历史

迁移与割据夏州

西夏由党项族所建立。党项族是羌族的一支，带有鲜卑的血统。唐朝时居住在四川松潘高原一带，是唐朝的羁糜州之一。当时分有八部，以拓跋氏最为强盛。吐蕃于唐朝安史之乱后占领河西一带，并且压迫党项。唐高宗时期，党项首领拓跋赤辞在唐朝帮助下迁移到陕北一带，奠定党项兴起的根据地。唐中和元年（881年），占据宥州的平夏部拓跋思恭因平定黄巢之乱有功，受唐僖宗诏封为夏州节度使，赐号「定难军」。协助收复长安后，唐中和三年（883年）封夏国公，赐唐朝国姓「李」，领有夏银等地，夏州政权（正式称呼是夏州节度使或定难军）形成一个割据陕北的籓镇。五代十国时，夏州政权避免介入中原各势力间的内斗，向五代与北汉称臣以巩固在陕北的势力。然而后唐时，唐明宗意图将延州节度使安从进与夏州节度使李彝超对调以并吞夏州政权。李彝超极力反对，成功击退安从进率领的后唐军，在北宋初年时累积雄厚的实力。

宋建隆元年（960年），宋太祖赵匡胤建立宋朝后，夏州政权首领李彝殷向北宋称臣，并且多次协助北宋对抗北汉。当北宋陆续平定南方各国后，宋太宗开始将目光放在北方，有意削除夏州政权。此时李氏家族反对李继捧担任夏州节度使。宋太平兴国七年（982年），宋太宗招李继捧与其族人迁居开封，命亲宋的李克文继任之，夏州政权被北宋并吞。李继捧族弟李继迁不愿投降宋朝，率族人逃往地斤泽（今陕西横山县东北）抗宋。宋太平兴国九年（984年），宋将尹宪、曹光实击破夏军。隔年李继迁由弱转强，攻破宋军后陆续收复银、夏等等夏州领地。宋淳化元年（990年），被辽朝辽圣宗册封为夏国王，即被追尊的夏太祖。宋廷采取以夷制夷方式，派李继捧回任夏州，招抚李继迁任银州，并对此二人赐姓赵。不久李继迁又叛，于宋至道二年（996年），击退宋将李继隆率领的五路大军。在巩固夏州领地后，一直努力西扩河西，最后于宋咸平五年（1002年）第三次攻打灵州（今宁夏灵武西南）时成功攻下，改名西平府。宋朝至此无力围堵，于隔年承认李继迁领有夏州领地。李继迁陆续占领凉州（今甘肃武威县）等河西重镇，击退与宋朝联手的河西凉州吐蕃六谷部。两年后，李继迁被六谷部首领潘罗支袭击而亡，享年四十二岁。后被其长孙李元昊追封为夏太祖。其长子李德明于柩前即位，即被追尊的夏太宗。

快速扩张

李德明继位后，因为国土快速膨胀，为了稳固国力以抵御四方敌国，有意与宋和谈；而北宋对外战事也由扩张转为和平，与辽朝签署澶渊之盟后也希望西北也能稳定下来。最后双方于宋景德三年（1006年）双方签署景德和议。并受宋朝封西平王之爵位，后改封夏国公。李德明为了维护自身独立，东和宋朝，北附辽朝，并让太子李元昊迎娶辽朝的兴平公主。对内方面，李德明定都兴州（今宁夏银川东南），采取保境安民、注重生产的策略。并且请求北宋于保安军（今陕西丹县）设置榷场，听许两国贸易。此外积极西征河西。宋大中祥符元年（1008年）辽朝册封李德明为大夏国王。宋天圣六年（1028年），派太子李元昊攻下甘州（今甘肃张掖县），甘州回鹘首领夜落隔通顺自杀，降服吐蕃六谷部首领折逋游龙钵。而后又夺肃州，降服瓜州归义军的曹贤顺。至此夏州政权国力大盛，为日后李元昊称帝立国建立稳固的基础。宋明道元年（1032年）李德明去世，追封为夏太宗。其子李元昊继位。

李元昊继位后完成河西走廊的占领，并且积极准备脱离宋朝独立建国。他首先弃李姓，自称嵬名氏，以北魏王室后裔自居。采杨守素的建议，以避父讳为由，改宋朝年号明道为显道，以建立自己的年号。随后建宫殿，下秃发令，恢复故俗，都兴庆府，设文武二班，立军名，用兵制，创造西夏文，改定礼乐等。

称帝建国

大庆三年十月十一日（1038年11月10日）李元昊正式称帝，即夏景宗，改元天授礼法延祚，定都兴州并升为兴庆府，建国号「大夏」，亦称西夏，至此西夏正式立国。夏景宗霸气纵横，脱离对宋、辽的臣属关系。为了要独霸西方，他四处扩土，先后和宋辽开战，为西夏武力颠峰的时候。

夏景宗于隔年采取联辽抗宋的战略不断入侵宋边境，并且要求宋朝承认西夏独立。当时北宋在横山山脉一带建立不少堡垒，不过东方重镇延州防御薄弱，守将范雍无能。天授礼法延祚三年（1040年）夏景宗发动三川口之战，率10万大军包围延州，于三川口袭击宋将刘平、石元孙的援军，最后夏军因大雪而解围撤退。宋廷面对西夏大举入侵，派夏竦为正使、韩琦与范仲淹为副使经略西夏。当时宋军兵多于西夏，但是不擅野战、补给也不易，主攻的韩琦与主守的范仲淹对此争执不断。1041年夏景宗发动大军包围宋朝西线的渭川、怀远一带，韩琦不听派范仲淹建议派大将任福率大军救援怀远，夏景宗引诱至埋伏地好水川口袭击，此即好水川之战。此后宋廷转为防御，改派陈执中、夏竦经略，并且建立四路防线。1042年西夏谋臣张元建议避开宋防线，绕道奇袭京兆府（长安）。同年夏景宗于防线薄弱的泾原路发动定川寨之战，于定川寨包围歼灭宋军，目标是长安，但另一路遇到原州景泰的阻击而罢。宋夏战争一直到1044年才平息。双方签订庆历和议，宋朝承认西夏的割据地位，给予若干财物茶叶，封夏景帝为夏国主。西夏对宋称臣，但对内依旧称帝，实际上仍然是独立的国家。

西夏击败宋朝后，自称西朝，称辽朝为北朝。辽朝辽兴宗不满西夏壮大，意图再度压服之。1043年在庆历增币后，辽兴宗为报答宋朝，以国内西南部的党项叛附西夏为由，于隔年冬率大军伐夏。西夏求和不成，采取坚壁清野方式击溃辽军。战后四年夏景宗去世之际，辽军又于1049年来犯。夏军极力抵抗，最后双方和谈而止。

夏景宗建国西夏并推行中央集权，虽然巩固了帝权，但同时与贵族的矛盾进一步加深。他独裁专制、日益骄淫并且贪好女色。后宫之乱引来贵族卫慕氏的叛变（1034年）。又中种世衡的反间计而错杀野利旺荣与野利遇乞，并且迷恋迎娶野利遇乞的妻子没藏氏，生李谅祚。太子李宁林格与夏景宗因废母（野利皇后）夺妻（没𠼪皇后）之仇，被没藏氏的弟弟没藏讹庞教唆刺杀夏景宗。夏景宗死后没藏讹庞杀太子，立两岁的李谅祚继位，即夏毅宗。

母党专权

夏毅宗与夏惠宗时期时，夏廷对内进一步巩固统治，对外常与宋辽两国处于战争与议和的状态。夏毅宗继位时年幼，由其母没藏太后与没藏讹庞专政。当时辽朝辽兴宗再度攻打西夏，最后西夏向辽朝称臣。没藏太后荒淫好色，多次勾结外人，其中李守贵与吃多己多次争宠。最后李守贵杀太后与吃多己，事后也被没藏讹庞所杀。没藏讹庞又将其女许配夏毅宗以控制小皇帝。1059年夏毅宗参与政事，没藏讹庞密谋刺杀夏毅宗，后被夏帝诛杀全家。亲政后，夏毅宗娶协助他铲除没藏讹庞的梁氏，任用梁乙埋与景询等人。对内整治军队使地方军政分立，文武官员互相牵制，提倡汉文化与技术，废行蕃礼，改用汉仪，并于1063年改姓为李。对外方面，与宋重新划定边界，恢复榷场，贸易正常化。对吐蕃多次战事，占领河湟与青海一带，于1063年招抚西域城（今甘肃定西县）吐蕃首领禹藏花麻。夏毅宗的改革对以后各朝产生了深远影响，然而于1066年与北宋作战时受箭伤，两年后去世，由其子7岁的李秉常即位，即夏惠宗。

由于夏惠宗年幼，由其母梁太后掌握大权，形成了以梁太后与梁乙埋为首的母党专权。母党大力发展其势力，提倡番礼，重用都罗尾与罔萌讹，排挤夏景宗的弟弟嵬名浪遇等反对派。1080年，夏惠宗最后在皇族嵬名氏的协助下得以亲政。夏惠宗崇尚汉法，下令以汉礼藩仪，遭到梁太后为主的保守派极力反对。对此，夏惠宗想用大臣李清策的建议，将河南地区归还宋朝，以利用宋朝削弱外戚势力。不料机密泄漏，梁太后杀李清策，幽禁夏惠宗。梁太后此举引来皇党、仁多族的叛乱，连吐蕃禹藏花麻都向宋朝请求派兵攻打梁太后。此时宋朝正值宋神宗王安石变法而国力增强，并在1071年由王韶于熙河之战占领熙河路，对西夏右厢地区造成威胁。1081年宋神宗听从种谔建议，趁西夏内乱之际，以李宪为总指挥发动五路伐夏，目标兴庆府。梁太后采取坚壁清野策略，袭击粮道以粉碎五路宋军，宋军最后只夺下兰州。隔年年宋军采取碉堡战术，派徐禧兴建永乐城，步步压缩西夏在横山的军事空间。梁太后趁永乐城新建之初，率30万大军包围攻陷，宋军惨败，史称永乐城之战。西夏虽然多次击溃宋军，但与宋朝贸易中断使经济衰退，战事频繁又大耗国力，人民不满。梁太后与梁乙埋最后于1083年让夏惠宗复位，以平和矛盾，然而夏惠宗依旧没有掌握实权。梁乙埋去世后，政权转由其子梁乙逋掌握。1086年夏惠宗在忧愤之下去世，由3岁儿子李乾顺即位，即夏崇宗。

此时西夏政权又落入小梁太后及梁乙逋手中。宋朝宋哲宗时期，知渭州章楶建议对西夏采取经济制裁与碉堡作战，其后为了实践这套战术，他在公元1096年于西边的渭川修建平夏城与灵平砦，并且多次击退夏军。隔年宋军攻入东边的洪州、盐州。1098年小梁太后偕同夏崇宗猛攻平夏城而败，大将嵬名阿埋与妹勒都逋均被擒，史称平夏城之战。宋军随后兴建西安州与天都寨，打通泾原路与熙河路，秦州变成内地。宋朝控制横山地区后，西夏处境日益艰困。1099年在辽朝辽道宗的周旋下，宋夏再度和谈，西夏向宋朝请罪而终。西夏在母党专权的十年里，梁乞逋依仗「梁氏一门二后」的威势，连连发动与北宋和辽朝的战争，使西夏蒙受严重损失。他经常在朝廷上向众大臣夸耀自己的功劳，认为西夏连年出征，主要就是让宋朝屈服，只有这样才能使西夏获得和平。环庆之战时，梁乙逋被小梁太后制止出征而怀恨在心。他意图叛变，但是事机败露。小梁太后命嵬名阿吴、仁多宗保与撒辰率兵逮捕处死。小梁太后亲自专权后，为了加强对宋朝战事，多次向辽朝请求援军被拒。辽廷对小梁太后极度反感，认为辽夏战争是由她引起，而小梁太后因多次被拒也恶言相向。1099年夏崇宗亲政在即，但「梁氏专恣，不许主国事」。辽朝辽道宗派使至西夏，用毒药毒死小梁太后。至此长期的太后专政终止，西夏皇帝得以亲政。

外和内忧

1099年夏崇宗亲政后采取依附辽朝，与北宋修和的策略，逐年减少战争。对内推广汉文化，注重经济，使得社会经济得到恢复和发展。宋朝宋徽宗时期，宋廷执行「绍盛开边」政策。1114年童贯经略西夏，率领六路宋军（包含永兴、秦凤两路）伐夏。虽然西夏多次击败刘法、刘仲武与种师道等宋将，但宋军也攻陷不少堡垒。最后西夏紧急向辽朝请求周旋，到1119年宋军才率军而退，夏崇宗再度向宋朝表示臣服。此时西夏国势不如以往，而北宋也濒临崩溃边缘。

1115年金朝兴起，三国鼎立的局面被破坏，辽朝、北宋先后被灭，西夏经济被金朝掌控。1123年退往漠北的辽朝辽天祚帝有意逃往西夏，金朝将领完颜宗望劝诱夏崇宗捕捉辽帝，许以下寨以北、阴山以南的辽地，并以进攻西夏为胁。夏崇宗答应条件，转而连金灭辽，从此西夏归服金朝。1125年辽朝亡后，金朝约西夏夹攻北宋，并且给予宋地为诱饵。西夏占领天德军、云内等地后，1126年又被金朝强占，并且被强索河东八馆之地。金朝为了补偿西夏，同意占领陕西后将横山地区归还，但又违约。这些都让金夏关系处于不信任的状态。然而西夏与南宋隔绝，又让西夏只能依赖金朝的经济。这些都使得西夏对金朝维持松弛的和平，最多只有小规模的战事。1141年金朝同意设置榷场，一度开放铁禁。但是金世宗时不愿以纺织品换取西夏的奢侈品，采取贸易紧缩的方式，到十年后才恢复正常贸易。夏崇宗于1139年去世后由其子李仁孝继位，即夏仁宗。

夏仁宗时期是西夏的文化思想的发展到达高峰，对金朝大致上处于和平状态。但是他重文轻武、务虚废实的方式，使西夏军力逐步走向衰落。宋朝降将任得敬才智均佳，陆续平定1140年夏将萧合达叛变与隔年的山讹首领慕洧、慕浚投奔金朝之乱，备受夏仁宗重用。1143年发生大饥荒和地震，民不聊生，哆讹等人于威州、静州与定州发动民变，夏仁宗又派任得敬平定。任得敬因被重用而野心膨胀，受晋王李察哥推荐入京。1156年李察哥去世后掌握政权，扩大私有势力。1160年被封为楚王，出入等同皇帝。任得敬有意篡位，他以灵州为都城，1170年又迫夏仁宗给予灵州、西夏西南等领地。然而屡次不受金廷支持，任得敬与其弟任得聪等人阴谋叛乱。夏仁宗在金朝的支持下成功扑灭任党，这个掌握政权二十年的权臣终于被拔除。夏仁宗于1143年的民变后，为了促进经济稳定而推行改革。他改良地租和赋税制度；发展教育，实行科举；推崇儒术，以科举取仕，这些措施对抑制世家大族有一定的作用；改革礼乐和法律。到天盛年间出现了盛世。1193年夏仁宗去世，子李纯佑立，即夏桓宗。

夏桓宗基本上依循夏仁宗的国策，对内安国养民，推行汉法儒学，对外与金朝和好。但是，此时西夏过于安逸，军力大大衰减。不久，北方的蒙古帝国兴起，打破金宋与西夏三国鼎立的地位。夏仁宗的弟弟越王李仁友在挫败任得敬之乱有功，去世后其子李安全上表请求表彰其父功勋与承袭王位。然而夏桓宗不但不同意，还降其为镇夷郡王。李安全不满，遂萌篡夺帝位之心。1206年与夏桓宗之母罗太后联合废夏桓宗，自立为帝，即夏襄宗。不久，夏桓宗去世。

蒙古入侵与亡国

西夏与漠北邻国克烈部的关系十分友好，但是蒙古部的铁木真崛起后开始威胁克烈部，成为西夏晚期的外患。1203年克烈部被铁木真攻灭，其领袖王汗之子桑昆逃往西夏。两年后，铁木真率军攻打西夏，掠夺西夏边界城市。夏桓宗为击退外患，改兴庆府名为中兴府，取夏国中兴之意，实际上西夏反而垄罩在蒙古的威胁之下。1206年铁木真建立蒙古帝国，即成吉思汗，后被尊称元太祖。成吉思汗为了要攻灭敌国金朝，势必要切断金夏联盟，所以西夏成为他的目标之一。隔年夏襄宗夺位不久，成吉思汗率大军攻破西夏要塞斡罗孩城（今内蒙古乌拉特中后旗西境），因各路夏军奋力抵抗而击退之。1209年蒙古降服高昌回鹘，河西地区也暴露在蒙古威胁之下。蒙古第三次征夏即自河西入侵，出黑水城，围攻斡罗孩关口。夏襄宗派其子李承祯率军抵抗失败，夏将高逸被俘而死。蒙军又攻陷西壁讹答守备的斡罗孩城，直逼中兴府的最后防线克夷门。夏将嵬名令公率军伏击蒙军，最后仍被蒙军击溃。中兴府被蒙军围困，夏襄宗派使向金朝皇帝完颜永济求救，但是金帝拒绝，还以邻国遭攻打为乐而坐视不救。最后夏襄宗纳女请和，贡献大量物资，并且附蒙伐金。

夏襄宗附蒙伐金后，对金朝进行长达十馀年的战争，使双方损失很大。国内方面，西夏百姓十分贫困，经济生产受到破坏，军队衰弱，政治腐败。夏襄宗本身也沉湎于酒色之中，整日不理朝政。1211年齐王李遵顼发动宫庭政变，废夏襄宗自立为帝，即夏神宗，史书称为状元皇帝。夏神宗不顾国内大臣反对，仍然坚持附蒙抗金，金宣宗也多次反击之。此时西夏国内社会经济凋蔽，民变不断。1216年因为西夏不肯帮助成吉思汗西征，次年成吉思汗率军第四次进攻西夏。夏神宗以太子李德任守中兴府，自己逃至西京灵州。最后李德任派使向蒙古和谈才终战。1223年由于夏神宗不愿做亡国之君，便让位给次子李德旺（原太子李德任被废），即夏献宗。此时夏廷已经认清蒙古将会灭亡西夏，夏献宗决定采取联金抗蒙的策略，趁成吉思汗西征时派使联合漠北诸部落抗蒙，以便巩固西夏北疆。当时总管汉地的蒙将孛鲁（木华黎之子）察觉西夏的意图，于1224年率军从东面攻入西夏，攻陷银州，夏将塔海被俘。隔年成吉思汗得胜返国，同时率军攻打沙洲，但西夏名将籍辣思义极力防守，成吉思汗久攻半年不下，试图挖地道入城，被籍辣思义用烟火熏死不少蒙古士兵，不得已转战挥师东进。最后夏献宗同意蒙军条件请和，蒙军撤退。

1226年成吉思汗以夏献宗没有履约及接纳蒙古仇人为由，越大漠向西夏出征，此即蒙古灭西夏之战。成吉思汗与速不台率大军逼降黑水城（今内蒙额济纳旗），而后成吉思汗屯军浑垂山（今甘肃酒泉北）避暑，并令速不台率别部迂回攻入撒里畏吾儿（即黄头回纥）与西蕃边部（吐蕃诸部）等部。成吉思汗派忽都铁穆儿、昔里铃部、察罕等将先后攻下肃州、甘州与沙州（1227年沦陷），大军前进至凉州并降伏守将斡扎篑，至此河西走廊全数沦陷。夏献宗忧患而死，由其侄南平王李睍继位，即夏末帝。同年八月，成吉思汗率军穿越沙漠，攻占应理（今宁夏中卫）进军黄河九渡渡过黄河，主力逼近废太子李德任守卫的西平府灵州。夏末帝派嵬名令公率军与李德任会合，蒙夏双方于冻结的黄河决战，此役西夏军死伤惨重，最后城陷被杀，但蒙军也受损不少，成吉思汗驻守盐州川（今陕西定边花马池）休整军队。1227年，成吉思汗此时将目标订为攻占西夏退路，并迂回侵入金朝关中。他命蒙军（应为蒙将阿术鲁率领）包围中兴府（今宁夏银川），并且率军西南渡河攻下西夏积石州（今青海循化），与早已入侵西夏西南的速不台会合，陆续拿下西夏西宁（今青海西宁）、临洮府（今甘肃临洮）、金朝德顺（今甘肃隆德）等西夏与金朝领地。同年6月，成吉思汗驻夏六盘山，又南下攻取金朝秦州（今甘肃天水），逼近关中京兆府（今陕西西安）。1227年夏末帝在中兴府被围半年后投降蒙古，西夏灭亡。成吉思汗此时已病死，但密不发丧，以免西夏反悔。而后诸将遵照成吉思汗遗命将夏末帝杀死，并且杀尽西夏宗室。而中兴府百姓因蒙将察罕的劝谏而没有被屠城。但西夏兴庆府的皇宫、离宫、建筑、典籍、史料、陵寝都被蒙古军队破坏和焚烧殆尽，甚至连贺兰山山谷内的众多佛寺也被破坏。

蒙古中原地区建立政权之后，同宋辽金不同，并未修纂西夏史，不将其视为中华历史上的一朝。因此西夏也是宋辽金夏时期唯一未列入二十四史的朝代。

疆域与行政区划

1038年西夏立国时，疆域范围在今宁夏，甘肃西北部、青海东北部、内蒙古西部以及陕西北部地区。东尽黄河，西至玉门，南接萧关（今宁夏同心南），北控大漠，占地两万馀里。西夏东北与辽朝西京道相邻，东面与东南面与宋朝为邻。金朝灭辽宋后，西夏的东北、东与南都与金朝相邻。西夏南部和西部与吐蕃诸部、黄头回鹘与西州回鹘相邻。国内三分之二以上是沙漠地形，水源以黄河与山上雪水形成的地下水为主。首都兴庆府所在的银川平原，西有贺兰山作屏障，东有黄河灌溉，有「天下黄河富宁夏」之称。

西夏是党项族建立的王朝，党项族原本定居四川松潘高原一带。唐高宗时期受吐蕃压迫，最后在唐廷协助下迁移到河套陕北一带，分为平夏部与东山部，至此建立西夏的龙兴之地。881年因平夏部拓跋思恭平黄巢之乱有功，被封为夏州节度使，至此正式领有银州（今陕西米脂县）、夏州（今陕西横山县）、绥州（今陕西绥德县）、宥州（今陕西静边县）与静州（今陕西米脂县西）等五州之地。宋朝时，宋太宗并吞夏州节度使之地。然而李继迁不愿意投降，率部四处攻击，最后收复五州之地。攻下灵州后，将势力扩展到黄河河套地区与河西走廊。夏景宗继位后持续巩固河西走廊，并且开国称帝，疆域扩大到二十个州。而后夏景宗与宋朝征战于横山地区，并有意占领关中。夏景宗之后，西夏与北宋展开拉锯战，双方互相占领对方的堡垒城寨，并且扩大到河湟青海地区。夏崇宗后期丧失横山地区，一度造成危机。金朝灭辽朝与北宋后，西夏陆续收复失地，并且占领黄河前套地区。然而其势力被金朝所局限，领土扩张不大。到夏仁宗时期大约有22个州，这是西夏版图最后稳固的状态。

西夏行政区划大体上是州（府）县两级，一些重点州则设府。另分左右厢十二监军司，作为军管区。西夏在建国前只领有五州之地。占领河套地区与河西走廊后，在夏崇宗、夏仁宗时期达到22州：河南9州、河西9州，熙秦河外4州。文献记载比较明确的有32州；升州为府的有河套的兴州（兴庆府、中兴府）、灵州（西平府）与河西走廊的凉州（西凉府）、甘州（宣化府）等。兴庆府为西夏首都，灵州（西平府）为西夏陪都，都处于相对富饶、黄河灌溉农业发达的银川平原。夏州、灵州与兴州相继是西夏立国前的都城，地位十分重要。凉州控管河西走廊与河套地区的枢纽，地理位置重要。甘州所设的宣化府，负责处理吐蕃、回鹘的事务。左右厢与十二监军司主要是夏景宗为了方便对军队的管理与调遣、布防而设置的。每一监军司都仿宋制立有军名，规定驻地。

政治体制

西夏政治是蕃汉联合政治，党项族为主要统治民族，并且联合汉族、吐蕃族、回鹘族共同统治。皇族注意与党项贵族的关系，以通婚与权力分享拢络，而母党「贵宠用事」。这些都使皇族与母党、党项贵族之间时常发生冲突。西夏在前期即有像辽朝那样的蕃汉官制，但是到中后期全面采用宋朝制度后，蕃官逐渐式微。

西夏的国家体制和统治方式深受儒家政治文化影响。官制自1038年夏景宗立国后确立，大体上学自宋朝制度。官分文武两班，中书司、枢密司与三司（盐铁部、度支部与户部）分别管理行政、军事与财政。御史台管监察、开封府管理首都地区的事务，其他还有翊卫司、官计司、受纳司、农田司、群牧司、飞龙苑、磨勘司、文思院、番学与汉学等机构。隔年，夏景宗仿照宋朝制度设立总理庶务的尚书令，改宋朝二十四司为十六司，分理功、仓、户、兵、法、士六曹，使西夏官制和机构已颇具规模。到夏毅宗时又增设各部尚书、侍郎、南北宣徽使及中书、学士等官。一来职官和机构愈分愈细，二来官制改革由扩充政治军事的官职转向扩充社会经济文化方面的官职。

蕃官是专由党项族担任的官职，有一说此为爵位制度。蕃官主要是为了保持党项贵族在政权中的主导地位，非党项族不能担任，有宁令（大王）、谟宁令（天大王）、丁卢、丁弩、素斋、祖儒、吕则、枢铭等等官称。夏景宗增设番官后，还学习辽朝与吐蕃的一些制度，如南北面官制。西夏的蕃官制度很杂乱，夏毅宗时又增设不少官职，至今仍不太清楚其官职功能，有一说蕃官只是西夏文表示的汉官官名而已。西夏文谚语也提到「衙门官员曾几何，要数弭药为最多」，表明党项族当官为数不少。随著西夏皇帝越来越崇尚汉法，改蕃礼、用汉仪，蕃官系统逐渐式微。夏崇宗以后，蕃官就在也没出现在相关文献中。

关于法律方面，因为西夏旧律有不明疑碍处，夏仁宗在「尚文重法」的主张下颁布《天盛改旧新定律令》，又称《天盛律令》、《开盛律令》。主要由北王兼中书令嵬名地暴与中书、枢密院宰辅要员及中兴府、殿前司、閤门司等重要官员参与编写。该法典参考了唐朝、宋朝的法典，并且结合本国的国情、民情和军情，使得更加切合实际。在某些方面（如畜牧业、军制、民俗，等等）更具有本民族的特点。

封爵

根据传世史料、碑刻、出土文献，西夏的封爵大致可划分为王、公、侯、伯四级。见于史料记载的有封爵人物有：

• 王：赠广惠王野利仁荣；濮王李仁忠（赠吴王，谥恭显）；舒王李仁礼；晋国王察哥；齐王李彦宗；郡王、越王李仁友；镇夷郡王李安全；清平郡王（献宗弟）；南平王李����；楚王任得敬；大王野利刚浪凌、野利遇乞；国母弟梁大王，北王兼中书令嵬名地暴

• 公：西平公任得敬

• 侯：追赠富平侯野利仁荣

• 伯：追封银川伯张浦

外交

西夏地理处于四战之地，陆续要应付后唐、回鹘、吐蕃、宋朝、辽朝、金朝、西辽与蒙古的威胁与战争，所以外交是夏廷十分重视的环节。外交策略主要是联合或依附强者，并且攻击弱者、以战求和。这些策略使自己得以不断延续、发展。

西夏早在夏州政权时期（定难军）就奉唐朝、五代诸国与北宋为宗主国，以维持自身势力。后来北宋并吞夏州政权，李继迁举兵再起。此时他采取事奉辽朝、连辽抗宋的策略，多次击退宋军，并且扩张势力。并且于990年被辽朝辽圣宗册封为夏国王。到李德明时，为了巩固新领地，对北宋和谈，于1006年签署景德和议。然而李德明依旧维持与辽朝的关系。除了应付辽、宋的战事外，为了称霸河西、先后攻灭甘州回鹘、沙洲归义军，对抗吐蕃六谷部、唃厮罗国等，与西州回鹘为邻。

夏景宗时正式称帝建国，自称邦泥定国，称男不称臣，并且多次入侵宋朝边疆。宋仁宗不满西夏独立，派兵攻打之，至此宋夏战争爆发。夏景宗在三大战役（三川口之战、好水川之战与定川寨之战）战胜宋朝后，双方于1044年签订庆历和约。宋朝给予「夏国主」名号，西夏皇帝对宋朝称臣，但实际上西夏皇帝在国内仍以君王自称。宋朝给与金钱、茶叶等大量物资。西夏虽然击败北宋，但惹来辽朝不满，双方发生三次战争（贺兰山之战），最后以西夏称臣作收。而后北宋的宋神宗为了击败西夏，趁西夏内乱之际发动五路伐夏与永乐城之战，最后都以西夏战胜作收。然而西夏国力渐衰，横山地区又被北宋占领，此后有赖辽朝周旋方能稳定宋、辽、西夏三国鼎立的关系。

夏前期，宋辽互称「南朝」「北朝」，而称西夏为「西夏」。金灭辽后，西夏遵辽例以事金。西夏后期，宋金互称「南朝」「北朝」，仍称西夏为「西夏」。西夏大安八年（1081年），时值宋夏战争，凉州感通塔碑的西夏铭文因西夏地处西陲，用「东汉」称呼宋朝。而在该碑的汉文碑铭却用「南国」称呼宋朝。

金朝崛起后灭辽朝与北宋，西夏为了自保，放弃辽夏同盟，臣服于金朝。金朝包围西夏的东方与南方，掌握西夏的经济力，所以夏廷对金朝不敢轻举妄动，最多只有小规模的战事。蒙古帝国崛起后，多次入侵西夏，破坏金夏同盟。夏襄宗与夏神宗改采取联蒙攻金的策略，多次与金朝发生战争，然而此为错误的方针。到夏献宗时才改连金抗蒙，但不久就在蒙夏战争中于1227年亡国。金史称西夏「立国二百馀年，抗衡辽、金、宋三国，偭乡无常，视三国之势强弱以为异同焉。」。

西夏对于回鹘、吐蕃等少数民族采取怀柔与招抚的方式，似乎比宋朝还要好。例如西使城（今甘肃定西西南）吐蕃首领禹藏花麻不愿降宋朝，又受到宋军王韶的攻掠。夏毅宗立即派兵支援，将宗女嫁给他。禹藏花麻遂把西使城及兰州献给西夏。

军事制度

军事制度是以党项部落兵制为基础，加入宋朝制度而改良。西夏是以战立国的国家，军队是赖以维生的基础。所以实行全民皆兵的制度，平时生产，战时作战，军事与社会经济合为一。除了给予军官和正军很少的军事装备之外，其馀作战一律自带粮食。最小单位是「抄」，每抄由三人组成，主力一人，辅主一人，负担一人。枢密院是西夏最高的军事统御机构，下设诸司。指挥系统分别是统军、行主、佐将、首领、佐首领、小首领。全国军队分成中央军与地方军等两个系统。军事布防以贺兰山、兴庆府与灵州为三角防线，成为西夏作战的核心。当大敌逼近时，边防军迅速回京助守；边将吃紧时，主力军立即机动支援，军队调动十分灵活。作战时有利则进，不利则退。由于地形以沙漠、山岳为主，所以夏军擅长诱敌设伏、断敌粮道、集中兵力作运动战，所以时常能以少击多。

中央军分为擒生军、强弩军、卫戍军、侍卫军、泼喜军、铁鹞子、步跋子、撞令郎与水军等。擒生军人数约十万，主要任务是在作战中掳掠生口作奴隶，相当辽军的「打草谷骑」，不担负决战任务。夏崇宗时期建立强弩军，为西夏特种部队，配备强弩和标牌。卫戍军人数约两万五千，部属在兴庆府周围地区，装备精良，所配置的副兵多达七万，是夏军的主力部队。侍卫军又号「御园内六班直」，人数约五千，分为十部，是由豪族子弟中选拔善于骑射者组成的一支卫戍部队，负责保卫皇帝安全，分三番宿卫，佩戴铜制腰牌。泼喜军约两百人，是西夏的炮兵，掌握火蔟黎的技术，又能在骆驼上架设「旋风炮」抛射石弹。由于由骑兵施放，十分灵活。铁鹞子早期约三百人，后扩充至万人，是西夏的重甲骑兵，具有机动灵活的特点，在平地作战具有威力，时常随皇帝出入作战。步跋子，西夏的步兵，擅长山区作战，由横山等山间部落的丁壮组成。时常与铁鹞子联合突击敌军。撞令郎，由俘获的汉族士兵担任，作为战事的炮灰，减少西夏军人的损失。西夏在黄河沿岸的军事要地配备有一定数量的水军，时常渡过黄河刺探军情，抓捕俘虏等。

地方军部分，夏景宗将全国军区分为左厢、右厢与十二监军司，共有左厢神勇军司驻银川弥陀洞（今陕西榆林市东）、祥佑军司驻石州、嘉宁军司驻宥州、静塞军司驻韦州、西寿保泰军司驻柔狼山北（今甘肃白银市平川区）、卓罗和南军司驻兰州黄河北岸喀罗川（今甘肃永登）、右厢朝顺军司驻贺兰山克夷门（今宁夏石嘴山区）、甘州甘肃军司驻甘州删丹县故地、瓜州西平军司驻瓜州、黑水镇燕军司驻居延海黑水城（内蒙古额济纳旗）、白马强镇军司驻娄博贝（内蒙古阿拉善左旗吉兰泰镇）、黑山威福军司驻阴山（内蒙古乌拉特中旗）。全盛时期「诸军兵总计五十馀万」，军兵种主要是骑兵和步兵两种。每一监军司都仿宋制立有军名，设有都统军、副统军和监军司各一员，由皇帝任命贵族担任。下设指挥使、教练使及左右侍禁官等数十员，由党项人和汉人分任。

人口

由于没有专门记录西夏人口的史书，使得西夏人口的统计十分模糊，现今史学界也没有一个统一的数据。然而西夏采取全民皆兵的制度，可以由兵力数量去类推人口量。目前认为人口数的下限不低于三十万户，上限不超过两百万。据《宋史》记载，西夏具有五十万大军，中间相差十几万。今日一种论点为西夏军具有三十七万，并在《东都事略·西夏传》找到「曩宵有兵十五万八千五百人」的记载，认为此差距是指党项族的西夏军。另一种论点是将西夏地方军五十馀万人加上中央军约十九万人，总共约七十万左右。由于西夏采取全民皆兵的制度，人口数推算是二百万至三百万左右。然而还有一派论点认为此数据过于夸张，他们根据《续资治通鉴长编》与《隆平集》的记载，西夏兵力约在十五万至十八万，总户数约三十万左右。

关于西夏人口的变化，各家说法不同。根据《中国人口史》赵文林与谢淑君的版本推算，西夏人口峰值在1038年，243万人，后因西夏和辽朝、北宋陆续发生战争而不断减少，战争停止后又缓慢回升。1069年，西夏建国后的人口峰值，230万人，后又因为战争不断减少。最后在1131年至1210年年间，人口一直维持在120万左右。而《中国人口发展史》葛剑雄的版本推算，西夏人口的峰值在夏景宗超过300万。1127年后，西夏人口一直未超过300万。根据《中国人口史》（第三卷）辽宋金元时期，吴松弟的版本推算，西夏人口的峰值在1100年夏崇宗时期，大约300万人。西夏人口密度低于北宋各路与唐朝各道的人口密度，然而比唐朝的陇右道高。这是因为西夏领土大多是由沙漠组成，适居范围不大，在加上西夏采取全民皆兵的制度，因连年战事不断，人口消耗不少。

西夏是一个多民族的朝代，其主要民族有党项族、汉族、回鹘族与吐蕃族等。西夏人大都身材修长高大，充分表现出党项羌人粗犷、剽悍、豪爽的民族性格。社会等级分明，以日常服饰礼仪区分。皇帝、文官与武官的服装均有规定标准，平民百姓只准穿青绿色衣服，贵贱等级分明。冠饰也是区分等级的依据之一，皇帝毡冠、皇后龙凤冠、命妇花杈冠，文官幞头、武官还有各种头冠样式。

经济

西夏的经济是以畜牧业为基础，主要以牛、羊、马和骆驼为大宗。农产品主要有大麦、稻、荜豆和青稞等物。药材和一部分手工制品也特别有名。西夏在冶炼、采盐制盐、砖瓦、陶瓷、纺织、造纸、印刷、酿造、金银木器制作等手工业生产也都具有一定的规模和水平。庆历和议后，宋廷设置榷场，恢复双方贸易往来，西夏的手工业生产和商业贸易迅速发展。夏崇宗与夏仁宗时期，西夏经济大大的发展，四方的物品会集到首都兴庆，进入西夏经济最鼎盛的时期。

农业与畜牧业

党项族是游牧民族，其农业较畜牧业晚发展，农牧并重是西夏社会经济的特色。李继迁时期陆续领有河套与河西走廊地区如灵州（今宁夏吴忠市）、兴庆（今宁夏银川）、凉州（今甘肃武威）和瓜州（今甘肃安西）等地后，由于这些地区丰饶五谷，「地饶五谷，尤宜稻麦」。其中兴灵地区与横山地区为西夏粮食的主要产地，其产量还可以用来救济灾民，而横山地区的粮食时常提供给伐宋夏军使用。西夏主要的农产品有大麦、稻、荜豆和青稞等物，当发生战乱或天灾时只能以大麦、荜豆、青麻子等物充饥，并且等待自灵夏所运来的粮食。药材中比较有名的有大黄、枸杞与甘草，皆是商人极力采购的重点商品之一。其他还有麝脐、羱羚角、柴胡、苁蓉、红花和蜜蜡等。党项族向汉族学习比较先进的耕种技术，已普遍使用铁制农具和牛耕。西夏领地以沙漠居多，水源得来不易，所以十分重视水利设施。西夏古渠主要分布在兴州和灵州，其中以兴州的汉源渠和唐徕渠最有名。夏景宗时兴修从今青铜峡至平罗的灌渠，世称「昊王渠」或「李王渠」。在甘州、凉州一带，则利用祁连山雪水，疏浚河渠，引水灌田。在这些水源中，又以甘州境内的黑水最为著名。横山地区则以无定河、白马川等等为水源。夏仁宗时期修订的法典《天盛改旧新定律令》中，鼓励人民开垦荒地，并规定水利灌溉事宜。

西夏的畜牧业十分发达，夏廷还设立群牧司以专属管理。牧区分布在横山以北和河西走廊地区，重要的牧区有夏州（今陕西靖边北白城子）、绥州（今绥德）、银州（今米脂西北）、盐州（今宁夏盐池北）与宥州（今陕西定边东）诸州，还有鄂尔多斯高原、阿拉善和额济纳草原及河西走廊草原，都是兴盛的牧区。畜类主要以牛、羊、马和骆驼为大宗，其他还有驴、骡、猪等。马匹可做军事与生产用途，并且是对外的重点商品与贡品，以「党项马」最有名，早在西夏建国以前就已名满天下，晚唐诗人元稹有诗云：「北买党项马，西擒吐蕃鹦。 炎洲布火浣，蜀地锦织成。」。骆驼主要产于阿拉善和额济纳地区，是高原和沙漠地区的重要运输工具。在西夏辞书《文海》中对牲畜的研究十分细致，有关喂养、疾病、生产与品种的区分都有详细的说明，表现出西夏人对畜牧的经验十分丰富。除畜牧业外，狩猎业也十分兴盛，主要有兔鹘、沙狐皮、犬、马等。其规模不小，例如对辽朝的贡品中，即有沙狐皮一千张。狩猎业在西夏中后期时仍然兴盛，受西夏大臣所重视，西夏军队也时常以狩猎为军事训练或演习。

手工业

西夏手工业分官营民营两种，主要以官营为主。其生产目的主要是供西夏贵族使用，其次则是生产外销。手工业门比较齐全，夏仁宗修订的法典《天盛改旧新定律令·司序行文门》中即分类详细。手工业以纺织、冶炼、金银、木器制作、采盐、酿造、陶瓷、建筑、砖瓦等为主，兵器制造也较为发达。

采盐

西夏的青盐是宋夏边界人民最喜欢的商品，也是西夏重要的财源之一。主要产地有盐州（今宁夏盐池北）的乌池、白池、瓦池与细项池，河西走廊和西安州（今宁夏海原西）的盐州与盐山，灵州（今宁夏吴忠市）的温泉池等等老井。所出产的青盐味甘价贱，比宋朝的河东解盐更具欢迎，另外西安州的硷隈川还产白盐、红盐，只是质量不如青盐。西夏青白盐除了供西夏人民食用外，主要用于同宋朝、辽朝、金朝进行官方贸易，其中运往宋关中地区最多，并以此换回大批粮食。宋廷为此禁止西夏进口青盐，宋人只能透过走私进口，谋取暴利。

炼铁

西夏矿产比较丰富，所以其兵器制造业，如神臂弓、旋风炮以及劲弩不能射入的冷锻铠甲均为世人称道，特别值得一提的是「夏国剑」，锋利无比，贵重一时，当时就为宋人所珍视。

皮毛及毡毯业

西夏的毡毯是外销的名贵商品，其中以白骆驼毛制成的白毡于《马可波罗游记》记载有「为世界最良之毡」的美称。

印刷业

西夏印刷业十分发达，西夏人为了吸收汉族文化，并且维护自己的文化，用西夏文、汉文两种文字雕印书籍。还有一些书籍以古藏文印刷，如在西夏黑水城发现的一批藏文文献，共有60多个编号，近300页，是迄今发现的世界最早藏文木刻本。其中包括佛教文献和世俗文献，其中在以古藏文印刷的《顶髻尊胜佛母陀罗尼功德依经摄略》之一页有印度高僧拶也阿难陀的名字，他被西夏皇室封为大波密坦、五明显密国师，有功德司正的职务，可证明该印刷品在西夏时期刻印。

为了发展印刷业，夏廷还设置刻字司以专司出版，另外私人和学校也可能刻印书籍。刻书种类繁多，有佛经、汉学经典、文学诗书、音韵、卜筮咒文、医学技术等等书籍，其中以佛经数量最多。如1189年夏仁宗就在大度民寺作大法会，散发蕃汉《观弥勒上升兜率天经》十万卷，汉《金刚普贤行诵经》、《观音经》等五万卷。贺兰山拜寺口方塔废墟中出土的西夏文《吉祥遍至口和本续》是目前世界上发现的最早的木活字印刷品，印刷时间不晚于12世纪下半叶；1987年甘肃武威亥母洞的发掘的西夏文泥活字排印的《维摩诘所说经下卷》，印制时间约为公元12世纪前期，是现存世界上最早的泥活字印本。

陶瓷业

• 参见科技

党项族自唐中期世居陕北银夏五州之地，接触到了陶瓷技术。其陶瓷技术，受到耀州窑（陕西渭北高原一带）、磁州窑影响颇深，以兴庆府和西平府附近的磁窑堡、凉州塔儿湾一带为生产中心，贺兰山插旗沟、宁夏中卫老窑沟、内蒙伊克昭盟等地也有西夏窑址。从考古出土的陶瓷看，西夏烧制的瓷器以实用器为多，大多以扁壶、经瓶、罐、白瓷碗、白瓷盘为主。其瓷器技术上比不上宋瓷，但朴实凝重，使用剔瓷手法，形成独具一格的西夏瓷器。也有烧制空心瓷质蒺藜，内部装填火药，作为投掷武器炸伤敌人。

商业与货币

由于西夏领有丝路商业要道河西走廊，再加上国内只盛产畜牧，对于粮食、茶叶与部分手工品的需求量大，所以对外贸易是西夏经济的命脉之一，主要分为朝贡贸易、榷场贸易与窃市（私市）。西夏国内的城市商业十分繁荣，兴庆、凉州、甘州、黑水城都十分兴盛。商品以粮食、布、绢帛、牲畜、肉类为大宗。西夏可以藉由掌控河西走廊以管理西域与中原的贸易往来，与北宋、辽朝、金朝、西州回鹘及吐蕃诸部有频繁的商业贸易。由于西夏过度垄断河西走廊，使得部分西域商人改走柴达木盆地，经鄯州（今青海西宁）沿湟水而到达宋朝的秦州（今陕西天水），史称吐谷浑路。

西夏对中原或北亚的宗主国采取朝贡贸易，时常以骆驼或牛羊等价换取粮食、茶叶或重要物资。西夏在宋夏战争获胜，于庆历和议中，每年自宋朝获得银5万两，绢13万匹，茶2万斤，每年还在可以各种节日中获得银22000两，绢23000匹，茶1万斤。西夏自李继迁叛宋附辽开始向辽朝贡，至辽天祚帝亡国，总计向辽朝贡24次。西夏也会以宋朝的茶叶与岁币换取回鹘、吐蕃的羊只，再转卖给宋、辽、金等国，从中牟取暴利。由于朝贡贸易时常因为战事而中断，并不是很稳定。

比较大宗且稳定的贸易为榷场贸易，西夏与北宋、辽朝和金朝的边境地带设有共同使用的榷场进行和市，例如与宋朝制定的保安军（今陕西志丹）、镇戎军（今宁夏固原）、麟州、延州等地的榷场；与辽朝在辽西京西北的天德府、云内和云中西北的银瓮口、过腰带与上石楞坡等地的榷场等。在榷市中，有固定的贸易场地和牙人评定货色等级，由双方官府派遣的监督、稽查人员共同管理市场，徵收税务。贸易内容以牲畜、毛织品、药材为大宗。而「官市」以外的商品种类不受此限。金灭北宋后，由于南宋与西夏隔绝，西夏对外贸易掌握在金朝手中，经济上不能不依赖于金朝。1141年金朝同意开放保安军、兰州、绥德、环州与东胜州的榷场。1172年金朝金世宗以保安军、兰州、绥德不产布为由关闭这些榷场，认为以纺织品换取西夏的奢侈品不划算。这使得双方关系紧张，在夏仁宗末期战事不断，十年后才恢复正常贸易。最后比较大量且分散的是「窃市」（私市），也就是非正式市场与走私贸易，例如青盐贸易即采取走私方式换取宋朝的粮食。

由于西夏商业的兴盛，作为流通的货币也十分重要：一类是本国铸造的西夏货币；另一类是从宋、金进口的货币。早在夏景宗时期即铸造货币，各代皇帝除了夏献宗、夏末帝之外都有铸钱实例，夏仁宗还于1158年设立通济监铸钱。西夏钱币的铸造大都比较精美，而且书法俊逸、流畅。目前面文为西夏文的钱币已经发现有五种，分别是「福圣宝钱」、「大安宝钱」、「贞观宝钱」、「乾佑宝钱」以及「天庆宝钱」。

文化

西夏文化深受汉族河陇文化及吐蕃、回鹘文化的影响。并且积极吸收汉族文化与典章制度。发展儒学，宏扬佛学，形成具儒家典章制度的佛教王国。西夏起初是游牧部落，佛教在1世纪东传凉州刺史部以后，于该区逐渐兴盛起来，在西夏建国后开始创造自己独有的佛教艺术文化。内蒙古鄂托克旗的百眼窑石窟寺，是西夏佛教壁画艺术的宝库。在额济纳旗黑水城中发现的西夏文佛经、释迦佛塔、彩塑观音像等，是荒漠的重大发现。另外西夏也大力发展敦煌莫高窟。1036年西夏攻灭归义军后，占领瓜州、沙州，领有莫高窟。从夏景宗到夏仁宗，西夏皇帝多次下令修改莫高窟，使其更加增添了几分光辉。当时莫高窟涂绿油漆，接受中原文化与畏兀儿、吐鲁番风格。此外，表现西夏文化的还有西夏文，又称蕃书。西夏设立蕃学和汉学，使西夏民族意识增强，百姓「通蕃汉字」，文化也增加了许多。值得一提，李元昊曾经颁布秃发令，命令全国男人三天内必须秃发，违者格杀勿论。西夏还设立蕃学和太学。史家戴锡章《西夏记》曾言：「夫西夏声明文物，诚不能与宋相匹，然观其制国书、厘官制、定新律、兴汉学、立养贤务、置博士弟子员。尊孔子为文宣帝，彬彬乎质有其文，固未尝不可与辽金比烈！」。

思想与教育

西夏儒学的发展是一种处在儒家影响下的官僚体制与政治文化，制度深受儒家文化影响，从李继迁伊始至西夏末年，历代帝王莫不学习与模仿汉制。例如李继迁时「潜设中官，尽异羌夷之体，曲延儒士，渐行中国之风。」，李德明时 「大辇方舆，卤薄仪卫，一如中国制。」。西夏党项世代皇亲宗室，崇拜孔子，钦慕汉族文化。除了崇儒尚文，还编写了一些融合和宣扬儒家学说的书籍，如《圣立义海》、《三才杂字》、《德行记》、《新集慈孝传》、《新集锦合道理》、《德事要文》等。其儒学经过夏景宗、夏毅宗、夏惠宗与夏崇宗的提倡，到夏仁宗之时出现盛况。

夏景宗在建立官制的同时设立了蕃汉大学院，是西夏五个司等以外的机构，与次等司平级。分蕃大学院和汉大学院，相当于中原王朝的翰林院，简称为蕃学和汉学，作为文化培养的摇篮。汉学掌与宋朝往来表奏，中间书写汉字，旁列蕃字（西夏文）；蕃学掌与吐蕃、回鹘等往来文字，以蕃字书写，各国文字副之。由院正或学正主持，又有择明、正习等官员，两学院都设有博士。夏景宗时期以博学多才的野利仁荣主持蕃学以重视蕃学，并于各州蕃学里设置教授，进行教学。

西夏大致设立了五种学校：蕃学、国学、小学、宫学、太学。西夏建立学校的目的主要是为了培养人才的需要，尊孔子为文宣帝。西夏在中后期还发展科举制度，夏崇宗后期开始设童子科实行科举考试，1147年夏仁宗策举人，立唱名法，复设童子科。西夏后期基本以科举取士选拔官吏，不论蕃汉及宗室贵族由科举而进入仕途成为必然的途径。

文学与文字

西夏崇尚汉文化，但汉文创作的文学作品传世不多，大多以诗歌和谚语为主。诗歌有宫廷诗、宗教劝善诗、启蒙诗、纪事诗与史诗等几类。西夏诗歌有韵律，一般为对称结构，通常是五言或七言体，也有多言体，每一诗句的音节数目不同。比较有名的有颂扬西夏文创制者野利仁荣的《大颂诗》。史诗性的作品《夏圣根赞歌》，内容多为民间传说，遣词造句带有浓重的民谣色彩。其中开首三句：「黑头石城漠水边，赤面父冢白河上，高弥药国在彼方」，被西夏学学者用来研究党项历史源起。另外还有赞美重建太学的《新修太学歌》，具有宫廷诗的风格。夏崇宗重视文学，本人曾作《灵芝歌》与大臣王仁忠酬唱，传为佳话。

西夏谚语对偶工整，结构严谨，字数多少不一，内容广泛地反映了西夏社会的各种面向、并涉及百姓生产、风俗与宗教等内容。著名的西夏谚语集《新集锦合辞》，是由西夏人梁德养于1176年初编、1187年由王仁持补编，共有364条谚语。其内容有「谚语不熟不要说话」的记载，「千千诸人」、「万万民庶」都离不开谚语，凸显出谚语对西夏人民的重要性。

西夏皇帝十分重视本国国史的编撰工作。斡道冲于李德明时期就掌管撰修西夏国史之职，其后代亦同。夏仁宗时设置翰林学士院，命王佥、焦景颜参照宋朝编修实录的办法纂修国史，负责修《李氏实录》。1225年南院宣徽使罗世昌罢官后，撰写《夏国世次》，可惜已失。

西夏立国前夕，夏景宗为了建立属于本国的文字，派野利仁荣仿照汉字结构创建西夏文，于1036年颁行，又称「国书」或「蕃书」，与周围王朝往来表奏、文书，都使用西夏文。文字构成多采用类似汉字六书构造，但笔画比汉字繁多。西夏文学家骨勒茂才认为西夏文和汉文的关系是「论末则殊，考本则同」。西夏文创制后，广泛运用在历史、法律、文学、医学著作，镌刻碑文，铸造钱币、符牌等也都使用西夏文。夏廷又设立蕃学，由野利仁荣主持，选派贵族官僚子弟翻译汉文典籍与佛教经典等。为了翻译汉夏文字，又有骨勒茂才于1190年所撰写的《番汉合时掌中珠》，序言有西夏文和汉文两种，内容相同。谓「不学番言，则岂和番人之众；不会汉语，则岂入汉人之数。」表明本书目的在于便于西夏人和汉人互相学习对方语言，是现今研究西夏历史的重要钥匙。

宗教

西夏人民大致上以佛教为主要信仰，在建国之前则是以自然崇拜为主。党项族在唐朝四川松潘地区时，就以「天」为崇拜对象。当党项族迁移到陕北之后，由自然崇拜发展到对鬼神的信仰。在建国之后，仍然崇尚多神信仰，有山神、水神、龙神、树神、土地诸神等自然神。例如夏景宗曾「自诣西凉府祠神」。夏仁宗曾在甘州黑水河边立黑水桥碑，祭告诸神，祈求保护桥梁，平息水患。除了崇拜鬼神，党项族还崇尚巫术，并且备受重视。党项族称巫为「厮」，巫师被称为「厮乩」，是沟通人和鬼神间的桥梁，主要负责驱鬼与占卜。在战争前实行占卜以问吉凶，于战争中经常施行「杀鬼招魂」的巫术。

佛教是西夏的国教，建国前后六次向宋求赎佛经，宋朝赐以《大藏经》。夏景宗在立国后，便开始用西夏文翻译佛经。五十多年内译出大小乘佛经820部，3579卷，满足人民对佛教的需求。除此之外，夏景宗等历代夏帝与太后也兴建许多佛教寺庙高台寺，概括地分为兴庆府—贺兰山中心、甘州—凉州中心、敦煌—安西中心以及黑水城中心。例如有名的承天寺是应夏毅宗母后没藏太后要求而兴建，1093年更重修凉州感通塔及寺庙，隔年立「重修护国寺感通塔碑」。夏崇宗时期更在甘州建筑卧佛寺。西夏朝廷大力提倡佛教，提高僧人地位，使僧人不用纳税与负担杂役；犯罪也可减免罪刑；寺院环境也受朝廷保护。西夏后期受藏传佛教影响的趋势日益增大，1159年吐蕃迦玛迦举系教派初祖都松钦巴建立粗布寺，夏仁宗派使入藏迎奉。都松钦巴派大弟子格西藏琐布带经文到西夏兴庆府，被夏仁宗尊为上师，并参与翻译经文。西夏比元朝还要早设立帝师，提高藏传佛教的地位。除帝师外，还有国师以及其它有高级职称的僧人，在推动西夏佛教发展方面起著核心和中坚的作用。

西夏设立有僧官制度管理僧侣事务。在夏仁宗李仁孝之后，藏传佛教发展迅速。西夏后期最突出的特点是设立帝师。帝师是西夏以及元朝最重要也是最高的师号。西夏至少在12世纪中期就设立了帝师制度。北京房山云居寺所藏汉、藏文合璧《圣胜慧到彼岸功德宝集偈》的题款中发现了西夏的帝师贤觉帝师波罗显胜。西夏汉文典籍《杂字·官位·第十七》中列有帝师，更确证了西夏帝师的存在。从黑水城文献中发现的西夏帝师有两位，除贤觉帝师外还有继任的慧宣帝师和夏桓宗时期的大乘玄密帝师，他们都是藏族僧人，在西夏都是地位崇高，撰著了多种佛教文献。仁宗乾佑七年（1176）立，夏仁宗所御制的西夏黑河建桥敕碑以汉文和古藏文记录，汉文碑铭中提到：「昔贤觉圣光菩萨哀悯此河年年暴涨，飘荡人畜，故以大慈悲，兴建此桥」，其中「贤觉圣光菩萨」即「贤觉帝师波罗显胜」，为夏仁宗的帝师。

除了佛教以外，西夏也包容其他宗教。西夏有流传道教，例如夏景宗之子宁明就是学习道家的辟谷术而死。《文海》解释「仙」字为「山中求道者」，「山中求长寿者」。在西夏晚期，在沙州和甘州一带还有流传景教和伊斯兰教。例如《马可波罗游记》中记载在原西夏领土唐古忒省（唐古忒即蒙古语西夏，音Tangut），敦煌、甘州、兴庆府（游记中使用了兴庆府的蒙古语名称：额里哈牙）有部分景教和伊斯兰教徒，此处的唐古忒省即西夏中兴行省。

艺术

西夏的艺术文化十分多元且丰富，在绘画、书法、雕刻、舞蹈与音乐都有成就。绘画方面，以佛教绘画流传至今，主要呈现在石窟与寺庙壁画等，现今以敦煌莫高窟、安西榆林窟等最为丰富。早期学习北宋风格，后来受回鹘佛教与吐蕃藏传佛教的壁画艺术的影响，最后形成独特的艺术风格。在线条采用铁线与兰叶描为主，辅以折芦、莼菜条；敷彩大量使用石绿打底，使画面呈独具风格的冷色调的「绿壁画」。绘画内容分别有佛教故事与说法、供养菩萨与人像以及洞窟装饰图案等，以《文殊变图》、《普贤变图》、《水月观音图》与《千手千眼观音经变图》最为有名。此外，也可在《千手千眼观世音像》内的《农耕图》、《踏碓图》、《酿酒图》与《锻铁图》中观察到西夏社会生产和生活内容。木刻版画方面，大多来自西夏文和汉文佛经中。在黑水城出土的大量佛画中，有《文殊图》、《普贤图》、《胜三世明王曼荼罗图》等等。内容浓抹重彩，色调深沉。而版画《卖肉图》和《魔鬼现世图》，描绘生动，反映出西夏绘画的深度。

书法在楷书多见于写经与碑文，篆书见于碑额与官印。夏仁宗时期的翰林学士刘志直，工于书法，他用黄羊尾毫制作之笔，为时人所效法。雕塑方面十分发达，有铸铜、石雕、砖雕、木雕、竹雕、泥塑与陶瓷等。其特点比例均衡，刀法细腻，十分写实。泥塑以佛寺塑像为代表，多运用写实与艺术夸张手法，刻划现实生活的人物形象。例如夏崇宗时期修建的甘州大佛寺释迦牟尼涅盘像、敦煌莫高窟第491窟西夏供养天女彩塑等等。其他陶瓷艺术品也是刻工精细而生动。

西夏在党项时期的乐器以琵琶、横吹，击缶为主，其中横吹即竹笛。后来接受中原音乐的文化，李德明时采用宋制制乐而逐渐繁多。夏景宗建国后，革除唐宋缛节之音，「革乐之五音为一音」。1148年，夏仁宗令乐官李元儒更定音律，赐名《鼎新律》。西夏音乐十分丰富，且设有蕃汉乐人院，夏惠宗时曾招诱宋朝教坊司女子、乐人加入西夏乐院，戏曲如《刘知远诸宫调》等也已经传入西夏，写本并被保留在西夏黑水城遗址中，为中国现存最早诸宫调。西夏时期的舞蹈在碑刻和石窟壁画中留有生动的形象，富含唐宋舞蹈与蒙古舞蹈的风格。如《凉州护国寺感应塔碑》碑额两侧的线刻舞伎，舞姿对称，裸身赤足，执巾佩璎，于豪放中又显出妩媚。榆林窟第3窟西夏壁画中的《乐舞图》，左右相对吸腿舞状，姿态雄健。

科技

党项人本身是游牧民族，科技比较薄弱。割据银夏五州时期，接触了宋朝的技术。在西夏立国之后，吸收了宋朝和西域诸国技术加以发展，在武器锻鍊、活字印刷方面居领先地位，在水利工程、陶瓷、冶金、畜牧、采盐、皮毛、造纸、印刷、建筑等领域都有出色表现。

西夏印刷业受益于佛经的大量印刷，可熟练使用雕版印刷、泥活字印刷和木活字印刷，贺兰山拜寺口方塔遗址西夏文《吉祥遍至口和本续》是目前世界上发现的最早的木活字印刷品，印刷时间不晚于12世纪下半叶；河西走廊发掘的西夏文泥活字排印的《维摩诘所说经》，印制时间约为公元12世纪前期，是现存世界上最早的泥活字印本。

在天文气象方面，主要是学习宋朝的天文与历法。西夏人设置司天监以观察天文，并列有分析、解释天文的「太史」「司天」和「占者」以分析天文。在骨勒茂才的《番汉合时掌中珠·天相》中有对天文星象的详细记载。例如将天空分为青龙（东）、白虎（西）、朱雀（南）、玄武（北）等方位，每个方位设有7个星宿。在气象方面也有详细的分析，例如风有和风、清风、金风、朔风、黑风、旋风；雨有膏雨、谷雨、时雨、丝雨；云有烟云、鹤云、拳云、罗云、同云，等等。历法方面，西夏至1004年材自北宋获得《仪天历》，这是西夏第一本历书。立国后，设「大恒历院」的机构掌管历法的编制和颁行。西夏历书采用番汉合璧历书与宋朝颁赐历书两类，其详细情形仍需研究。

在医学方面，在党项族在青藏高原游牧的时期，医学知识十分匮乏，百姓迷信鬼神，大多向神明求医。在立国后，积极吸收宋朝的医学与药学，并且出版《治疗恶疮要论》等医学著作。并且设有「医人院」，在政府机构中属「中等司」。西夏人对病理的认知大多分成血脉不通、传染、「四大不和」（地、水、火、风）等观点，其中四大不和是缘自藏传佛教的说法。由于西夏本身医学不如中原的朝代，所以一些疑难病症无法医治，只好求助于宋朝或金朝。例如夏仁宗时，权臣任得敬患病，久治不愈。所以夏仁宗派使者向金朝请求医疗支援。夏桓宗时，其母患病，也派使至金朝求医。

西夏具有较为发达的陶瓷工艺，技术上受北宋瓷窑磁州窑、耀州窑的影响。总体特点质朴挺拔、豪放生动，色彩多样，明显不同于辽金瓷器。西夏瓷器最显著的装饰特徵是剔刻工艺，先在上釉的器物上用刻刀划刻出纹饰图案，叫做「刻釉」，再用刻刀将要表现的纹饰图案以外的釉面剔掉或刮掉，露出胎体，叫做「剔釉」。现存西夏瓷器多为残品，完整的西夏剔刻瓷器存世不足百件。

君主年表

Name

The full title of the Western Xia as named by their own state is reconstructed as , which word by word denotes 'white', 'high', 'kingdom', 'great', or , 'white', 'high', 'great', 'summer', 'kingdom'. The corresponding Chinese name, 白高大夏国 ("White High Great Xia State"), was also used. Chinese and Japanese scholars commonly interpret the first two words as "upper reaches of the White River", which was possibly referring to the Yellow River. Kepping (1994) proposed the translation "the Kingdom of the Great Xia of the White and Lofty", and suggested that the name refers to a peak in the Helan Mountains named the "White and Lofty Mother". The region was known to the Tanguts as , and to the Tibetans as Minyak. Another name the Tanguts used for their state was (万秘国), which means the "State of Ten Thousand Secrets". "Western Xia" or "Xi Xia" is the state's Chinese name. "Western" refers to its ___location to the west of the Liao (916–1125) and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties, as well as the Song. "Xia" (pointing to the Xia dynasty) is a historical name for the region that originated from the 5th-century Hu Xia dynasty.

The name Tangut is derived from a form first found in the Orkhon inscriptions dated to 735, which is transcribed in Chinese as Tangwu or Tangute (Tangghut (Tangɣud) in Mongolian). Tangut was used a common name for certain tribes in the Amdo-Kokonor-Gansu region until the 19th century. The Tanguts called themselves Minag, transcribed in Chinese as Mianyao or Miyao.

History

Origins

The Tanguts originally came from the Qinghai-Sichuan-Tibet region, whose home originally was in the highlands of western Sichuan. According to Chinese records, which called them the Dangxiang, the Tanguts were descended from the Western Qiang people, and occupied the steppes around Qinghai Lake and the mountains to its south.

In 608, the Tanguts helped the Sui dynasty defeat the Tuyuhun, however they were betrayed by the Sui forces, who took the chance to loot the Tanguts. In 635, they were requested to serve as guides for Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tuyuhun, but the Tang forces double crossed them in a surprise attack and seized thousands of livestock. In retaliation, the Tanguts attacked the Tang and killed thousands of their soldiers.

By the 650s, the Tanguts had left their homeland to escape pressure from the Tibetans and migrated eastward, to what are now parts of Shanxi and Shaanxi. In 584-5 Tuoba Ningzong led the first group of Tanguts to submit to the Sui. In 628-629 another group under the leadership of Xifeng Bulai surrendered to the Tang. After the Tuyuhun were defeated in 635, the Tanguts under Tuoba Chici also surrendered. The 340,000 Tanguts were divided into 32 jimi prefectures under the control of Tangut chieftains appointed as prefects. Another wave of Tanguts entered Tang territory in 692, adding as many as 200,000 persons to the population in Lingzhou and Xiazhou. In 721–722, Tuoba Sitai, a descendant of Tuoba Chici, aided the Tang in putting down a Sogdian-led revolt in Shuofang. By the time of the An Lushan Rebellion in the 750s, the Tanguts had become the primary local power in the Ordos region in northern Shaanxi. In the 760s, the military commander, Ashina Sijian, harassed six Tangut tribes and took their camels and horses. The Tanguts fled west across the Yellow River and started working for the Tibetans as guides on raiding expeditions. In 764, the Tanguts joined the Tibetans and Uyghurs in supporting the Tang rebel Pugu Huaien. After the Tang reasserted their authority, a descendant of Tuoba Chici, Tuoba Chaoguang, was put in charge of the loyal Tanguts. The Yeli, Bali, and Bozhou clans continued to side with the Tibetans, however the Tanguts also came under Tibetan predation, and frontier settlements continued switching between Tang and Tibetan control for many years. In 806, the Acting Minister of Works, Du You, admitted that they treated the Tanguts badly:

In 814 the Tang appointed a Commissioner for Pacifying the Tanguts to Youzhou (modern Otog Banner), however this did not resolve the Tangut problem. In 820 the Tanguts were subjected to the tyranny of a local governor, Tian Jin. They retaliated by joining the Tibetans in raids on Tang garrisons. Sporadic conflict with the Tanguts lasted until the 840s when they rose in open revolt against the Tang, but the rebellion was suppressed. Eventually the Tang court was able to mollify the Tanguts by admonishing their frontier generals and replacing them with more disciplined ones. The Tanguts also fought against the Uyghurs after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate because they both wanted to monopolize the horse trade which passed through Lingzhou.

Dingnan Jiedushi

In 873, the senior Tangut leader at Xiazhou, Tuoba Sigong, occupied Youzhou and declared himself prefect. When Chang'an fell to Huang Chao in 880, Sigong led a Chinese-Tangut army to assist Tang forces in driving out the rebels. For his service, he was granted in 881 control of Xiazhou, Youzhou, Suizhou, Yinzhou, and later also Jingbian. Together the territory was called Dingnan Jiedushi, also known as Xiasui, centered on modern Yulin, Shaanxi. After the Huang Chao rebellion's defeat in 883, Sigong was granted the dynastic surname Li and enfeoffed as "Duke of Xia". In 878, the Shatuo chieftain Li Guochang attacked the Tanguts but was repelled by a Tuyuhun intervention.

Sigong died in 886 and was succeeded by his brother Sijian. In 905 Li Keyong's independent regime allied with the Khitans, which pushed the Tanguts into an alliance with Later Liang, which awarded the Dingnan rulers with honorary titles. Sijian died in 908 and was succeeded by his adopted son Yichang, who was murdered by his officer Gao Zongyi in 909. Gao Zongyi was himself murdered by soldiers of Dingnan and was replaced by Yichang's uncle, Renfu, who was a popular officer in the army. In 910 Dingnan came under a monthlong siege by the forces of Qi and Jin but was able to repel the invasion with the aid of Later Liang. In 922 Renfu sent 500 horses to Luoyang, perhaps to aid the Later Liang in fighting the Shatuo. In 924 Renfu was enfeoffed as "Prince of Shuofang" by Later Tang. When Renfu died in 933, Later Tang tried to replace his son, Yichao, with a Sogdian governor, An Congjin. An Congjin besieged Xiazhou with 50,000 soldiers, but the Tanguts mounted a successful defensive by rallying the tribes and stripping the countryside of any resources. The Later Tang army was forced to retreat after three months. Despite Later Tang aggression, Yichao made peace with them by sending 50 horses as an offering.

Yichao died in 935 and was succeeded by his brother Yixing. Yixing discovered a plot by his brother, Yimin, to overthrow him in 943. Yimin fled to Chinese territory, but was returned to Xiazhou for execution. Over 200 clan members were implicated in the plot, resulting in a purge of the core ranks. Yimin's post was taken by a loyal official, Renyu. Not long afterward, Renyu was killed by the Yemu Qiang, who departed for Chinese territory. In 944 Yixing may have attacked the Liao dynasty on behalf of the Later Jin. The sources are not clear on the event. In 948 Yixing requested permission to cross the border and attack the Yemu Qiang but was refused. Instead Yixing attacked a neighboring circuit under encouragement from the rebel Li Shouzhen, but retreated upon encountering an imperial force. In 952 the Yeji people north of Qingzhou rebelled, causing the Tanguts significant difficulty. Honorary titles were given out by the Later Han to appease local commanders, including Yixing. In 960 Dingnan came under attack by Northern Han and successfully repelled invading forces. In 962 Yixing offered horses as tribute to the Song dynasty. Yixing died in 967 and was succeeded by his son, Kerui.

Kerui died in 978 and was succeeded by Jiyun. Jiyun ruled for only a year before dying in 980. His son was still an infant, so Jiyun's brother, Jipeng, assumed leadership. Jipeng did not go through the traditional channel of acquiring consent from the elders, which caused dissent among the Tangut elites. The Tangut prefect of Suizhou challenged Jipeng's succession. In 982 Jipeng fled to the Song court and surrendered control of Dingnan Jiedushi. His brother or cousin, Jiqian, did not agree to this and refused to submit to Song administration. Jiqian led a group of bandit holdouts and resisted Song control. In 984, the Song attacked his camp and captured his mother and wife, but he narrowly escaped. He rebounded from this defeat by capturing Yinzhou the next year. Along with Yinzhou, Jiqian captured large amounts of supply, allowing him to increase his following. In 986, Jiqian submitted to the Khitans and in 989, Jiqian married into Khitan nobility. Jiqian also made symbolic obeisance to the Song, but the Song remained unconvinced of his intentions. Jipeng was sent by the Song to destroy Jiqian, but he was defeated in battle on 6 May 994, and fled back to Xiazhou. Jiqian sent tribute on 9 September as well as his younger brother on 1 October to the Song court. Emperor Taizong of Song was receptive of these gestures, but Jiqian returned to raiding Song territory the next year. In April 996, Taizong sent troops to suppress Jiqian, who raided Lingzhou in May and again in November 997. For a brief period after 998, Jiqian accepted Song suzerainty, until the fall of 1001 when he began raiding again. Jiqian died on 6 January 1004 from an arrow wound. His son and successor, Deming, proved to be more amicable towards the Song than his predecessor.

Jingzong (1038–1048)

Deming sent tribute missions to both the Liao dynasty and the Song dynasty. At the same time he expanded Tangut territory to the west. In 1028, he sent his son Yuanhao to conquer the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom. Two years later the Guiyi Circuit surrendered to the Tanguts. Yuanhao invaded the Qinghai region as well but was repelled by the newly risen Tibetan kingdom of Tsongkha. In 1032, Yuanhao annexed the Tibetan confederation of Xiliangfu, and soon after his father died, leaving him ruler of the Tangut state.

Upon his father's death, Yuanhao adopted the Tangut surname of Weiming (Tangut: Nweimi) for his clan. He levied all able bodied men between 15 and 60 years of age, providing him with a 150,000 strong army. By 1036, he had annexed both the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom and the Guiyi Circuit to his west. In the same year, the Tangut script was disseminated for use in the Tangut government and translations of Chinese and Tibetan works began at once. The script's creation is attributed to Yeli Renrong and work on it likely began during the reign of Deming.

In 1038, Yuanhao declared himself emperor (wu zu or Blue Son of Heaven), posthumously Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia, of the Great Xia with his capital at Xingqing in modern Yinchuan. Jingzong expanded the bureaucratic apparatus mirroring Chinese institutional practices. A Secretariat (Zhongshu sheng), Bureau of Military Affairs (Shumi yuan), Finance Office (San si), Censorate (Yushi tai), and 16 bureaus (shiliu si) under the supervision of a chancellor (shangshu ling) were created. Jingzong enacted a head shaving decree that ordered all his countrymen to shave the top of their heads so that if within three days, someone had not followed his order, they were allowed to be killed.

In response, the Song dynasty offered to bestow ranks on the Tanguts, which Jingzong rejected. The Song then cut off border trade and put a bounty on his head. The Xia's chief military leader, Weiming Shanyu, also fled to seek asylum with the Song, however he was executed at Youzhou. What ensued was a prolonged war with the Song dynasty which resulted in several victories at great cost to the Xia economy.

In the winter of 1039–1040, Jingzong laid siege to Yanzhou (now Yan'an) with over 100,000 troops. The prefect of Yanzhou, Fan Yong, gave contradictory orders to his military deputy, Liu Ping, making him move his forces (9,000) in random directions until they were defeated by Xia forces (50,000) at Sanchuan Pass. Liu Ping was taken captive. Despite the defenders' mediocre performance, Jingzong was forced to lift the siege and retreat to a ring of forts overlooking Yanzhou, when heavy winter snows set in. A Song army of 30,000 returned later that winter under the command of Ren Fu. They were ambushed at Haoshuichuan and annihilated. Despite such victories, Jingzong failed to make any headway against Song fortifications, garrisoned by 200,000 troops on rotation from the capital, and remained unable to seize any territory. In 1042, Jingzong advanced south and surrounded the fort of Dingchuan. The defending commander Ge Huaimin lost his nerve and decided to run, abandoning his troops to be slaughtered. Again, Jingzong failed to gain significant territory. Half his soldiers had died from attrition and after two years, Xia could no longer support his military endeavors. Tangut forces began suffering small defeats, being turned back by Song forces at Weizhou and Linzhou.

The Liao dynasty took advantage of the Song's dire predicaments by increasing annual tribute payments by 100,000 units of silk and silver (each). The Song appealed to the Liao for help, and as a result, Emperor Xingzong of Liao invaded Western Xia with a force of 100,000 in 1044. Liao forces enjoyed an initial victory but failed to take the Xia capital and were brutally mauled by Jingzong's defenders. According to Song spies, there was a succession of carts bearing Liao dead across the desert. Having exhausted his resources, Jingzong made peace with the Song, who recognized him as the ruler of Xia lands and agreed to pay an annual tribute of 250,000 units of silk, silver, and tea.

Toward the end of the war, Jingzong took the intended bride of his son, Lady Moyi, as his concubine. Jingzong's designated heir, Ninglingge, was the son of the Yeli empress, whose uncle Yeli Wangrong was concerned about the development. Ninglingge was thus arranged to marry the daughter of Wangrong, who planned to kill the emperor on the eve of the wedding. The plot leaked and Wangrong as well as four other Yeli conspirators were executed. The Yeli empress was demoted and Lady Moyi was installed in her place. Another concubine, Lady Mocang, bore the emperor a male child in 1047, named Liangzuo, who was raised by his uncle, Mocang Epang. The disinherited heir apparent stabbed Jingzong in the nose and fled to Mocang Epang's residence where he was arrested and executed. Jingzong died the next day on 19 January 1048 at the age of 44.

Yizong (1048–1068)

After Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia died in 1048, a council of elders selected his cousin as the new ruler. Mocang Epang objected on grounds of primogeniture and put forth his nephew, the son of Jingzong and Lady Mocang, as candidate. No dissent was forthcoming, so the two-year-old Liangzuo became emperor, posthumously known as Emperor Yizong of Western Xia. In 1056 the empress dowager died. In 1061 Yizong eliminated Mocang Epang and married Lady Liang, formerly the wife of Epang's son. Yizong appointed Lady Liang's brother, Liang Yimai, as palace minister. This would start two generations of Liang dominance in Xia. During Yizong's reign, he attempted to enact more Chinese forms of governance by replacing Tangut rites with Chinese court ritual and dress, which was opposed by the Liang faction that favored Tangut forms. At the same time, Song and Xia emissaries regularly exchanged insults. The emperor supported sinification through the import of Chinese books, revived the use of his Chinese surname Li and other Chinese protocols, and pursued accommodation with the Song dynasty in border disputes and opening of trade. However, these diplomatic overtures were squandered by arrogant Song representatives who insulted the Xia envoy. The Liang clan was reportedly of Han Chinese ancestry, albeit assimilated into Tangut culture, but their faction would later lead the opposition to the pro-Chinese policy. The Han Chinese empresses of the Liang clan, Paul Forage notes, were more aggressive in their stance against the Song dynasty than the emperors they were representing.

In 1064, Yizong raided the Song dynasty. In the fall of 1066, he mounted two more raids and in September, an attack on Qingzhou was launched. The Tangut forces destroyed several fortified settlements. Song forces were surrounded for three days before cavalry reinforcements arrived. Yizong was wounded by a crossbow and forced to retreat. Tangut forces attempted another raid later on but failed, and a night attack by Song forces scattered the Tangut army. Yizong regrouped at Qingtang and launched another attack on Qingzhou in December but withdrew after threats by Emperor Yingzong of Song to escalate the conflict. The next year, the Song commander Chong E attacked and captured Suizhou.

Yizong died in January 1068, presumably from his wounds, at the age of 20.

Huizong (1068–1086)

The seven-year-old Bingchang, posthumously Emperor Huizong of Western Xia, succeeded his father, Emperor Yizong of Western Xia. Huizong's reign began with an inconclusive war with the Song dynasty in 1070–1071 over Suizhou. In 1072 Huizong's sister was married to Linbuzhi (Rinpoche), the son of the Tsongkha ruler, Dongzhan. These events occurred under the regency of the Empress Dowager Liang and her brother, Liang Yimai. Huizong was married to one of Yimai's daughters to ensure the continued control of the Liang over the imperial Weiming clan. In 1080 Huizong rebelled against his mother's dominance by discarding with Tangut ritual in favor of Chinese ceremonies. A year later a plot by Huizong and his concubine, Li Qing, to turn over the Xia's southern territory to the Song was uncovered. Li Qing was executed and Huizong was imprisoned. The emperor's loyalists immediately rallied their forces to oppose Liang rule while Yimai tried to in vain to summon them with the imperial silver paiza.

Seeing the infighting breaking out in the Xia, the Song decided to go on the offensive. In 1081, the Song dynasty launched a five-pronged attack on the Xia. After initial victories, Song forces failed to take the capital of Xia, Xingqing, and remained on the defensive for the next three years. Xia counterattacks also experienced initial success before failing to take Lanzhou multiple times. In 1085, the war ended with the death of Emperor Shenzong of Song.

In the summer of 1081, the five Song armies invaded Western Xia. Chong E defeated a Xia army, killing 8,000. In October, Li Xian took Lanzhou. On 15 October, Liu Changzuo's 50,000-strong army met a Xia force of 30,000 led by the Empress Regent Liang's brother. Liu's commanders advised him to take a defensive position, but he refused, and led a contingent of shield warriors with two ranks of crossbowmen and cavalry behind, with himself leading at the front with two shields. The battle lasted for several hours before the Xia forces retreated, suffering 2,700 casualties. Afterwards, Liu captured a large supply of millet at the town of Mingsha, and headed towards Lingzhou. Liu's vanguard attacked the town's gate before the defenders had a chance to close it, dealing several hundred casualties, and seizing more than 1,000 cattle before retreating. Liu wanted Gao Zunyu to help him take Lingzhou, but Gao refused. Then Liu suggested they take the Xia capital instead, to which Gao also refused, and instead took it as a slight that he could not take Lingzhou. Gao relayed his version of events to the Song court, then had Liu removed from command, merging the two forces.

By November, the Xia had abandoned the middle of the Ordos plateau, losing Xiazhou. On 20 November, Wang Zhongzheng took Youzhou and slaughtered its inhabitants. At this point Wang became concerned that he would run out of supplies and quarreled with Chong E over provisions. He also forbade his troops from cooking their meals because he feared it would alert Xia raiders of their position. His troops became ill from their uncooked food, started to starve, and came under attack by enemy cavalry anyway. Wang was ordered to withdraw while Chong E covered his retreat. Wang lost 20,000 men.

On 8 December, Gao Zunyu decided to attack Lingzhou, only to realize he had forgotten to bring any siege equipment, and there were not enough trees around for their construction. Gao took out his frustration on Liu Changzuo, who he tried to have executed. Liu's troops were on the verge of mutiny before Fan Chuncui, a Circuit judge, convinced Gao to reconcile with Liu. On 21 December, Xia forces breached the dikes along the Yellow River and flooded the camps of the two besieging Song armies, forcing them to retreat. Xia harassment turned the retreat into a rout.

By the end of 1081, only Chong E remained in active command. In September 1082, the Xia counterattacked with a 300,000 strong army, laying siege to Yongle, a fortress town west of Mizhi. The Xia sent out cavalry to prevent Song relief attempts. The defending commander, Xu Xi, deployed his troops outside the town gates but refused to attack the enemy troops while they forded the river. Then he refused to let his troops in when the Tangut Iron Hawk cavalry attacked, decimating the defending army. With the capture of Yongle, the Song lost 17,300 troops.

In March 1083, Xia forces attacked Lanzhou. The defending commander, Wang Wenyu, led a small contingent out at night and made a surprise attack on the Xia encampment, forcing them to retreat. The Tanguts made two more attempts to take Lanzhou in April and May but failed on both accounts. Their simultaneous attack on Linzhou also failed. After multiple defeats, the Xia offered peace demands to the Song, which they refused. In January 1084, Xia forces made a last attempt to take Lanzhou. The siege lasted for 10 days before the Tangut army ran out of supplies and was forced to retreat.

The war ended in 1085 with the death of Emperor Shenzong in April. In exchange for 100 Chinese prisoners, the Song returned four of the six captured towns. Hostilities between the Song and Xia would flare up again five years later, and conflict would continue sporadically until the Song lost Kaifeng in the Jingkang incident of 1127.

Huizong was returned to his throne in 1083. Liang Yimai died in 1085 and his son, Liang Qipu, succeeded his position as chief minister. The Empress Dowager Liang also died later that year. In 1086 Huizong passed away at the age of 26.

Chongzong (1086–1139)

The three-year-old Qianshun succeeded his father, Emperor Huizong of Western Xia, as emperor, posthumously Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia. His mother, the new Empress Dowager Liang, the younger sister of Liang Qipu, ruled as regent. The Song dynasty continued to campaign against the Xia in 1091 and 1093. In 1094, Rende Baozhuang and Weiming Awu slew Liang Qipu and exterminated his clan. In 1096 the Song stopped paying tribute to the Xia and the next year, launched an "advance and fortify" campaign centered on guarding key locations along river valleys and mountains to erode the Xia position. From 1097 to 1099, the Song army constructed 40 fortifications across the Ordos plateau. In 1098, the Empress Regent Liang sent a 100,000 strong army to recapture Pingxia. The Tangut army was completely defeated in their attempt to dislodge the Song from their high ground position, and their generals Weiming Amai and Meiledubu were both captured. Empress Dowager Liang died in 1099, apparently poisoned by assassins from the Liao dynasty. At the same time, the Tanguts were also involved in a war with the Zubu to their north.

In 1103, the Song annexed Tsongkha and spent the following year weeding out native resistance. The expansion of Song territory threatened the Xia's southern border, resulting in Tangut incursions in 1104 and 1105. Eventually the Xia launched an all out attack on Lanzhou and Qingtang. However, after the Advance and Fortify campaign of 1097–1099, Xia forces were no longer able to defeat Song positions. Failing to take major cities, the Tangut forces went on a rampage, killing tens of thousands of local civilians. The next year, Chongzong made peace with the Song, but was unable to clearly demarcate their borders, leading to another war in 1113.

In 1113, the Xia started building fortifications in disputed territory with the Song, and took the Qingtang region. Incensed at this provocation, Emperor Huizong of Song dispatched Tong Guan to evict the Tanguts. In 1115, 150,000 troops under the command of Liu Fa penetrated deep into Xia territory and slaughtered the Tangut garrison at Gugulong. Meanwhile, Wang Hou and Liu Chongwu attacked the newly built Tangut fortress of Zangdihe. The siege ended in failure and the death of half the invasion force. Wang bribed Tong to keep the number of casualties a secret from the emperor. The next year, Liu Fa and Liu Chongwu took a walled Tangut city called Rendequan. Another 100,000 troops were sent against Zangdihe and succeeded in taking the fortress. The Xia made a successful counterattack in the winter of 1116–1117. Despite piling casualties on the Song side, Tong was adamant about eradicating the Xia once and for all. He gave orders for Liu Fa to lead 200,000 into the heart of the Xia empire, aiming straight at the capital region. It quickly became apparent that this was a suicide mission. The Song army was met outside the city by an even larger Tangut army led by the Xia prince, Chage. The Tangut army surrounded the Song forces, killing half of them, with the remaining falling back during the night. The Tanguts pursued the Song and defeated them again the next day. Liu was beheaded. A ceasefire was called in 1119 and Huizong issued an apology to Xia.

In 1122, the Jürchen Jin dynasty took the Southern Capital of the Liao dynasty, and the remaining Khitans fled in two groups to the west. One group led by Xiao Gan fled to Xia where they set up a short lived Xi dynasty that lasted only five months before Gan died at the hands of his own troops. The other group, led by Yelü Dashi, joined Emperor Tianzuo of Liao at the Xia border. In the early summer of 1123, Dashi was captured by the Jin and forced to lead them to Tianzuo's camp, where the entire imperial family except for Tianzuo and one son were captured. Tianzuo sought refuge with Chongzong, who while initially receptive, changed his mind after warnings from the Jurchens and declared himself a vassal of Jin in 1124.

Domestically the reign of Chongzong saw a formal consolidation of the relationship between the imperial court and the great clans, whose positions were assured in legal documents. After his mother's death in 1099, Chongzong stripped the Rende clan of its military power. Rende Baozhuang was demoted. Chongzong's brother, Chage, was given command of the Tangut army, which he led to many victories against the Song. A state school was established with 300 students supported by government stipends. A "civilian" faction arose under the leadership of the imperial Prince Weiming Renzhong, who often denounced Chage for corruption and abuse of power. Chongzong shuffled appointments to play the two factions against each other. In 1105, Chongzong married a Liao princess, who along with her son, apparently died of heartbreak in 1125 when the Khitan emperor was captured by the Jurchens. In 1138, the penultimate year of his reign, Chongzong took the daughter of Ren Dejing as his empress.

Chongzong died at the age of 56 in the summer of 1139.

Renzong (1139–1193)

The 16-year-old Renxiao succeeded his father, Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia, as emperor, posthumously Emperor Renzong of Western Xia. His mother was the Chinese concubine, Lady Cao.

In 1140 a group of Khitan exiles led by Xiao Heda rebelled. The Xia forces under Ren Dejing crushed them. Renzong wanted to reward Ren with a palace appointment but his councilor, Weiming Renzhong, convinced him to keep him as a field commander.

In 1142-3 famine and earthquake caused unrest in Xiazhou. Renzong responded with tax remissions and relief measures.

In 1144 Renzong decreed the establishment of schools throughout the country and a secondary school opened for imperial scions aged seven to fifteen. A Superior School of Chinese Learning was opened the following year and Confucian temples were built throughout the land. In 1147 imperial examinations were instituted, although Tangut records do discuss using them for selection of officials. The Tangut law code only discusses inheritance of office and rank. In 1148 an Inner Academy was established and staffed with renowned scholars. Renzong also greatly patronized Buddhist learning. The majority of the Tangut Tripitaka was completed during his reign. In 1189, the 50th anniversary of Renzong's accession, 100,000 copies of the "Sutra on the visualization of the Maitreya Bodhisattva's ascent and rebirth in Tushita Heaven" (Guan Mile pusa shang sheng Toushuai tian jing) was printed and distributed in both Chinese and Tangut, and 50,000 copies of other sutras were also printed.

After the deaths of Renzhong and Chage in 1156, Ren Dejing rose through the ranks and became very powerful. In 1160 he obtained the noble title of Chu, the first Chinese to do so in the Tangut state. Ren tried to have the schools shut down and called them useless Chinese institutions wasting resources on parasitic scholars. It is unknown how the emperor responded but the schools were not closed. In 1161 the emperor opened a Hanlin Academy to compile the Xia historical records.

In 1161-2 the Tanguts briefly occupied territory of both the Jurchen Jin dynasty and Song dynasty during the Jin–Song Wars.

From 1165 to 1170, Ren Dejing tried to establish his own semi-autonomous realm, and in the process meddled in the affairs of the Zhuanglang tribes, who lived in the border region of the Tao River valley. He also tried to enlist the help of the Jurchens, but they refused his overtures. Ren started construction of fortifications along the Jin border. In 1170 Ren pressured Renzong to grant him the eastern half of the realm as well as for Emperor Shizong of Jin to grant him investiture. In the summer of that year, Renzong's men secretly rounded up Ren Dejing and his adherents, executing them.

Wo Daochong succeeded Ren Dejing as chief minister. A Confucian scholar, he translated the Analects and provided commentary to it in the Tangut language. Upon his death, Renzong honored him by having his portrait displayed in all the Confucian temples and schools.

The Jurchens closed down border markets in Lanzhou and Baoan in 1172 and would not reopen them until 1197. They accused the Tanguts of trading worthless gems and jades for their silk. Tangut border raids increased during this period until the Jurchens reopened one market in 1181. In 1191 some Tangut herdsmen strayed into Jurchen territory and was chased away by a Jin patrol. They them ambushed and killed the pursuing patrol officer. Renzong refused to extradite the herdsmen and assured the Jurchens that they would be punished.

Renzong died in 1193 at the age of 70.

Huanzong (1193–1206)

The 17-year-old Chunyou succeeded his father, Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, as emperor, posthumously Emperor Huanzong of Western Xia. Little besides the rise of Temüjin and his conflict with Western Xia is known about Huanzong's reign. In 1203, Toghrul was defeated by Temüjin. Toghrul's son, Nilqa Senggum, fled through Tangut territory and although the Tanguts refused to provide him with refuge, and he raided their territory, Temüjin used this as pretext to raid Western Xia. The resulting attack in 1205 caused one local Tangut noble to defect to the Mongols, the plundering of several fortified settlements, and loss of livestock.

In 1206, Temüjin was formally proclaimed Genghis Khan, ruler of all Mongols, marking the official start of the Mongol Empire. In the same year, Huanzong was deposed in a coup by his cousin Anquan, who installed himself as Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia. Huanzong died much later in captivity.

Xiangzong (1206–1211)

In 1207, Genghis led another raid into Western Xia, invading the Ordos Loop and sacking Wulahai, the main garrison along the Yellow River, before withdrawing in the spring of 1208. The Tanguts tried to form a united front with the Jurchen Jin dynasty against the Mongols, but the usurper monarch, Wanyan Yongji, refused to cooperate and declared that it was to their advantage that enemies attack one another.

In the autumn of 1209, Genghis received the submission of the Uyghurs to the west and invaded Western Xia. After defeating an army led by Gao Lianghui outside Wulahai, Genghis captured the city and pushed up along the Yellow River, capturing several garrisons and defeating another imperial army. The Mongols besieged the capital, Zhongxing, which held a well-fortified garrison of 150,000, and attempted to flood the city by diverting the Yellow River. The dike they built broke and flooded the Mongol camp, forcing them to withdraw. In 1210, Xiangzong agreed to submit to Mongol rule, and demonstrated his loyalty by giving a daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and paying a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.

After their defeat in 1210, Western Xia attacked the Jin dynasty in response to their refusal to aid them against the Mongols. The following year, the Mongols joined Western Xia and began a 23-year-long campaign against Jin. In the same year Xiangzong's nephew Zunxu seized power in a coup and became Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia. Xiangzong died a month later.

Shenzong (1211–1223)

Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia was the first person in the imperial family to pass the palace examinations and receive a jinshi degree.

Shenzong appeased the Mongols by attacking the Jurchens and in 1214, supported a rebellion against the Jurchens. In 1216, Western Xia provided auxiliary troops to the Mongols for an attack on Jin territory. The Tanguts also invited the Song dynasty to join them in attacking the Jin, but nothing came of this except an aborted joint action in 1220. The antagonistic policy towards the Jurchen Jin was unpopular at court, as was cooperating with the Mongols. A certain Asha Gambu emerged as an outspoken proponent of anti-Mongol policy. In the winter of 1217–1218, the Mongols called on Western Xia to provide them troops for campaigns further west, but they refused to comply. No immediate retaliation occurred since Genghis left for the west in 1219 and left Muqali in charge of North China. In 1223, Muqali died. At the same time, Shenzong abdicated to his son, Dewang, posthumously Emperor Xianzong of Western Xia.

Xianzong (1223–1226)

Emperor Xianzong of Western Xia began peace talks with the Jurchen Jin in 1224 and the peace agreement was finalized in the fall of 1225. The Tanguts continued to defy the Mongols by refusing to send a hostage prince to the Mongol court.

After defeating Khwarazm in 1221, Genghis prepared his armies to punish Western Xia. In 1225, Genghis attacked with a force of approximately 180,000. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis was injured in 1225 during a horse hunt when his horse bolted from under him. Genghis then tried to offer Western Xia the chance to willingly submit, but Asha Gambhu mocked the Mongols and challenged them to battle. Genghis pledged to avenge this insult. Genghis ordered his generals to systematically destroy cities and garrisons as they went.

Genghis divided his army and sent general Subutai to take care of the westernmost cities, while the main force under Genghis moved east into the heart of the Western Xia and took Suzhou and Ganzhou, which was spared destruction upon its capture due to it being the hometown of Genghis's commander Chagaan. After taking Khara-Khoto in early 1226, the Mongols began a steady advance southward. Asha, commander of the Western Xia troops, could not afford to meet the Mongols as it would involve an exhausting westward march from the capital through 500 kilometers of desert, so the Mongols steadily advanced from city to city.

In August 1226, Mongol troops approached Liangzhou, the second-largest city in Western Xia, which surrendered without resistance. In autumn 1226, Genghis crossed the Helan Mountains, and in November laid siege to Lingwu, a mere 30 kilometers from the capital. At this point, Xianzong died, leaving his relative, Xian, posthumously Emperor Mozhu of Western Xia, to deal with the Mongol invasion.

Mo (1226–1227)

Emperor Mo of Western Xia led a 300,000 strong army against the Mongols and was defeated. The Mongols sacked Lingzhou.

Genghis reached the Western Xia capital in 1227, laid siege to the city, and launched several offensives against the Jin to prevent them from sending reinforcements to Western Xia, with one force reaching as a far as Kaifeng, the Jin capital. The siege lasted for six months before Genghis offered terms of surrender. During the peace negotiations, Genghis continued his military operations around the Liupan mountains near Guyuan, rejected a peace offer from the Jin, and prepared to invade them near their border with the Song.

In August 1227, Genghis died of uncertain causes, and, in order not to jeopardize the ongoing campaign, his death was kept a secret. In September 1227, Emperor Mo surrendered to the Mongols and was promptly executed. The Mongols then pillaged the capital, slaughtered the city's population, plundered the imperial tombs to the west, and completed the annihilation of the Western Xia state.

Destruction

The destruction of Western Xia during the second campaign was nearly total. According to John Man, Western Xia is little known to anyone other than experts in the field due to Genghis Khan's policy calling for their complete eradication. He states that "There is a case to be made that this was the first ever recorded example of attempted genocide. It was certainly very successful ethnocide." However, some members of the Western Xia royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, and even possibly Northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers. A small Western Xia state was established in Tibet along the upper reaches of the Yalong River while other Western Xia populations settled in what are now the modern provinces of Henan and Hebei. In China, remnants of the Western Xia persisted into the middle of the Ming dynasty.

Military

The Western Xia had two elite military units, the Iron Hawks (tie yaozi), a 3,000 strong heavy cavalry unit, and Trekker infantry (bubazi), mountain infantry. The brother of Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia, Chage, mentioned that Trekker infantry had difficulty fighting Mighty-Arm bows, a type of Song dynasty crossbow:

In 1980, the Wuwei Bronze Cannon was discovered in a cellar dating to the Western Xia period. Dating to the early 13th century, it is one of the earliest cannons ever discovered. It weighs 108 kg and was discovered with an iron ball about 9cm in diameter inside its barrel.

Culture

Language

The kingdom developed a Tangut script to write its own Tangut language, a now extinct Tibeto-Burman language probably related to the Horpa taxon.

Tibetans, Uyghurs, Han, and Tanguts served as officials in Western Xia. It is unclear how distinct the different ethnic groups were in the Xia state as intermarriage was never prohibited. Tangut, Chinese and Tibetan were all official languages.

Dress

In 1034 Li Yuanhao (Emperor Jingzong) introduced and decreed a new custom for Western Xia subjects to shave their heads, leaving a fringe covering the forehead and temples, ostensibly to distinguish them from neighbouring countries. Clothing was regulated for different classes of official and commoners. Dress seemed to be influenced by Tibetan and Uighur clothing.

Religion

The government-sponsored state religion was a blend of Tibetan Tantric Buddhism and Chinese Mahayana Buddhism with a Sino-Nepalese artistic style. The scholar-official class engaged in the study of Confucian classics, Taoist texts, and Buddhist sermons, while the Emperor portrayed himself as a Buddhist king and patron of Lamas.

Early in the kingdom's history, Chinese Buddhism was the most widespread form of Buddhism practiced. However, around the mid-twelfth century Tibetan Buddhism gained prominence as rulers invited Tibetan monks to hold the distinctive office of state preceptor. The practice of Tantric Buddhism in Western Xia led to the spread of some sexually related customs. Before they could marry men of their own ethnicity when they reached 30 years old, Uighur women in Shaanxi in the 12th century had children after having relations with multiple ethnic Han men, with her desirability as a wife enhancing if she had been with a large number of men.

Economy

The economy of the empire mainly consisted of agriculture, pastoralism, and trade (especially with Central Asia).

Rulers

Each Western Xia emperor established one or more era name in Chinese and Tangut, although not all the Tangut versions of era names are known.

Administrative divisions

Gallery

File:SDIM3894MKGStrohbuddha.jpg|A clay head of the Buddha, Western Xia dynasty, 12th century

File:Grey Kalavinka.jpg|A winged kalavinka made of grey pottery, Western Xia dynasty

File:Yulin Cave 3 w wall Manjusri (Western Xia).jpg|A painting of the Buddhist manjusri, from the Yulin Caves of Gansu, China, from the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty

File:Dunhuang mogao mural cave 409.jpg|Concubines of the Tangut ruler

File:Xixia Museum wooden figure of cavalry soldier.jpg|Wooden figure of a Tangut soldier

File:西夏女供养人像.png|Tangut women

File:Tangut servants.jpg|Tangut bride

File:Beijing printing museum.12th century.Xixia argile movable type print.jpg|Printed text using pottery (argile) movable type from Western Xia around the mid-12th century. Found in Xinhua Xiang (新华乡); Wuwei City, Gansu province.

File:Chrysographic Tangut Golden Light Sutra.jpg|The Golden Light Sutra written in the Tangut script