as his personal army and considering himself their general. He had a particular fondness for four officers—Jiang Bin, Xu Tai, Shen Zhou, and Liu Hui. He entrusted the first two with the command of the Beijing garrison, including the newly arrived units. Gradually, he developed a taste for military finery and uniforms, even personally training a group of eunuchs in military skills. In addition to his military pursuits, the emperor also enjoyed hunting, but in September 1514, he was injured by a tiger, which left him bedridden for a month. Despite this, he remained unwilling to give up his pleasures and instead transferred officials who advised him to be more cautious outside of Beijing.

The Zhengde Emperor had a great love for lanterns. In early 1514, his distant relative Zhu Chenhao, Prince of Ning, presented him with several hundred new lanterns and experts to install them for the New Year celebrations. However, the emperor had yurts built in front of the palace for military exercises, some of which stored gunpowder. During the celebrations on 10 February 1514, the dust from the lanterns accidentally exploded, causing a massive fire in the palaces of the Forbidden City. As a result, the Zhengde Emperor had a complex of 162 yurts built for himself in the Forbidden City. The restoration of the burned palaces lasted until 1521, with 30,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison working on it and costing over 1 million liang of silver.

Travels to the northwest

In the beginning of 1516, the Zhengde Emperor, tired of constant criticism from officials, began to consider the idea of going to Xuanfu. Jiang Bin, in an attempt to separate the Zhengde Emperor from Qian Ning, convinced the emperor that Xuanfu had better musicians and women, and that he would have real battles with the Mongols on the border instead of simulated ones in Beijing. In mid-August 1517, the emperor finally made the journey to Xuanfu. After five days, he arrived at the Juyong Pass, located 50 km northwest of Beijing. However, the censor in charge of the pass refused to open the gate without an edict signed by both the emperess and the empress dowager. Powerless, the emperor was forced to return. He made another attempt a month later, this time passing through the pass while the censor was absent. He left a reliable eunuch, Gu Dayong, in charge with strict orders not to let any officials through. Finally, in mid-September 1517, the Zhengde Emperor arrived at Xuanfu.

Enthralled by his new surroundings, he decided to settle here and embarked on the construction of a grand mansion at a great expense. He even went as far as to abandon the use of the imperial seal and instead titled himself as a general. Despite protests from the grand secretaries, he disregarded their objections. He then demanded that they send him one million liang (37 tons) of silver, but they refused, citing that the Ministry of Renvenue only had a reserve of 350,000 liang. After much negotiation, the Minister of Renvenue reluctantly agreed to send 500,000 liang. In response, the Zhengde Emperor ordered the guards at the Beijing gates to prevent any officials from entering the city in January 1518.

In October 1517, the Mongol Dayan Khan led a raid into Chinese territory with 50,000 horsemen. The emperor, eager for a fight, sent an army to confront them. After a few minor skirmishes, a major battle took place on 18 October at Yingzhou, located 65 km south of Datong. The following day, the emperor arrived with reinforcements and on 20 October, he personally led a day-long battle. The Mongols were ultimately defeated and forced to retreat across the border. This was the only instance in the entire 16th century where a Ming army successfully defeated a major Mongol raid. In recognition of their bravery, the Zhengde Emperor decorated a large number of officers and soldiers, including Jiang Bin and Xu Tai who were both granted the title of count.

In mid-February 1518, the emperor returned to Beijing for a twenty-day visit. In March, he traveled to Xuanfu once again. On 22 March 1518, he returned to Beijing to arrange the funeral of Empress Dowager Wang, the widow of the Chenghua Emperor, the grandfather of the Zhengde Emperor. In May, he inspected the imperial tombs and then visited the garrison at Miyun, which is located 65 km northeast of Beijing. He then returned to Beijing for the funeral of Empress Dowager Wang, which began on 22 July. In August 1518, he forced the grand secretaries to write an edict naming him "Zhu Shou" and granting him the titles of general and duke for his successes in fighting against the Mongols. He returned to his "home" in Xuanfu in September 1518, and then traveled to Datong and Yansui. In January-February 1519, he headed to Beijing via Taiyuan and arrived there in March 1519.

Upon his return, the Zhengde Emperor announced his intention to travel to Shandong and the southern region, but his decision was met with strong opposition from the grand secretaries, minister of rites, ministers, and censors. Despite mass arrests and beatings, which resulted in the deaths of twelve or fourteen officials, the protests continued. The main concern behind the protests was not just the journey itself, but also the fear of the Prince of Ning's potential plots to assassinate the emperor during the trip. Due to the widespread defiance of the officials, the emperor ultimately decided to postpone his trip.

Prince of Ning rebellion

Zhu Chenhao, Prince of Ning, belonged to a minor branch of the Ming dynasty, which was based in Nanchang, the capital of the southern Chinese province of Jiangxi. Driven by ambition and a desire for greatness, he sought to gain power and influence. In order to achieve this, he initially resorted to bribery, targeting Liu Jin. After Liu Jin's downfall, his main supporters in the government were Zang Xian, Qian Ning, and Lu Wan (who served as minister of war from 1513 to 1515, and then as minister of personnel). Through their help, he was able to obtain permission to establish a personal guard and gain authority over local military garrisons and members of the imperial family.

He built his own armed force from local "strong men". However, his actions sparked numerous complaints from Jiangxi, with reports of land grabbing, excessive taxation, and intimidation of officials. Despite the severe punishment typically imposed on princes for even minor offenses, his behavior was overlooked. In an attempt to gain power through non-violent means, he sought to exploit the emperor's lack of an heir. In the spring of 1516, he bribed Qian Ning and others to summon his eldest son to Beijing as a candidate for crown prince, but this plan ultimately failed.

The Zhengde Emperor was only made aware of the issue with the Prince of Ning in the summer of 1519, when Jiang Bin and Zhang Yong convinced him of the prince's and Qian Ning's misconduct. The prince had received information from his spies in Beijing about unfavorable developments, prompting him to openly rebel in Nanchang on 10 July 1419. He claimed that the Zhengde Emperor was an impostor and not a member of the imperial family, and that the empress had ordered his dethronement. His vanguard departed from Nanchang and headed north, taking control of Jiujiang on the Yangtze River on 13 July and beginning the siege of Anqing (a prefectural seat on the Yangtze River, 240 km from Nanjing) on 23 July. Meanwhile, on 14 July, Wang Yangming, the governor of southern Jiangxi, learned of the rebellion and immediately began assembling an army. He also fed the prince false information about the movements of government troops and the betrayal of his closest confidants. Believing this misinformation, the prince cautiously retreated to Anqing with his main forces (consisting of 60,000–70,000 soldiers) until 26 July, but their attempt to capture Anqing failed and resulted in heavy losses. At the same time, Wang Yangming's army had gathered and took control of Nanchang on 14 August. The prince then returned south with his main forces, but was defeated in a three-day river battle at Lake Poyang, resulting in his capture by Wang Yangming's army.

Southern tour

The rebellion of the Prince of Ning gave the Zhengde Emperor a solid justification for taking the southern tour. He departed from Beijing on 15 September 1519. He arrived in Nanjing in January 1520 and stayed there for eight months. During this time, he mostly indulged in leisure activities. While the alcohol he consumed was relatively harmless, a decree was issued shortly before his arrival in Nanjing that banned the breeding and killing of pigs. This sparked outrage among the population, as it was believed by Muslims (who held influence in the emperor's court) that pigs were impure and could spread diseases. This ban may have also contributed to the negative perception of the phrase "kill a pig" among the emperor's court, as the word for pig (Zhu, ) had the same pronunciation as the imperial family's surname (Zhu, ). Additionally, the emperor's habit of taking women for himself caused resentment among his subjects. Some women were forced into the imperial harem, while others were able to buy their way out or bribe officials who were extorting women from their households. However, many women ended up in the imperial laundries in Beijing. The sheer number of women was overwhelming, leading to overcrowding and lack of resources, resulting in cases of malnutrition and even starvation. Furthermore, the emperor's frequent hunting trips with a large entourage in the densely populated south were deeply unpopular among the people.

The emperor dispatched soldiers from the north, led by Jiang Bin and the eunuch Zhang Yong, to Jiangxi. Their goal was to prevent Wang Yanming from achieving victory by staging a fake battle and capturing the prince on behalf of the emperor. Wang Yangming refused to cooperate and instead worked to minimize the impact of the troops' presence in Jiangxi, earning him widespread admiration.

During the prince's trial, all of his associates were charged, but Wang Yangming had the foresight to destroy most of the prince's records, which documented his dealings with local elites. This ensured that only the main conspirators could be prosecuted. Zang Xian and Qian Ning were arrested in December 1519, followed by the arrest of minister Lu Wan and a group of eunuchs and imperial guards in December 1520. All of them were subsequently executed.

Return to the north, illness, and death

The Zhengde Emperor remained in Nanjing until 23 September 1520, before departing for the north. However, his journey was plagued by constant drunkenness, which ultimately took a toll on him on 25 October. While fishing in Qingjiangpu (in present-day Huaiyin), his boat capsized and he was rescued by helpers. His excessive alcohol consumption had already weakened his health, and he fell seriously ill. Despite his condition, he continued his journey without stopping until he reached Tongzhou, located east of Beijing, in December 1520.

The emperor was gravely ill and his death was imminent. Jiang Bin requested a transfer to Xuanfu in order to have control over succession decisions while the emperor was away from officials, but the emperor's condition was too weak. Eventually, the doctor convinced him to travel to Beijing for better recovery before his next trip. On 18 January 1521, he arrived in Beijing with great ceremony. Just three days later, while performing a ritual at the Temple of Heaven, he collapsed and had to be carried back to the palace. He died three months later on 20 April 1521 in the Leopard Quarter. He was given the temple name Wuzong and the posthumous name Emperor Yi, and was buried in the Kang Mausoleum. He died without leaving an heir.

Succession

Jiang Bin's plan was to take control of the imperial city and place the emperor's distant relative, Zhu Junzhang, a prince from Datong, on the throne. In order to do so, he needed to be present with the emperor at the time of his death, in order to claim that he was acting on the emperor's orders. His first step was to forge a decree on 15 April, which would give him authority over the border troops stationed in Beijing. However, his plan failed because he was not by the Zhengde Emperor's side when he died. Instead, two eunuchs recorded the emperor's supposed last words, which stated that his mother, Empress Dowager Zhang, and grand secretaries would rule the empire.

Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe took the initiative and had a plan of his own: to put the emperor's closest cousin, thirteen-year-old Zhu Houcong, on the throne. This cousin was the son of the recently (in 1519) deceased Zhu Youyuan, Prince of Xing. By noon on 20 April, Yang Tinghe had received approval from Lady Zhang and the matter was settled. However, the Minister of Personnel, Wang Qiong (1459–1532), insisted on convening a general assembly to discuss the new emperor.

Jiang Bin was a powerful figure with his own army, making him a potential threat. On 22 April, he returned to the Forbidden City where he was informed by Yang Tinghe about a decree to return border troops from Beijing to the border. This meant that Jiang Bin's main support was taken away from him. Despite being urged by his allies to take action, he hesitated and was eventually arrested on 24 April. Yang Tinghe obtained permission for his arrest from the eunuch-heads of the Directorate of Ceremonial, Wei Bin and Zhang Rui, in exchange for the other eunuchs being granted immunity. Only Jiang Bin's allies among the officers were arrested with him. With Jiang Bin out of the way, Yang Tinghe was able to secure the succession and rule the empire virtually indefinitely. He dismissed the eunuch inspectors from the border garrisons, sent the border troops in Beijing back to the border, and sent foreign envoys, monks from the Leopard Quarter, artisans, entertainers, and women who had been assembled by the emperor in Beijing back to their respective homes. All of this was done under the guise of carrying out the emperor's will, even though the emperor's will did not actually exist. Most of the Zhengde Emperor's favorites were recalled and faced punishment, demotion, or exile. Jiang Bin's wealth was also confiscated, including 70 chests of gold and 2,200 chests of silver.

Economy and culture

Currency

In 1503, after a hiatus of seventy years, the government resumed the production of coins. They attempted to bolster their value by issuing a decree that reduced the worth of coins from previous dynasties by half, and by reiterating the prohibition on the use of privately minted coins. By 1507, it became evident that the new coins were not performing well, and the government was forced to accept the old coins at their full value. Private minting continued to thrive, with profits exceeding expenses by five times. The state eventually shut down the mints again in 1509.

During the last decades of the 15th century, private coins were the dominant currency, and Hongwu's coins from the early years of the dynasty were no longer in circulation. Officials referred to Tang and Song coins as "old coins" (guqian, jiuqian), while merchants in the market referred to them as "good coins" (haoqian). The "new coins" of the first decade of the 16th century were known as "bogus coins" (daohao) and were only valued at half their face value by merchants. In the Zhengte era, their value decreased even further to only a third or a quarter of their face value.

After 1510, merchants generally preferred old coins. Ming coins were only accepted at half their face value, while private light coins were only worth a quarter of their face value. However, it was the latter that dominated the market. In the early 1520s in Jiangnan, good coins that had previously been in circulation alongside new ones disappeared, leaving only the new, light coins. By 1527, the value of these coins had dropped to one-fifth or even one-tenth of their nominal value.

Relations with Southeast Asia and the arrival of the Portuguese

During the Hongzhi and Zhengde eras, the government showed little interest in Southeast Asia, in stark contrast to the first third of the 15th century when it actively enforced "Pax Ming" in the region. Even when the Portuguese showed aggression towards Malacca and the Sultan there requested help, the Beijing politicians remained lethargic. However, foreign trade with Southeast Asia continued to thrive. In 1510, local authorities recognized the separation of maritime trade and tribute relations and began taxing merchant ships arriving from abroad. By 1517, the import tax was set at 20% of the value of the ship's cargo. This de facto legalization of foreign trade led to its expansion, benefiting buyers and increasing government revenues. However, the uncontrolled mobility of traders, often armed, caused concern among some officials who called for restrictions on trade and the establishment of order. After the death of the Zhengde Emperor and the rise of the new government of the Jiajing Empeoror, their views gained the upper hand, resulting in an anti-trade ordinance in 1524.

In 1513, the first Portuguese explorer, Jorge Álvares, arrived in China. Three years later, in 1516, Portuguese captain Rafael Perestrello arrived in Guangzhou with his ship, which had a Malayan crew. This marked the beginning of trade between China and Europe. The following year, Fernão Pires de Andrade's squadron sailed from Malacca to China with the intention of establishing official trade and diplomatic relations. The envoy, Tomé Pires, carried a letter from King Manuel I of Portugal to the Chinese emperor and stayed in Guangzhou until the beginning of 1520, when he was finally able to travel to the imperial court. Despite the assistance of Jiang Bin, he was unable to secure an audience with the Zhengde Emperor in the summer of 1520 in Nanjing, where the emperor was staying at the time, or later in Beijing. After the Zhengde Emperor's death in April 1521, the new government refused to accept him and sent him back to Guangzhou.

Meanwhile, Fernão's brother, Simão de Andrade, incited the anger of the Chinese with his aggressive actions and the purchase of children, including those who were kidnapped from wealthy families. Rumors began to circulate in Guangzhou that the Portuguese were cannibals who consumed children (although in reality, they were selling them into slavery, and some were later discovered in Diu, India). The Portuguese's defiance of Ming authorities led to armed conflicts, and in 1521, a Ming fleet defeated them at the Battle of Tunmen. As a result, the Portuguese were expelled from China. Upon returning to the south, Tomé Pires was held responsible by the local authorities for the violent behavior of his comrades and was imprisoned. He ultimately died in prison in 1524.

In addition to new crops, syphilis also spread from America to China. It first appeared in Guangzhou in 1505, even before the arrival of the Portuguese.

Culture

The Zhengde Emperor was known for his love of songwriting and singing, as well as his appreciation for court music. He also placed a strong emphasis on funding the arts. During his reign, the production of high-quality porcelain, including blue and white, polychrome, monochrome, and enameled varieties, flourished for export. These pieces often featured inscriptions in Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. In addition, a new type of pottery called Yixing pottery was developed in the region west of Lake Tai, which was referred to as "boccaro" by the Portuguese.

During the Zhengde Emperor's reign, there was also a significant development in Neo-Confucian philosophy, thanks to the work of Wang Yangming, who is considered the most important thinker of the Ming era. Unlike Zhu Xi, who focused on the concept of li (principle), Wang Yangming centered his philosophy around the idea of xin (heart/mind). He also developed a theory of the unity of cognition and action.

During the reign of the Zhengde Emperor's grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor, publishers began to release collections of songs in colloquial language, but it was during the Zhengde Emperor's own reign that the number of published collections saw a significant increase. This could be attributed to his popularity as a singer and the growing popularity of theater during that time. One of the most influential figures in literature during this period was Li Dongyang, a grand secretary who wrote poems in the secretariat style and emphasized the importance of scholars with broad knowledge (taking Song's Ouyang Xiu as his role model). He also played a crucial role in educating and inspiring a new generation of writers and poets. In Jiangnan, the hub of artistic activity, the most prominent calligraphers, painters, and poets included Wen Zhengming (1470–1559). Wen was a master of poetry, calligraphy, and painting, and was known for his monochrome or lightly colored landscapes in the style of Shen Zhou, as well as his "green-blue landscapes" in the Tang style. He was particularly skilled in regular and seal script as a calligrapher. Another highly admired artist of the time was Zhu Yunming, who was known for his "crazy cursive script". Tang Yin was also recognized for his semi-cursive script, landscapes, and figure painting.

Legacy

Classical historians were highly critical of Liu's group, despite their efforts to improve administration efficiency, halt the decline of central authority, and prevent officials from prioritizing personal interests. These reforms, which predated similar efforts by Zhang Juzheng, were met with rejection by the conservative faction of the bureaucracy due to their initiation by eunuchs. This gave the critics another reason to condemn Liu's clique.

The call-up of front-line units to Beijing, even for a short period, disrupted the traditional organization of the army, hindered unit training, and resulted in insubordination in some units. In particular, detachments from Datong rebelled multiple times.

Due to his refusal to fulfill his government duties, the true power shifted to the eunuch Liu Jin, who was well-versed in the traditional ways of governing, but as time went on, the emperor's favorites among the officers gained more influence, leading to chaos that the grand secretaries and ministers struggled to rectify. Eventually, the executive power shifted from the emperor (who was aided by eunuchs) to the Grand Secretariat, particularly its leader. In 1521, Yang Tinghe was able to assume almost imperial powers, in contrast to his predecessor, the humble Li Dongyang, who was the last of the old-style grand secretaries. As imperial power weakened, the social status of educated officials in their communities rose. With the added benefit of tax exemption, they expanded their land holdings, placing the burden of taxes on the common people. Despite efforts to halt this trend, it persisted until the end of the dynasty.

After the Zhengde Emperor's death, his private life had significant consequences, as a dispute arose over the status of the new emperor's parents.

The negative portrayal of the Zhengde Emperor by Chinese classical historians, which began as early as the 16th century, has also been adopted in the West. For example, the Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 (pp. 307–315, 1976) includes a sharply negative entry on the emperor. The most comprehensive Western work on the Zhengde Emperor, as of 2001, was the chapter "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521" (pp. 403–439) in The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1988) by James Geiss.

Family

Consorts

• Empress Xiaojingyi, of the Xia clan (; 1492–1535)

• Consort Shuhuide, of the Wu clan (; d. 1539)

• Consort Rongshuxian, of the Shen clan (; 1492–1542)

• Consort, of the Wang clan

• Beauty, of the Liu clan

• Wang Mantang; 1471–1541)

• Lady, of the Ma clan

• Lady, of the Dai clan

• Lady, of the Du clan

人物生平

即位之初

明武宗為明孝宗與孝成敬皇后張氏的嫡長子，生於弘治四年九月二十四日（1491年10月26日）。兩歲被立為皇太子。唯一的弟弟朱厚煒又早夭，是孝宗唯一長大成人的兒子。弘治十一年春，皇太子出閣讀書。他天性聰穎，講筵時極為認真，面對講師則恭敬對待。幾個月後，便已知曉翰林院與左春坊所有講師的姓名，以致有講師缺席便會問詢左右「某先生今日安在邪？」這讓孝宗極為喜愛，出遊必帶上皇太子。同時孝宗聽聞皇太子閒暇時喜好兵戎事，認為他安不忘危，所以也不予以幹涉。

弘治十八年五月初八日，孝宗皇帝駕崩。在完成文武百官軍民耆老勸進的固定程序後，五月十八日，皇太子朱厚照即位，是為明武宗。

明正德九年正月，後來反叛的寧王朱宸濠獻新樣元宵四時花燈數百，窮極奇巧，內附火藥，明武宗命獻者入懸。時值冬季，宮中按例在簷下設有氈幕禦寒。以致火星觸及氊幕，引發大火，自二鼓時分一直燒至天明。火勢最大時，武宗正在前往豹房的途中，望見乾清宮的火災，武宗向左右開玩笑稱這是「好一棚大煙火也」，兩天後壬午日，武宗以乾清宮災御奉天門視朝，撤寶座不設，遂下詔罪己，並諭文武百官，同加修省。後又常常離開帝都燕京四處巡遊。凡他的車駕所至，近侍先掠良家女以充他姦淫。至數十車在道，說：「有死者。」左右不敢問，且令有司餼廩之，別具女衣、首飾，為賞賚費。遠近騷動，所經多逃亡。這些明武宗不知道。

宦官與豹房

住在京師期間，又不願住在紫禁城，在宮外建了一座頗具規模的「豹房」作為自己的住所，然而豹房所養的動物僅有花豹一隻、土豹三隻。這座住所的主要用途為甄選大量美女安置於該處，供其淫樂。工部奏浣衣局寄養幼女甚眾多，每年用柴炭至16000斤,宜增給，明武宗許可了。當時諸近幸多以幼女為獻,又累年巡幸所過閱選民間婦女載歸者,皆留浣衣局,至不能容,饔餐不繼,日有死者。明武宗對這些不聞不問。

明武宗的男寵也不計其數，取名曰「老兒當」，「老兒」是黑話，指少年。「當」為「黨」。「老兒當」即「少年黨」。但也有學者稱，因為正德帝喜歡各地宗教，這些「老兒當」主要是通曉漢文、蒙文、藏文或波斯文的年輕人，作為宗教人士的翻譯官。

明武宗不喜上朝，起初寵信劉瑾、張永、丘聚、谷大用等號稱「八虎」的宦官，1510年平定安化王之亂朱寘鐇後，下令將劉瑾凌遲處死，後又寵信武士江彬等人。

宗教

明武宗喜好迷信，終日與來自西域、回回、蒙古、烏斯藏（西藏）、朝鮮半島的異域法師、番僧相伴。明武宗曾學習蒙古語，自稱忽必烈，也學藏傳佛教，自稱大寶法王。中亞商人阿里・阿克巴撰寫的《中國紀行》一書中聲稱當時的中國皇帝，也就是明武宗，是一個吃回回食、誦讀可蘭經的虔誠穆斯林信徒。然而阿里・阿克巴的這些描寫在漢語文獻中並無佐証。明武宗還曾親自接見第一位來華的葡萄牙使者皮萊資。明武宗因為自己生肖屬豬，曾一度敕令全國禁食豬肉，但他自己仍食用豬肉「內批仍用豕」；旋即在大學士楊廷和的反對下，降敕廢除。

死亡

正德十五年十二月初十，大駕回到北京，文武百官出至正陽橋外迎接。十三日，皇帝於南郊祭祀天地，祭拜過程中突然嘔血，隨即送入齋宮休養。次日，返回大內，僅在奉天殿舉行慶成禮。此後，立春日的朝賀一同免去。

正德十六年（1521年）正月初九日，監察御史鄭本公鑑於武宗身體狀況不樂觀，上奏武宗，望能於宗室間過繼一人主掌東宮，但後來武宗身體略有好轉。三月十三日晚間，武宗突然向身邊的太監陳敬和蘇進表示自己可能無法痊癒，讓其召司禮監並稟告慈壽皇太后，由太后與內閣議處天下事，並表示自己耽誤子嗣。十四日，武宗於豹房駕崩，得年31歲（周歲29歲）。

由于武宗無子嗣，因此遵照《皇明祖訓》，由武宗堂弟、孝宗弟興獻王朱祐杬之子興王朱厚熜入嗣大統。正德十六年五月，朱厚熜抵達京師，上謚號為承天達道英肅睿哲昭德顯功弘文思孝毅皇帝，上廟號為武宗。新的皇帝殺死了他的一些寵臣。九月，武宗入葬天壽山陵區的康陵。

內政

應州之役

明武宗「奮然欲以武功自雄」。正德十二年（1517年）10月，在江彬的慫恿下，自封為「鎮國公總督軍務威武大將軍總兵官」，到邊地宣府（今張家口宣化區）親征，擊潰蒙古韃靼小王子（即達延汗巴圖蒙克），回去後又給自己加封太師。史稱「應州大捷」。

平寧王亂及駕幸南京

正德十四年（1519年）六月十四日，寧王朱宸濠在封藩江西南昌叛亂，是為寧王之亂，不過四十三天，就被贛南巡撫王陽明及吉安知府伍文定募集散兵游勇平定，斬殺三萬餘人，朱宸濠被擒。八月二十二日，武宗離開北京親征。二十六日，武宗抵達涿州，此時王陽明平定叛亂的奏報送達，但武宗仍決定繼續南幸。十二月十一日，武宗傳諭內閣，以正德十五年（1520年）元旦於南京朝賀、祭祀天地。十二月二十六日，武宗御駕抵南直隸。次日，祭祀南京太廟，武宗成為自永樂以後重新駕臨南京的在位皇帝。正德十五年閏八月初八日，武宗於南京受寧王降。八月十二日，武宗離京返回北京。武宗於御駕南征返回北京途中，在淮安清江浦上學漁夫撒網作為遊戲，卻失足落入水中，並因此患病「燥熱難退」。

外交

歐洲進入大航海時代後，葡萄牙人持續開拓前往印度、中國的航路，1511年葡萄牙佔領馬六甲（約今馬來亞地區）後，就意圖在中國建立貿易據點。明武宗正德七年（1513年），葡萄牙國王曼努埃爾一世為想要通商指定葡屬印度總督阿豐索·德阿爾布開克負責遠東貿易，派出拉斐爾·佩雷斯特雷洛前往中國。使節團本來想在廣州登陸，但被拒絕入境。他們改以武力佔據屯門，與明朝爆發屯門海戰、西草灣之戰，結果明朝大捷。

詔書

罪己詔

（原詔文中其有缺損處，以「□」代借）

遺詔

軼聞

明武宗的生辰為弘治四年九月二十四日，八字為辛亥年，戊戌月，丁酉日，戊申時出生。其中，八字地支分別為申酉戌亥，這種排列方法被稱為連如貫珠。在此以前僅太祖朱元璋的八字辰戌醜未皆全與此類似。

賜自己的替僧為漢地大寶法王，正德五年加封大慶法王，鑄大慶法王西天覺道圓明自在大定慧佛金印，兼給誥命，藏名為「領占班丹」，並曾邀請藏地第八世噶瑪巴至京師（第七世噶瑪巴曾說：「將現身兩位噶瑪巴」）；蒙古名為忽必烈；波斯名為沙吉熬爛（Shaykh Alam），即蘇菲師（回教蘇菲派長者、教長），並擁有一群伊斯蘭火者，稱為老兒當，同時內府多製作有《古蘭經》經文瓷器，其中故宮博物院所藏一枚正德白釉礬紅彩阿拉伯文波斯文盤，其款識為波斯文「大明國可汗即蘇萊曼沙阿御製」。對道教亦多有了解，可能曾號錦堂老人。

正德十五年（1520年）閏八月，武宗御駕自南京返回時，途徑鎮江，適逢退休居家的原內閣大臣靳貴病逝，于是親臨靳貴家中弔唁。但是隨行大臣代皇帝撰寫的祭文皆不能稱意，明武宗遂親自寫道：「朕居東宮，先生為傅。朕登大寶，先生為輔。朕今南遊，先生已矣。嗚呼哀哉！」左右的侍從文學之臣看後都斂手稱服。

山西應縣木塔頂層有一方明武宗皇帝御匾「天下奇觀」。

2004年，在美國德州一位華僑手中發現由明朝正德皇帝親筆所書的聖旨，對臣下說做人應如何有進取心以及如何為忠君之臣與正人君子。這些說話和他做的行為並不一樣

歷史評價

史學界對正德帝的評價不一，有人認為正德帝雖荒淫無行，行徑胡鬧，不理國政，造成叛變日起，且自身壯年即因為逸樂而死；但是亦有人認為他頗能容忍大臣，不罪勸諫之人。君臣之間，相安無事，知錯能改，誅滅奸佞。

• 張廷玉等《明史》贊曰：「明自正統以來，國勢浸弱。毅皇手除逆瑾，躬禦邊寇，奮然欲以武功自雄。然耽樂嬉遊，暱近群小，至自署官號，冠履之分蕩然矣。猶幸用人之柄躬自操持，而秉鈞諸臣補苴匡救，是以朝綱紊亂，而不底於危亡。假使承孝宗之遺澤，制節謹度，有中主之操，則國泰而名完，豈至重後人之訾議哉！」

• 談遷《國榷》：「武宗少即警敏，好佚樂。……而武宗又不罪一諫臣，元相呵護，群吏奉法。……夜半出片紙縛（劉）瑾，……錢寧俛首受罪。」

• 吳熾昌《續客窗閒話》：「……遊戲中確有主裁，但好行小慧，為儒尚且不可，況九五之尊耶？今之讀史者直以帝比之桀紂，無乃過甚。當初諡曰武宗毅皇帝，毅者果決之謂，可見遇事實能決斷，非盡阿諛可知矣。」

• 毛澤東：「《明史》我看了最生氣。明朝除了明太祖、明成祖不識字的兩個皇帝搞得比較好，明武宗、明英宗還稍好些以外，其餘的都不好，盡做壞事。」

任用官員

宰輔

• 劉健

• 謝遷

• 李東陽

• 焦芳

• 王鏊

• 楊廷和

• 劉宇

• 曹元

• 梁儲

• 劉忠

• 費宏

• 楊一清

• 靳貴

• 蔣冕

• 毛紀

寵臣

• 錢寧

• 江彬

太監

• 劉瑾：八虎之首，掌司禮監秉筆太監。

• 張永：八虎之一，總神機營，與劉瑾為黨。後與劉瑾不合。並且為後來倒劉瑾的重要人物。且與王守仁交善。

• 谷大用：八虎之一，提督西廠。

• 馬永成：八虎之一，提督東廠。

• 丘聚：八虎之一，提督東廠。

• 羅祥：八虎之一。

• 魏彬：八虎之一，總三千營。劉瑾誅後，代掌司禮監。

• 高鳳：八虎之一。司禮監太監，掌管機密。

• 張忠：御馬太監，與司禮張雄、東廠張銳並侍豹房用事，時號三張。性皆兇悖。並與大盜張茂財，結為兄弟。並且後與寧王朱宸濠勾結，收受賄絡，協助其叛變；而後還遮藏王守仁之捷，騙出武宗親自出征。

• 吳經：太監，隨武宗南征，就先到揚州，強奪寡婦、處女，要求拿金錢來換取。

家庭成員

母親

• 孝成敬皇后張氏

兄弟姊妹

• 蔚悼王朱厚煒

• 太康公主朱秀榮

妻妾

• 后妃

　• 孝靜毅皇后夏氏

　• 淑惠德妃吳氏

　• 榮淑賢妃沈氏

　• 王妃

　• 劉美人，又稱劉夫人，太原民劉良之女

• 無妃嬪位號者

　• 王滿堂，女官，職位浣衣

　• 馬氏，馬昂之妹

• 位號不詳

　• 戴氏，總兵官戴欽女

　• 杜氏，馬昂妾

藝術形象

• 民間有關于武宗微服出巡與民間女子相愛的故事，即游龍戲鳳。

電影和電視劇

• 1939年中國電影《一夜皇后》，梅熹飾演明武宗。

• 1959年香港邵氏兄弟電影公司出品電影《江山美人》，趙雷飾演明武宗。

• 1961年香港立達影業公司《刁蠻女俠》。

• 1976年香港電視劇《民間傳奇之江山美人》，鄭少秋飾演明武宗。

• 1979年香港邵氏兄弟電影公司出品電影《北地胭脂》，岳華飾演明武宗。

• 1979年香港麗的電視武俠劇《天龍訣》，萬梓良飾演明武宗。

• 1983年香港亞洲電視連續劇《唐伯虎三戲秋香》，麥天恩飾演明武宗。

• 1984年台灣中華電視台金玉劇坊《江山美人》，勾峰飾演明武宗。

• 1984年台灣中華電視台武俠劇《天蠶再變》，李天柱飾演明武宗。

• 1984年台灣中國電視公司連續劇《書劍千秋》，侯冠群飾演明武宗。

• 1993年香港亞洲電視古裝武俠劇《天蠶變之再與天比高》，宗揚飾演明武宗。

• 1994年香港古裝愛情劇《俠女游龍》，羅嘉良飾演明武宗。

• 1994年中視與新加坡電視機構合拍電視劇《天師鐘馗之江山美人》，陳泰鳴飾演明武宗。

• 1998年台灣古裝劇《江山美人》，崔浩然飾演明武宗。

• 1998年中國大陸電視劇《保鏢之天之嬌女》，王衛國飾演明武宗。

• 2000年中國大陸電視劇《機靈小不懂》，聶遠飾演明武宗。

• 2000年中國大陸、台灣合拍半喜劇電視劇《絕色雙嬌》，焦恩俊飾演明武宗。

• 2000年香港無線電視翡翠台古裝電視劇《金裝四大才子》，蔡子健飾演明武宗。

• 2002年香港電影《天下無雙》，張震飾演明武宗。

• 2004年中國大陸電視劇《皇后進宮》，吳大維飾演明武宗。

• 2004年中國大陸電視劇《無憂公主》，馮紹峰飾演明武宗。

• 2004年中國大陸電視劇《鳳臨閣》，賈一平飾演明武宗。

• 2004年中國大陸電視劇《長劍相思》，高梓淇飾演明武宗。

• 2005年中國大陸古裝歷史顛覆劇《正德演義》，何炅飾演明武宗。

• 2005年中國大陸電視劇《天下第一》，鄧超飾演明武宗。

• 2005年中國大陸電視劇《天下第一媒》，李楠飾演明武宗。

• 2005年中國大陸電視劇《劍出江南》，王茂蕾飾演明武宗。

• 2007年中國大陸電視劇《夜來風雨》，任東霖飾演明武宗。

• 2009年香港古裝武打電視劇《王老虎搶親》，羅貫峰飾演明武宗。

• 2010年香港古裝電視劇《秋香怒點唐伯虎》，黎諾懿飾演明武宗。

• 2010年香港電影《龍鳳店》，任賢齊飾演明武宗。

• 2010年中國大陸電視劇《蘇三傳奇》，李彥明飾演明武宗。

• 2011年中國大陸電視劇《王陽明》，朱一龍飾演明武宗。

• 2012年中國大陸電影《風雲小棋王》，王放飾演明武宗。

• 2014年中國大陸電視劇《江南四大才子》，張曉晨飾演明武宗。

• 2018年中國大陸古裝劇《回到明朝當王爺之楊凌傳》，劉芮麟飾演明武宗。

戲曲

• 京劇《游龍戲鳳》、《梅龍鎮》

歌仔戲

• 電視歌仔戲：《正德皇帝遊江南》（黃香蓮主演）

• 電視歌仔戲：《青山綠水行》（楊麗花主演）

• 電視歌仔戲：《花月正春風》（楊麗花主演）

• 電視歌仔戲：《巡按與大盜》（洪秀玉主演）

• 電視歌仔戲：《三戲正德皇帝》（陳小咪主演）

文學作品

• 小說：喬靖夫《武道狂之詩》天行者出版

• 小說：月關《回到明朝當王爺》高寶國際出版

延伸閱讀