生平

建义元年（385年）乞伏国仁自称大都督、大将军、单于，领秦、河二州牧。任命乾归为上将军。建义四年（388年）国仁去世，群臣认为国仁子乞伏公府年幼，乃推乾归为大都督、大将军、大单于、河南王，改元太初，迁都金城（今甘肃兰州），立妻边氏为王后，署置百官，仿汉制。以南川侯出连乞都为丞相、镇南将军、南梁州刺史，莫侯悌眷为御史大夫，金城人，边氏之弟边芮为左长史、东秦州刺史，秘宜为右长史，武始人翟勍为左司马，翟瑥为右司马，略阳人王松寿为主簿，乞伏乾归的堂弟乞伏轲弹为梁州牧，弟弟乞伏益州为秦州牧，乞伏屈眷为河州牧，自馀封拜各有差。太初二年（389年）受前秦帝苻登封为金城王。

征战秦凉

乾归于太初二年（389年）即讨平了休官部落的阿敦及侯年二部，尽降其众，于是威振西部，鲜卑的豆留螱奇、叱豆浑、南丘鹿结、休官部的曷呼奴及卢水尉地跋都率众归降，而乾归亦各署官爵；枹罕羌彭奚念亦来归附，乾归以其为北河州刺史。次年（390年），吐谷浑亦遣使上贡，乾归又以吐谷浑君主视连为白兰王、沙州牧。

太初四年（391年），没弈干遣使结好，并派两个儿子为人质请兵一共进攻鲜卑大兜，乾归答允并领兵进攻大兜的安阳城，大兜退守鸣蝉堡但还是被乾归攻陷，乾归于是收掳其部众回国。战后乾归归还了没弈干的两个儿子，但没弈干不久又改结刘衞辰，乾归于是率兵一万攻伐没弈干，并在他楼城射伤没弈干的眼睛。

太初七年（394年），苻登知后秦皇帝姚苌去世，认为灭后秦时机已到，于是起兵进攻后秦，又拜乾归为左丞相、河南王、领秦梁益凉沙五州牧，加赐九锡。可是苻登却遭姚苌太子姚兴击败，退屯马毛山，并派了儿子苻宗为质子，向乾归请兵，并进封乾归为梁王。乾归于是派了乞伏益州率兵一万营救，但苻登要出迎乞伏益州时被姚兴击败，更被俘杀。苻登太子苻崇于湟中继位，但不久乾归就驱逐苻崇，苻崇只好投奔氐族仇池部陇西王杨定。二人组成联军反攻乾归，乾归派兵抵抗，终击败联军，斩杨定及苻崇，前秦灭亡，西秦自此尽有陇西。不久，乾归自称秦王，又于次年（395年）迁都苑川西城（今甘肃靖远）。

早于太初五年（392年），吕光就曾派吕方及吕宝进攻乾归，乾归初败于鸣雀峡，退屯青岸。而吕方屯黄河北，吕宝则渡河追击，乾归于是派彭奚念断绝吕宝归路，率兵反击，屡败吕宝，终吕宝等一万多人战死。至太初八年（395年），吕光亲自率十万军进攻乾归，左辅将军密贵周及莫者羖羝就劝乾归向吕光称藩，乾归终听从并以儿子乞伏敕勃作为人质，吕光亦率军退还。可是不久乾归就后悔了，杀了密贵周及莫者羖羝。

太初九年（396年），凉州牧乞伏轲弹因与秦州牧乞伏益州不睦，故出奔吕光，吕光于是以乾归多次反覆而兴兵讨伐。其时众臣都请乾归出奔成纪回避，但乾归不愿。吕光派吕延等人攻下了临洮、武始、河关，又命吕纂进攻金城，乾归率兵救援，但吕光派了王宝及徐炅率兵五千边击，令乾归恐惧不敢前进，终令金城陷落。乾归于是行反间计，传出假消息称乾归部众已溃散，乾归已东逃到成纪。吕延信以为真，于是轻军进攻，最终被乾归击败，吕延更战死。吕延败后，吕光亦退兵。

攻吐谷浑

太初三年（390年），视连去世，视罴继位，拒绝接受乾归的封号。乾归知道后大怒，但因为忌惮吐谷浑强盛，于是暂时容忍，仍然交好。至太初十一年（398年）就派了乞伏益州、慕兀及翟瑥率二万骑进攻吐谷浑，在度周川大败视罴，逼其送儿子宕岂为质求和。

兵败亡国

太初十三年（400年），乾归复迁都苑川（今甘肃榆中县北）。同年，后秦姚硕德来攻，乾归率众到陇西对抗。两军对峙期间，姚硕德军柴草缺乏，后秦王姚兴于是亲自出军。乾归见已是国家存亡的危机，于是放手一搏，决定集中力量消灭姚兴军队，杀死姚兴，欲求消除危机之馀更吞并后秦。乾归因而命慕兀率二万兵为中军，驻柏杨（今甘肃清水县西南）；罗敦率四万兵为外军，驻侯辰谷。而自己就率数千骑等候姚兴军。但一晚，乾归遇上大风和大雾，与中军失去联络，被逼与外军会合。天亮后乾归就与姚兴军交战，大败。乾归败归苑川，接著又逃到金城，并命手下各豪帅留下来归降后秦，自己西走允吾（今甘肃皋兰县西北），望一天复兴国家时再见。西秦灭亡。乾归到允吾后向秃发利鹿孤投降，被秃发傉檀迎到晋兴，待以上宾之礼。

后秦退兵后，南羌梁戈等人招引乾归，乾归打算前赴，但事情却泄漏给秃发利鹿孤知道，秃发吐雷因而出屯扪天岭。乾归恐为秃发利鹿孤所杀，于是送妻子及乞伏炽磐等诸子到西平为人质，自己出奔枹罕（今甘肃临夏市），向后秦投降。

乾归到长安后，受封为持节、都督河南诸军事、镇远将军、河州刺史、归义侯，隔年（401年）更被派还西秦故都苑川镇守，并归还其部众。至后秦弘始四年（402年），乞伏炽磐逃奔后秦，姚兴也授他官位，不久更加乾归散骑常侍、左贤王。乾归于降后秦时期，曾经受命与齐难等后秦将领到姑臧（今甘肃武威）接受后凉王吕隆投降。乾归又屡攻仇池，先后攻破仇池所领的皮氏堡和西阳堡。乾归更于405年攻破吐谷浑，其中吐谷浑君主大孩更在败走后不久去世，乾归俘掳了一万多人。

复国与遇刺

弘始九年（407年），姚兴认为乾归的势力逐渐强大，难以控制，于是趁其入朝的机会将其留在长安当主客尚书，让其子乞伏炽磐代领其众。弘始十一年（409年），乞伏炽磐攻伐彭奚念，攻陷其占领的枹罕。其时乾归正随姚兴在平凉，得到炽磐的通报后就逃回苑川。乾归回去后不久到枹罕聚集三万部众，并带他们迁居度坚山，留炽磐守枹罕，接著乾归更称秦王，改元「更始」，再次置官爵并让手下恢复原来在西秦的职位，正式复国。

乾归复国后，先派兵进攻薄地延，将其部落迁至苑川，后又派兵攻下后秦的金城郡，并置守戍，从而于更始二年（410年）迁都回苑川。略阳、南安、陇西等后秦辖郡都先后遭西秦军攻下。当时后秦无力讨伐，只得任命乾归为使持节、散骑常侍、都督陇西北匈奴杂胡诸军事征西大将军、河州牧、大单于、河南王。乾归当时正欲攻取河西地区，于是暂时接受。

乾归又派兵攻伐南凉，击败了南凉太子秃发虎台。另又率兵攻下后秦略阳太守姚龙的柏龙堡及南平太守王憬的水洛城。后又攻杀袭据枹罕的彭利发，收复了枹罕。更始四年（412年），乾归更率二万骑攻破吐谷浑支统阿若干，令吐谷浑向其投降。

同年六月，乾归为其侄乞伏公府所弑，十馀个儿子一并遇害。乞伏炽磐消灭乞伏公府后继位，諡乾归为武元王，庙号高祖，葬于枹罕。

妻儿

王后

• 边王后

• 苻王后

子

• 乞伏炽磐

• 乞伏敕勃

• 乞伏木奕干

• 乞伏审虔

• 乞伏昙达

• 乞伏娄机

• 乞伏千年

• 乞伏沃陵

• 乞伏什寅（429年被乞伏暮末处决）

• 乞伏白养（430年被乞伏暮末处决）

• 乞伏去列（430年被乞伏暮末处决）

• 乞伏亹，子乞伏凤，孙乞伏悦，曾孙乞伏保达

大臣

• 出连乞都（丞相）

• 悌眷（御史大夫）

• 密贵周

• 辛静，399年由金城郡太守被任命为右丞相。

• 乞伏炽磐领尚书令（以下392年任命）

• 左长史边芮为尚书左仆射

• 右长史秘宜为右仆射

• 翟瑥为吏部尚书

• 翟勍为主客尚书

• 杜宣为兵部尚书

• 王松寿为民部尚书

• 樊谦为三公尚书

• 方弘、麴景为侍中

• 丑门于弟为下将军

注释

延伸阅读

参考

• 《晋书·第125卷》

• 《十六国春秋·第14卷》

• 《资治通鉴》（第106卷，第107卷，第108卷，第109卷，第110卷，第111卷，第112卷，第113卷，第114卷，第115卷，第116卷）

Early life

The first reference to Qifu Gangui in history was in 385, when his brother Qifu Guoren declared himself Chanyu and changed era name, thus signifying independence from Former Qin. At that time, Qifu Guoren named Qifu Gangui a major general. Nothing else is known about his life before or during Qifu Guoren's reign, other than an implied reference that he defeated the Former Qin general Wang Guang (王广) in battle.

In 388, Qifu Guoren died. His son Qifu Gongfu was considered too young to take over the leadership, and the officials and generals supported Qifu Gangui to succeed Qifu Guoren, with the titles Grand Chanyu and Prince of Henan. (This title does not imply dominion over modern Henan; rather, it signified dominion over the portions of modern Gansu and Qinghai that are south of the Yellow River.)

First reign

Qifu Gangui created his wife Lady Bian princess, and he also established a governmental structure designed similarly to a Han Chinese governmental structure. Over the next several years, Qifu Gangui used a variety of military and diplomatic pressure to get the various people around his—including people of Xianbei, Qiang, and Han ethnicities, to submit to him. Later in the year, he moved the capital from Yongshi (勇士城, in modern Lanzhou, Gansu) to Jincheng (also in Lanzhou).

In 389, the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng, to whom Qifu Guoren had nominally submitted as a vassal, created Qifu Gangui the Prince of Jincheng—a title that signified less dominion than his original title of Prince of Henan, because Jincheng Commandery only roughly corresponded to modern Lanzhou—but Qifu Gangui accepted the title.

In 390, the khan of Tuyuhun, Murong Shilian (慕容视连), submitted to Western Qin as a vassal, and Qifu Gangui created him the Prince of Bailan. However, after Murong Shilian died later that year and was succeeded by his more ambitious son Murong Shipi (慕容视罴), Murong Shipi rejected that title.

In 391, Qifu Gangui's general Yuezhi Jiegui (越质诘归) rebelled, but after Qifu Gangui personally led an army against him, Yuezhi surrendered—and Qifu Gangui married the daughter of a clansman to Yuezhi, showing Qifu Gangui's tendency to try to personally connect with tribal chiefs to get them to submit to him. However, later 391, the strategy could have said to have backfired as the tribal chief Mo Yigan (没奕干) initially submitted and sent two sons as hostages to him, seeking his aid in a campaign against another tribal chief, Da Dou (大兜). Qifu Gangui aided him and defeated Da in battle, and then sent Mo's sons back to him, to try to get Mo to be more grateful of him. However, Mo instead turned against Qifu Gangui and aligned himself with the Tiefu chief Liu Weichen (刘卫辰), and Qifu Gangui, in anger, attacked Mo and, in battle, fired an arrow that struck Mo's eye. During the campaign against Mo, however, Lü Guang the prince of Later Liang took this opportunity to attack Western Qin, forcing Qifu Gangui to withdraw to face him. This incident appeared to start several years of intermittent battles between Western Qin and Later Liang.

In 393, Qifu Gangui created his son Qifu Chipan as crown prince.

In 394, after the death of the Later Qin emperor Yao Chang, Fu Deng prepared a major offensive against Yao Chang's son and successor Yao Xing, and as part of the preparation he requested aid from Qifu Gangui and created Qifu Gangui the Prince of Henan and bestowed on him the nine bestowments. However, Fu Deng's campaign ended in failure, as his forces were defeated by Yao Xing's, and his brother Fu Guang (苻广) and son Fu Chong abandoned his bases, forcing him to flee into the mountains. He then married his sister the Princess Dongping to Qifu Gangui as his princess and created him the Prince of Liang. Qifu Gangui sent his brother Qifu Yizhou (乞伏益州) to aid Fu Deng, but as Fu Deng came out of the mountains to join Qifu Yizhou's forces, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. Qifu Yizhou then withdrew.

Fu Deng's son Fu Chong fled to Huangzhong (湟中, in modern Xining, Qinghai), then under Qifu Gangui's control, and claimed imperial title. However, in winter 394, Qifu Gangui expelled him, and he fled to one of his father's last remaining generals, Yang Ding the Prince of Longxi. Yang led his forces to join Fu Chong's to attack Qifu Gangui. Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Yizhou and two other generals, Qifu Ketan (乞伏轲弹) and Yuezhi Jiegui against Yang and Fu Chong, and Yang was initially successful against Qifu Yizhou. However, the three Western Qin generals then counterattacked and killed Yang and Fu Chong in battle.

Around the new year 395, Qifu Gangui claimed the title Prince of Qin—a greater title that implicitly made himself a rival of Later Qin, and the state thus became known in history as Western Qin. In the summer, he sent Qifu Yizhou to attack the unsubmitting Di chief Jiang Ru (姜乳), despite warnings that Qifu Yizhou had become arrogant from his victories. Qifu Yizhou indeed became unattentive and was defeated by Jiang. Later in the year, Qifu Gangui moved his capital from Jincheng to Xicheng (西城, in modern Baiyin, Gansu).

In fall 395, Lü Guang made a major attack on Western Qin. Under the advice of his officials Mi Guizhou (密贵周) and Mozhe Gudi (莫者羖羝), Qifu Gangui submitted to Lü Guang as a vassal and sent his son Qifu Chibo (乞伏敕勃) as a hostage to Lü Guang, and Lü Guang withdrew. However, Qifu Gangui soon regretted this arrangement and executed Mi and Mozhe.

In 397, determined to punish Qifu Gangui, Lü Guang launched a major attack against Xicheng . This frightened Qifu Gangui's officials enough that they recommended a retreat to Chengji (成纪, in modern Tianshui, Gansu) to the east, but Qifu Gangui, seeing weaknesses in Later Liang's forces despite their numbers, stood his ground. Later Liang forces were initially successful, capturing several major Western Qin cities, but Qifu Gangui tricked Lü Guang's brother and major general Lü Yan (吕延) the Duke of Tianshui into believing that he was retreating, and Lü Yan fell into a trap Qifu Gangui set and was killed. Lü Guang, in fear, withdrew to his capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu). In 398, Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Yizhou to attack Later Liang, and he recovered some of the territory previously lost.

Later in 398, Qifu Yizhou battled Murong Shipi and defeated him. Murong Shipi, in fear, sent his son Murong Dangqi (慕容宕岂) as a hostage and sought peace. Qifu Gangui married the daughter of a clansman to Qifu Dangqi.

In 400, Qifu Gangui moved his capital from Xicheng to Wanchuan (苑川, also in Baiyin).

In summer 400, Later Qin's general, Yao Xing's uncle Yao Shuode (姚硕德) launched a major attack against Western Qin. Initially, Qifu Gangui was successful in cutting off Yao Shuode's supply line, but Yao Xing then personally came to Yao Shuode's aid. Qifu Gangui divided his army to try to ascertain Later Qin's intentions, but the armies lost communication in the fog, and Later Qin attacked them and greatly defeated them, taking nearly the entire Western Qin army captive. Yao Xing advanced to Fuhan (枹罕, in modern Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu), forcing Qifu Gangui to flee back to Jincheng. With his army lost, however, Qifu Gangui concluded that he could not sustain a state any more, and instructed his officials to surrender to Later Qin, while he himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, who welcomed him as an honored guest. Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan (秃发俱延) suspected Qifu Gangui's intentions, and suggested that Tufa Lilugu exile him to the Yifu (乙弗) tribe (probably west of the Qinghai Lake), a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected. However, worried that Qifu Gangui would try to reestablish his state, he sent an army to watch over him. Qifu Gangui, fearing that he would be executed, then regained trust from Tufa Lilugu by sending Qifu Chipan, his brothers, and their mother to the Southern Liang capital Xiping as hostages. He himself, however, as soon as the Southern Liang guard was down, fled to Fuhan and surrendered to Later Qin.

As Later Qin general

Upon Qifu Gangui's arrival in the Later Qin capital Chang'an, Yao Xing created him the Marquess of Guiyi. In 401, Yao Xing inexplicably gave Qifu Gangui his entire captured army back to him and had him defend his old capital Wanchuan, effectively putting him back in the position he had before, but now as a Later Qin vassal. He quickly put his governmental structure back in place, but now with inferior titles to show submission to Later Qin. Later in 401, Yao Xing sent Qifu Gangui to serve as Yao Shuode's assistant in a major campaign against Later Yang's emperor Lü Long (Lü Guang's nephew), forcing Lü Long's submission.

In 402, Qifu Chipan, who had previously made an unsuccessful attempt to escape from Southern Liang to join his father, succeeded in fleeing to Wanchuan. The Southern Liang prince Tufa Rutan sent Qifu Chipan's wife (who might be Tufa Rutan's daughter) and children to join him.

In 403, Lü Long decided to give up his state (now consisting of little more than the capital city of Guzang) to Later Qin, ending Later Liang, and Qifu Gangui was one of the generals whom Yao Xing sent to escort Lü Long to Chang'an and to escort his replacement, the Later Qin general Wang Shang (王尚) to Guzang, which was at the point effectively surrounded by Southern Liang and Northern Liang forces.

For the next few years, Qifu Gangui appeared to begin to act more independently again. For example, in 405, apparently without Later Qin sanction, he attacked Murong Dahai (慕容大孩), the khan of Tuyuhun, and later in the year he battled fellow Later Qin vassal Yang Sheng (杨盛), the ruler of Chouchi.

Around the new year 407, Qifu Gangui went on an official visit to Chang'an. Yao Xing, apprehensive about Qifu Gangui's strength and independence, detained him and made him a minister, giving his command to Qifu Chipan.

In 408, with Tufa Rutan, who had previously submitted as a Later Qin vassal, acting independently but yet suffering many internal problems, Yao Xing became resolved to destroy Southern Liang, and Qifu Gangui was one of the generals he sent under the command of his son Yao Bi (姚弼) to try to destroy Southern Liang. However, Yao Bi's campaign resulted in failure, and while Tufa Rutan nominally continued to submit for a time, he soon declared full independence. In 409, Qifu Gangui himself escaped and returned to Wanchuan. Later in the year, he redeclared the Western Qin state with the title Prince of Qin and changed his era name.

Second reign

After his restoration, Qifu Gangui again created his wife Princess Bian as princess and Qifu Chipan as crown prince, and he temporarily set his capital at Dujianshan (度坚山, in modern Baiyin, Gansu). In 410, he attacked Later Qin's Jincheng Commandery and captured it, and later in 410 moved the capital back to Wanchuan. He then captured several more Later Qin commanderies. However, in spring 411, he returned the captured officials to Later Qin and sought peace, offering to again submit as a vassal. Yao Xing created him the Prince of Henan. However, in winter 411 he again captured several Later Qin commanderies. In spring 412, he moved the capital to Tanjiao (谭郊, in modern Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu), and left Qifu Chipan in charge of Wanchuan.

In summer 412, Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu killed Qifu Gangui in a coup and also killed more than 10 of Qifu Gangui's sons. After a short campaign between Qifu Gongfu and Qifu Chipan, Qifu Chipan succeeded and killed Qifu Gongfu. He took the throne as Prince Wenzhao.