人物生平

即位之初

明武宗为明孝宗与孝成敬皇后张氏的嫡长子，生于弘治四年九月二十四日（1491年10月26日）。两岁被立为皇太子。唯一的弟弟朱厚炜又早夭，是孝宗唯一长大成人的儿子。弘治十一年春，皇太子出阁读书。他天性聪颖，讲筵时极为认真，面对讲师则恭敬对待。几个月后，便已知晓翰林院与左春坊所有讲师的姓名，以致有讲师缺席便会问询左右「某先生今日安在邪？」这让孝宗极为喜爱，出游必带上皇太子。同时孝宗听闻皇太子闲暇时喜好兵戎事，认为他安不忘危，所以也不予以干涉。

弘治十八年五月初八日，孝宗皇帝驾崩。在完成文武百官军民耆老劝进的固定程序后，五月十八日，皇太子朱厚照即位，是为明武宗。

明正德九年正月，后来反叛的宁王朱宸濠献新样元宵四时花灯数百，穷极奇巧，内附火药，明武宗命献者入悬。时值冬季，宫中按例在檐下设有毡幕御寒。以致火星触及氊幕，引发大火，自二鼓时分一直烧至天明。火势最大时，武宗正在前往豹房的途中，望见乾清宫的火灾，武宗向左右开玩笑称这是「好一棚大烟火也」，两天后壬午日，武宗以乾清宫灾御奉天门视朝，撤宝座不设，遂下诏罪己，并谕文武百官，同加修省。后又常常离开帝都燕京四处巡游。凡他的车驾所至，近侍先掠良家女以充他奸淫。至数十车在道，说：「有死者。」左右不敢问，且令有司饩廪之，别具女衣、首饰，为赏赉费。远近骚动，所经多逃亡。这些明武宗不知道。

宦官与豹房

住在京师期间，又不愿住在紫禁城，在宫外建了一座颇具规模的「豹房」作为自己的住所，然而豹房所养的动物仅有花豹一只、土豹三只。这座住所的主要用途为甄选大量美女安置于该处，供其淫乐。工部奏浣衣局寄养幼女甚众多，每年用柴炭至16000斤,宜增给，明武宗许可了。当时诸近幸多以幼女为献,又累年巡幸所过阅选民间妇女载归者,皆留浣衣局,至不能容,饔餐不继,日有死者。明武宗对这些不闻不问。

明武宗的男宠也不计其数，取名曰「老儿当」，「老儿」是黑话，指少年。「当」为「党」。「老儿当」即「少年党」。但也有学者称，因为正德帝喜欢各地宗教，这些「老儿当」主要是通晓汉文、蒙文、藏文或波斯文的年轻人，作为宗教人士的翻译官。

明武宗不喜上朝，起初宠信刘瑾、张永、丘聚、谷大用等号称「八虎」的宦官，1510年平定安化王之乱朱置鐇后，下令将刘瑾凌迟处死，后又宠信武士江彬等人。

宗教

明武宗喜好迷信，终日与来自西域、回回、蒙古、乌斯藏（西藏）、朝鲜半岛的异域法师、番僧相伴。明武宗曾学习蒙古语，自称忽必烈，也学藏传佛教，自称大宝法王。中亚商人阿里・阿克巴撰写的《中国纪行》一书中声称当时的中国皇帝，也就是明武宗，是一个吃回回食、诵读可兰经的虔诚穆斯林信徒。然而阿里・阿克巴的这些描写在汉语文献中并无佐证。明武宗还曾亲自接见第一位来华的葡萄牙使者皮莱资。明武宗因为自己生肖属猪，曾一度敕令全国禁食猪肉，但他自己仍食用猪肉「内批仍用豕」；旋即在大学士杨廷和的反对下，降敕废除。

死亡

正德十五年十二月初十，大驾回到北京，文武百官出至正阳桥外迎接。十三日，皇帝于南郊祭祀天地，祭拜过程中突然呕血，随即送入斋宫休养。次日，返回大内，仅在奉天殿举行庆成礼。此后，立春日的朝贺一同免去。

正德十六年（1521年）正月初九日，监察御史郑本公鉴于武宗身体状况不乐观，上奏武宗，望能于宗室间过继一人主掌东宫，但后来武宗身体略有好转。三月十三日晚间，武宗突然向身边的太监陈敬和苏进表示自己可能无法痊愈，让其召司礼监并禀告慈寿皇太后，由太后与内阁议处天下事，并表示自己耽误子嗣。十四日，武宗于豹房驾崩，得年31岁（周岁29岁）。

由于武宗无子嗣，因此遵照《皇明祖训》，由武宗堂弟、孝宗弟兴献王朱佑杬之子兴王朱厚熜入嗣大统。正德十六年五月，朱厚熜抵达京师，上谥号为承天达道英肃睿哲昭德显功弘文思孝毅皇帝，上庙号为武宗。新的皇帝杀死了他的一些宠臣。九月，武宗入葬天寿山陵区的康陵。

内政

应州之役

明武宗「奋然欲以武功自雄」。正德十二年（1517年）10月，在江彬的怂恿下，自封为「镇国公总督军务威武大将军总兵官」，到边地宣府（今张家口宣化区）亲征，击溃蒙古鞑靼小王子（即达延汗巴图蒙克），回去后又给自己加封太师。史称「应州大捷」。

平宁王乱及驾幸南京

正德十四年（1519年）六月十四日，宁王朱宸濠在封藩江西南昌叛乱，是为宁王之乱，不过四十三天，就被赣南巡抚王阳明及吉安知府伍文定募集散兵游勇平定，斩杀三万馀人，朱宸濠被擒。八月二十二日，武宗离开北京亲征。二十六日，武宗抵达涿州，此时王阳明平定叛乱的奏报送达，但武宗仍决定继续南幸。十二月十一日，武宗传谕内阁，以正德十五年（1520年）元旦于南京朝贺、祭祀天地。十二月二十六日，武宗御驾抵南直隶。次日，祭祀南京太庙，武宗成为自永乐以后重新驾临南京的在位皇帝。正德十五年闰八月初八日，武宗于南京受宁王降。八月十二日，武宗离京返回北京。武宗于御驾南征返回北京途中，在淮安清江浦上学渔夫撒网作为游戏，却失足落入水中，并因此患病「燥热难退」。

外交

欧洲进入大航海时代后，葡萄牙人持续开拓前往印度、中国的航路，1511年葡萄牙占领马六甲（约今马来亚地区）后，就意图在中国建立贸易据点。明武宗正德七年（1513年），葡萄牙国王曼努埃尔一世为想要通商指定葡属印度总督阿丰索·德阿尔布开克负责远东贸易，派出拉斐尔·佩雷斯特雷洛前往中国。使节团本来想在广州登陆，但被拒绝入境。他们改以武力占据屯门，与明朝爆发屯门海战、西草湾之战，结果明朝大捷。

诏书

罪己诏

（原诏文中其有缺损处，以「□」代借）

遗诏

轶闻

明武宗的生辰为弘治四年九月二十四日，八字为辛亥年，戊戌月，丁酉日，戊申时出生。其中，八字地支分别为申酉戌亥，这种排列方法被称为连如贯珠。在此以前仅太祖朱元璋的八字辰戌丑未皆全与此类似。

赐自己的替僧为汉地大宝法王，正德五年加封大庆法王，铸大庆法王西天觉道圆明自在大定慧佛金印，兼给诰命，藏名为「领占班丹」，并曾邀请藏地第八世噶玛巴至京师（第七世噶玛巴曾说：「将现身两位噶玛巴」）；蒙古名为忽必烈；波斯名为沙吉熬烂（Shaykh Alam），即苏菲师（回教苏菲派长者、教长），并拥有一群伊斯兰火者，称为老儿当，同时内府多制作有《古兰经》经文瓷器，其中故宫博物院所藏一枚正德白釉矾红彩阿拉伯文波斯文盘，其款识为波斯文「大明国可汗即苏莱曼沙阿御制」。对道教亦多有了解，可能曾号锦堂老人。

正德十五年（1520年）闰八月，武宗御驾自南京返回时，途径镇江，适逢退休居家的原内阁大臣靳贵病逝，于是亲临靳贵家中吊唁。但是随行大臣代皇帝撰写的祭文皆不能称意，明武宗遂亲自写道：「朕居东宫，先生为傅。朕登大宝，先生为辅。朕今南游，先生已矣。呜呼哀哉！」左右的侍从文学之臣看后都敛手称服。

山西应县木塔顶层有一方明武宗皇帝御匾「天下奇观」。

2004年，在美国德州一位华侨手中发现由明朝正德皇帝亲笔所书的圣旨，对臣下说做人应如何有进取心以及如何为忠君之臣与正人君子。这些说话和他做的行为并不一样

历史评价

史学界对正德帝的评价不一，有人认为正德帝虽荒淫无行，行径胡闹，不理国政，造成叛变日起，且自身壮年即因为逸乐而死；但是亦有人认为他颇能容忍大臣，不罪劝谏之人。君臣之间，相安无事，知错能改，诛灭奸佞。

• 张廷玉等《明史》赞曰：「明自正统以来，国势浸弱。毅皇手除逆瑾，躬御边寇，奋然欲以武功自雄。然耽乐嬉游，昵近群小，至自署官号，冠履之分荡然矣。犹幸用人之柄躬自操持，而秉钧诸臣补苴匡救，是以朝纲紊乱，而不底于危亡。假使承孝宗之遗泽，制节谨度，有中主之操，则国泰而名完，岂至重后人之訾议哉！」

• 谈迁《国榷》：「武宗少即警敏，好佚乐。……而武宗又不罪一谏臣，元相呵护，群吏奉法。……夜半出片纸缚（刘）瑾，……钱宁俛首受罪。」

• 吴炽昌《续客窗闲话》：「……游戏中确有主裁，但好行小慧，为儒尚且不可，况九五之尊耶？今之读史者直以帝比之桀纣，无乃过甚。当初諡曰武宗毅皇帝，毅者果决之谓，可见遇事实能决断，非尽阿谀可知矣。」

• 毛泽东：「《明史》我看了最生气。明朝除了明太祖、明成祖不识字的两个皇帝搞得比较好，明武宗、明英宗还稍好些以外，其馀的都不好，尽做坏事。」

任用官员

宰辅

• 刘健

• 谢迁

• 李东阳

• 焦芳

• 王鏊

• 杨廷和

• 刘宇

• 曹元

• 梁储

• 刘忠

• 费宏

• 杨一清

• 靳贵

• 蒋冕

• 毛纪

宠臣

• 钱宁

• 江彬

太监

• 刘瑾：八虎之首，掌司礼监秉笔太监。

• 张永：八虎之一，总神机营，与刘瑾为党。后与刘瑾不合。并且为后来倒刘瑾的重要人物。且与王守仁交善。

• 谷大用：八虎之一，提督西厂。

• 马永成：八虎之一，提督东厂。

• 丘聚：八虎之一，提督东厂。

• 罗祥：八虎之一。

• 魏彬：八虎之一，总三千营。刘瑾诛后，代掌司礼监。

• 高凤：八虎之一。司礼监太监，掌管机密。

• 张忠：御马太监，与司礼张雄、东厂张锐并侍豹房用事，时号三张。性皆凶悖。并与大盗张茂财，结为兄弟。并且后与宁王朱宸濠勾结，收受贿络，协助其叛变；而后还遮藏王守仁之捷，骗出武宗亲自出征。

• 吴经：太监，随武宗南征，就先到扬州，强夺寡妇、处女，要求拿金钱来换取。

家庭成员

母亲

• 孝成敬皇后张氏

兄弟姊妹

• 蔚悼王朱厚炜

• 太康公主朱秀荣

妻妾

• 后妃

　• 孝静毅皇后夏氏

　• 淑惠德妃吴氏

　• 荣淑贤妃沈氏

　• 王妃

　• 刘美人，又称刘夫人，太原民刘良之女

• 无妃嫔位号者

　• 王满堂，女官，职位浣衣

　• 马氏，马昂之妹

• 位号不详

　• 戴氏，总兵官戴钦女

　• 杜氏，马昂妾

艺术形象

• 民间有关于武宗微服出巡与民间女子相爱的故事，即游龙戏凤。

电影和电视剧

• 1939年中国电影《一夜皇后》，梅熹饰演明武宗。

• 1959年香港邵氏兄弟电影公司出品电影《江山美人》，赵雷饰演明武宗。

• 1961年香港立达影业公司《刁蛮女侠》。

• 1976年香港电视剧《民间传奇之江山美人》，郑少秋饰演明武宗。

• 1979年香港邵氏兄弟电影公司出品电影《北地胭脂》，岳华饰演明武宗。

• 1979年香港丽的电视武侠剧《天龙诀》，万梓良饰演明武宗。

• 1983年香港亚洲电视连续剧《唐伯虎三戏秋香》，麦天恩饰演明武宗。

• 1984年台湾中华电视台金玉剧坊《江山美人》，勾峰饰演明武宗。

• 1984年台湾中华电视台武侠剧《天蚕再变》，李天柱饰演明武宗。

• 1984年台湾中国电视公司连续剧《书剑千秋》，侯冠群饰演明武宗。

• 1993年香港亚洲电视古装武侠剧《天蚕变之再与天比高》，宗扬饰演明武宗。

• 1994年香港古装爱情剧《侠女游龙》，罗嘉良饰演明武宗。

• 1994年中视与新加坡电视机构合拍电视剧《天师钟馗之江山美人》，陈泰鸣饰演明武宗。

• 1998年台湾古装剧《江山美人》，崔浩然饰演明武宗。

• 1998年中国大陆电视剧《保镖之天之娇女》，王卫国饰演明武宗。

• 2000年中国大陆电视剧《机灵小不懂》，聂远饰演明武宗。

• 2000年中国大陆、台湾合拍半喜剧电视剧《绝色双娇》，焦恩俊饰演明武宗。

• 2000年香港无线电视翡翠台古装电视剧《金装四大才子》，蔡子健饰演明武宗。

• 2002年香港电影《天下无双》，张震饰演明武宗。

• 2004年中国大陆电视剧《皇后进宫》，吴大维饰演明武宗。

• 2004年中国大陆电视剧《无忧公主》，冯绍峰饰演明武宗。

• 2004年中国大陆电视剧《凤临阁》，贾一平饰演明武宗。

• 2004年中国大陆电视剧《长剑相思》，高梓淇饰演明武宗。

• 2005年中国大陆古装历史颠覆剧《正德演义》，何炅饰演明武宗。

• 2005年中国大陆电视剧《天下第一》，邓超饰演明武宗。

• 2005年中国大陆电视剧《天下第一媒》，李楠饰演明武宗。

• 2005年中国大陆电视剧《剑出江南》，王茂蕾饰演明武宗。

• 2007年中国大陆电视剧《夜来风雨》，任东霖饰演明武宗。

• 2009年香港古装武打电视剧《王老虎抢亲》，罗贯峰饰演明武宗。

• 2010年香港古装电视剧《秋香怒点唐伯虎》，黎诺懿饰演明武宗。

• 2010年香港电影《龙凤店》，任贤齐饰演明武宗。

• 2010年中国大陆电视剧《苏三传奇》，李彦明饰演明武宗。

• 2011年中国大陆电视剧《王阳明》，朱一龙饰演明武宗。

• 2012年中国大陆电影《风云小棋王》，王放饰演明武宗。

• 2014年中国大陆电视剧《江南四大才子》，张晓晨饰演明武宗。

• 2018年中国大陆古装剧《回到明朝当王爷之杨凌传》，刘芮麟饰演明武宗。

戏曲

• 京剧《游龙戏凤》、《梅龙镇》

歌仔戏

• 电视歌仔戏：《正德皇帝游江南》（黄香莲主演）

• 电视歌仔戏：《青山绿水行》（杨丽花主演）

• 电视歌仔戏：《花月正春风》（杨丽花主演）

• 电视歌仔戏：《巡按与大盗》（洪秀玉主演）

• 电视歌仔戏：《三戏正德皇帝》（陈小咪主演）

文学作品

• 小说：乔靖夫《武道狂之诗》天行者出版

• 小说：月关《回到明朝当王爷》高宝国际出版

延伸阅读

Youth and accession

Zhu Houzhao, the future Zhengde Emperor, was born on 14 November 1491 as the eldest son of the Hongzhi Emperor, who ruled as the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty from 1487. His mother was Empress Zhang, the only wife of the Hongzhi Emperor. In 1492, the Hongzhi Emperor named him crown prince. The father saw himself in his son and took him with him when he traveled, supporting his interests in riding and archery, and pampering him. The Crown Prince was an excellent student, fulfilling his duties with care and courtesy.

The Hongzhi Emperor died on 8 June 1505. On his deathbed, he called upon his closest aides, grand secretaries Liu Jian, Li Dongyang, and Xie Qian, to faithfully serve his son. He assessed Zhu Houzhao as an intelligent young man, but also fond of comfort and pleasure. Therefore, he asked them to guide him on the right path.

On 19 June 1505, Zhu Houzhao ascended the throne as the tenth Ming emperor. His era name, Zhengde, comes from a quote from the Book of Documents and means "the rectification (zheng) of the people's virtue (de)".

Style of government

Upon ascending to the throne, the Zhengde Emperor was confronted with three major issues that had been passed down to him: insufficient state revenue, a vulnerable military presence on the northwestern border with the Mongols, and conflicts between the imperial eunuchs and officials regarding problem-solving methods. The emperor tended to side with the eunuchs, disregarding the counsel of the grand secretaries. This disagreement between the ruler and his officials was partly due to a generational gap, as the Zhengde Emperor was young and the youngest grand secretary was fifty-six years old.

In contrast to his father, who exercised imperial authority sparingly, delegated power effectively, and dutifully fulfilled his responsibilities, the Zhengde Emperor showed little concern for state affairs. His restless spirit rebelled against official orthodoxy and he disregarded the meticulously prescribed ceremonial and ritual duties of an emperor. He resisted the objections and demands of officials, but readily fulfilled the requests and desires of the eunuchs. In the early years of his reign, he actively avoided official audiences and discussions on Confucian topics. This behavior was seen as a major concern for the Confucian-minded bureaucracy, as they believed that a monarch who adhered to all ceremonies, precedents, and duties was crucial for the functioning of the state. However, the Zhengde Emperor had a wide range of other interests, including riding, archery, hunting, and music. He was particularly fond of composing songs and singing, and he promoted music throughout the court. He also enjoyed playing games with his eunuchs, leading to the establishment of several imperial shops run by them. He supported various forms of entertainment, such as wrestling, acrobatics, magic, and fireworks. He often indulged in these activities with the eunuchs, neglecting his studies and getting drunk for days on end. He even refused to attend to state affairs, much to the dismay of the officials. In fact, he would often roam the streets of Beijing incognito in search of entertainment, causing great consternation among the officials.

One year after his accession, he married a daughter from an officer's family with the surname Xia and made her empress. He also took two other girls as consorts. However, he soon stopped living with the empress. At the suggestion of Yu Yong, a guard officer in Embroidered Uniform Guard who was of Central Asian origin, he summoned Uyghur dancers. His unrestrained behavior regularly shocked Confucian moralists, but it also made him famous in popular folklore.

Like his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor, the Zhengde Emperor was drawn to Lamaism. He built a new temple for Tibetan monks in the Forbidden City and awarded them high titles and rewards. He also learned their script and participated in their ceremonies, even dressing in Tibetan clothing. He even involved them in the rituals at the funeral of Empress Wang (the wife of his grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor) in 1518.

He held a negative view of officials, viewing them as corrupt and incompetent. As a result, he entrusted state affairs to eunuchs, appointing them to military and financial positions from the beginning of his reign. He actively avoided interacting with officials and instead relied on eunuchs to handle matters, as they never questioned his orders. He also valued their intelligence and entrusted them with supervising the armies on the borders and quelling rebellions within the country. They were also responsible for overseeing the production of silk and porcelain goods, as well as managing regional authorities. The emperor generously rewarded them for their services, often granting their relatives aristocratic titles.

The emperor's financial irresponsibility worsened the already dire state of state finances. While the Ministry of Revenue theoretically brought in 1.5 million liang in silver (equivalent to about 56 tons), the actual amount was much lower due to tax remissions and arrears. In the first year of his reign, the emperor spent 1.4 million liang on donations and rewards, disregarding the advice of conservative officials who urged austerity. The eunuchs, on the other hand, were resourceful in finding new sources of revenue, such as transit taxes, taxes on pastures and wastelands, and levies on imperial estates. This further strengthened the emperor's support for the eunuchs.

Court under Liu Jin

Concerned about the emperor's actions and the influence of the eunuchs, a group of high officials, led by grand secretaries Liu Jian and Xie Qian, formed an alliance with prominent eunuchs. They accused the eunuchs in the emperor's inner circle, known as the "Eight Tigers" (including Liu Jin and seven others), who had been promoted in 1505, of wrongdoing. The officials demanded that Liu Jin be executed and the others punished. The eunuchs, feeling threatened by the rise of the "Eight Tigers", initially only wanted Liu Jin to be transferred to the south, but on 27 October 1506, the Minister of Revenue, Han Wen, petitioned for the execution of all eight. The emperor refused, but agreed to punish them. However, at the last minute, the "Eight Tigers" convinced the emperor that their accusers were conspiring against them in an attempt to gain power. Enraged, the emperor exiled the eunuchs who had allied with Liu–Xie group and promoted the members of the "Eight Tigers". Liu Jian, Xie Qian, and others were forced to resign, while Li Dongyang remained in the Grand Secretariat, joined by Jiao Fang (; 1436–1517), an ally of Liu Jin who had informed him of the accusations and other allies of the "Eight Tigers".

From October 1506 to September 1510, the eunuch-official alliance, led by Liu Jin, dominated the court. During the initial months of his rule, Liu Jin eliminated his opponents from the Beijing authorities. In December 1506, Han Wen was dismissed due to accusations of abuse of power, and in February 1507, twenty-one officials who protested against the resignation of the grand secretaries were punished. Other officials were beaten, torture, and dismissal. By the summer of 1507, Liu Jin had complete control over the government, and no important documents were approved without his consent.

So far, the emperor has been spending without any restrictions. In September 1507, he paid 350 thousand liang (13 tons) of silver just for the lanterns for the Lantern Festival. Additionally, the buildings in the imperial park south of Beijing were rebuilt, and he even built the "Leopard Quarter" (Bao Fang) northwest of the Forbidden City. As a result, Liu Jin focused on increasing the emperor's income. He used the threat of heavy fines to force the officials responsible for finances and taxes to bring in the exact amount of money to Beijing. This caused great concern among government officials, as he also demanded levies and supplies from officials on the northern border and Beijing, which left their families impoverished. Furthermore, his agents extorted additional silver payments from mines in Fujian and Sichuan, and even organized illegal sales of salt beyond the quotas. When officials arrested them, they were arrested themselves.

The influence of the eunuchs continued to grow, as evidenced by the fact that in March 1507, the eunuch intendants in the provinces were granted equal status to the leading provincial officials. This gave them the authority to handle administrative and legal matters. Liu Jin attempted to reorganize the administration of the empire based on the principle of equality or even subordination of civilian and military officials to eunuchs. These reforms sparked strong opposition from officials, who were forced to comply through brutal terror. He also faced hostility from other eunuchs, including the remaining seven "Tigers". In response, he established a new agency to investigate the resistance among the eunuchs.

While Liu Jin focused on governing the state, the emperor indulged in the pleasures of the new "Leopard Quarter", surrounded by flattering eunuchs, officers, musicians, lamas, and beauties. The emperor had particular favorites, including Qian Ning, an officer of the "Embroidered Uniformed Guards" known for his strength and archery skills, and actor Zang Xian, who was appointed deputy director of the Music Bureau for his musical talent. These favorites held significant influence over many officials and office seekers.

Prince of Anhua rebellion and the fall of Liu Jin

Improving state income through higher taxation of military households caused widespread discontent in the borderlands. This led to a rebellion in Liaodong, which was eventually quelled by distributing 2,500 liang of silver among the malcontents. Zhu Zhifan, Prince of Anhua, took advantage of the discontent and attempted to seize power during rebellion in May 1510. Zhu Zhifan resided in Ningxia, a crucial fortress city on the Mongolian-Chinese border in northwestern Shaanxi. This city served as the headquarters for one of the nine border military regions. Believing himself to be a potential candidate for the throne, Zhu Zhifan gathered a group of loyalists, including officers from the Ningxia garrison and members of the local gentry. In the spring of 1510, he gained the support of other officers and on 12 May, he took control of Ningxia and its surrounding areas, declaring a campaign against Liu Jin, but the rebellion did not spread as the commanders of the garrisons in Lingzhou and Yansui opposed the rebels. By 30 May, the prince was captured a pro-government general, who had apparently joined the uprising. The rebellion quickly collapsed and all the rebels were captured within days.

Meanwhile, the emperor, after consulting with his grand secretaries and ministers, implemented a comprehensive set of counterinsurgency measures. He appointed Shen Ying, Earl of Jingyang, and Yang Yiqing, Censor-in-chief, to oversee the situation in Ningxia. Both had previous experience in the region, making them well-equipped to handle the task successfully. In addition, he promoted several officers from the Ningxia garrison, offered amnesty to lower-ranking rebels, and promised rewards for those who returned to the government's side. He also allocated a significant sum of money for this purpose. As a precaution, he granted amnesty for minor offenses to all princes. Furthermore, he dispatched the eunuch Zhang Yong (one of the "Eight Tigers") to Ningxia with a force of 30,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison. This was the first time in the history of the Ming dynasty that a eunuch had been given a separate command. To support the troops in Xuanfu, Datong, and Yansui, the commanders were provided with a million liang of silver to cover the costs of troop movements.

During the campaign, Yang Yiqing convinced Zhang Yong to turn against Liu Jin by warning him that his life was in danger due to Liu Jin's plans for another coup. Upon returning to Beijing, Zhang Yong joined forces with the other six "Tigers" and on 13 September 1510, they accused Liu Jin of plotting against the emperor. It was reported that Liu Jin intended to assassinate the emperor and place his own great-nephew on the throne. Despite the emperor's initial reluctance to believe the accusations, the group was able to persuade him. The following day, Liu Jin was transferred to Nanjing and his property were seized. When the emperor saw the vast amount of weapons and treasures that Liu had accumulated, he ordered his execution, despite Liu's insistence on his innocence. On 16 September, Liu Jin was arrested and his three-day execution began on 27 September.

As a result of Liu's downfall, his allies were also removed, and his reforms were reversed. Any documents related to his proposed reforms were destroyed, effectively rendering his efforts to change the administrative structure of the Ming Empire and increase the emperor's direct control through eunuch officials futile.

Rebellions in northern and central China

The northern provinces of the Ming Empire were relatively poor, despite the presence of the capital city, and even the North Zhili metropolitan area was impoverished. Many poor people from the surrounding areas of Beijing chose to be castrated in hopes of gaining wealth and influence as eunuchs in the emperor's court. During the Zhengde era, over 3,500 eunuchs applied for positions in the Forbidden City, but only a small percentage were successful. The majority of unsuccessful applicants were forced to live on the fringes of society or turn to a life of crime. The presence of imperial estates, the land of the imperial family, and the aristocracy further exacerbated the problems in the northern region. According to modern estimates, these estates covered 15–40% of the land in the North Zhili erea. These estates were often beyond the control of local authorities, as they were responsible for collecting taxes and levies themselves, which amounted to about a third of the harvest. On the other hand, the owners of these estates preferred to manage them directly, often hiring eunuchs and administrators to oversee their operations. These administrators often recruited individuals who were not registered in official population records, including deserters and local criminals.

In the summer of 1509, the security situation south of Beijing deteriorated as Liu Jin's attempts to raise levies on military households resulted in desertions. This led to banded deserters plundering the countryside. In 1510, a large number of these deserters organized into a unified group based in Wen'an, located 130 km south of Beijing, and began planning a rebellion. Although their leader was captured, the rebellion still flared up. By February 1511, the rebels had amassed several thousand horsemen and were attacking cities. However, the government's army sent to stop them was ineffective. The officials leading the troops preferred negotiations, and the soldiers avoided fighting. In August 1511, the rebels even besieged Wen'an. Reinforcements were called in from the borderlands and the command was changed, but there was no success. In fact, in one ambush, the bandits burned a thousand ships that were importing grain to the capital via the Grand Canal. In November 1511, the command of the government troops was once again changed, but it had little impact. In January 1512, the rebels launched an attack on Bazhou, which is located 100 km south of Beijing. The army received reinforcements from the borderlands—Xuanfu, Datong, and Liaodong—but it was not until the summer of 1512 that the rebels were finally defeated. Some of them retreated south across the Yangtze River to Jiangxi, while others went east to Shandong, and the remaining rebels headed southwest to the city of Wuhan on the Yangtze River. From there, with a force of 800 men, they sailed downstream and plundered before being destroyed by a typhoon off Tongzhou on 28 August and they were slaughtered by a government force at Langshan, near the mouth of the Yangtze River, on 7 September 1512. This event marked the formal end of the campaign.

The security and supply of the capital were no longer under threat, but banditry continued to be a problem in Jiangxi, Henan, and central Sichuan. The first instance of trouble with rebels occurred in Sichuan in 1508. By 1509, these rebels had joined forces with those from Shanxi, forming a single army of 100,000 men. This posed a threat not only to the security of Huguang, but also to the surrounding areas. The rebel leaders declared themselves kings (wang) and began to establish their own administrative systems. Another group of rebels was active in southern Sichuan and carried out raids in Guizhou and northern Sichuan. The government attempted to use non-Chinese tribes to fight against the rebels, but the Miao tribes instead joined forces with the southern Sichuan rebels. Despite this, the government was able to gradually suppress the rebellion in Sichuan and ultimately eliminate it by 1514.

In 1511, there were also rebel groups in the mountains of Jiangxi, which were eventually defeated with the help of mercenaries from non-Chinese tribes from neighboring provinces in 1513. In 1517, another rebellion erupted in the south of Jiangxi, and Wang Yangming was sent to the area as a grand coordinator to restore order in 1518.

New favorites: Qian Ning and Jiang Bin

After the downfall of Liu Jin, the emperor faced financial difficulties and, due to the refusal of officials to change the established order, he turned to eunuchs for extraordinary acquisitions. Those who opposed this were harshly punished. One of the leading eunuchs was Wei Bin, who took over the Directorate of Ceremonial. The emperor's attention was also drawn to military matters and officers due to problems with bandits near the capital. Among the officers, Qian Ning, the commander of the palace guard, became the emperor's favorite. He impressed the emperor with his archery and military skills, and later by catering to his personal preferences by procuring musicians, Muslim women for the harem, and Tibetan monks who were experts in tantric Buddhism.

In 1512, a twenty-year-old officer named Jiang Bin from the Xuanfu garrison caught the attention of the emperor after his bravery in a battle against rebels the previous year. Despite being hit by three arrows, including one in the ear, Jiang Bin continued to fight and became the emperor's new favorite. He proposed a rotation of units, suggesting that experienced soldiers from the borderlands be brought to Beijing to fight the rebels, while the soldiers from the capital would be sent to the borders instead. Grand Secretary Li Dongyang strongly opposed this idea, arguing that the soldiers from Beijing lacked combat experience and would struggle on the border, while the border guards would struggle to maintain order in the capital. Li Dongyang resigned in protest in February 1513 after the emperor refused to listen to his objections. Despite this, the emperor went ahead with the plan and the first soldiers from Xuanfu began serving in Beijing in February 1513.

Border guards were stationed in four camps within the Imperial City area, with the Zhengde Emperor viewing them as his personal army and considering himself their general. He had a particular fondness for four officers—Jiang Bin, Xu Tai, Shen Zhou, and Liu Hui. He entrusted the first two with the command of the Beijing garrison, including the newly arrived units. Gradually, he developed a taste for military finery and uniforms, even personally training a group of eunuchs in military skills. In addition to his military pursuits, the emperor also enjoyed hunting, but in September 1514, he was injured by a tiger, which left him bedridden for a month. Despite this, he remained unwilling to give up his pleasures and instead transferred officials who advised him to be more cautious outside of Beijing.

The Zhengde Emperor had a great love for lanterns. In early 1514, his distant relative Zhu Chenhao, Prince of Ning, presented him with several hundred new lanterns and experts to install them for the New Year celebrations. However, the emperor had yurts built in front of the palace for military exercises, some of which stored gunpowder. During the celebrations on 10 February 1514, the dust from the lanterns accidentally exploded, causing a massive fire in the palaces of the Forbidden City. As a result, the Zhengde Emperor had a complex of 162 yurts built for himself in the Forbidden City. The restoration of the burned palaces lasted until 1521, with 30,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison working on it and costing over 1 million liang of silver.

Travels to the northwest

In the beginning of 1516, the Zhengde Emperor, tired of constant criticism from officials, began to consider the idea of going to Xuanfu. Jiang Bin, in an attempt to separate the Zhengde Emperor from Qian Ning, convinced the emperor that Xuanfu had better musicians and women, and that he would have real battles with the Mongols on the border instead of simulated ones in Beijing. In mid-August 1517, the emperor finally made the journey to Xuanfu. After five days, he arrived at the Juyong Pass, located 50 km northwest of Beijing. However, the censor in charge of the pass refused to open the gate without an edict signed by both the emperess and the empress dowager. Powerless, the emperor was forced to return. He made another attempt a month later, this time passing through the pass while the censor was absent. He left a reliable eunuch, Gu Dayong, in charge with strict orders not to let any officials through. Finally, in mid-September 1517, the Zhengde Emperor arrived at Xuanfu.

Enthralled by his new surroundings, he decided to settle here and embarked on the construction of a grand mansion at a great expense. He even went as far as to abandon the use of the imperial seal and instead titled himself as a general. Despite protests from the grand secretaries, he disregarded their objections. He then demanded that they send him one million liang (37 tons) of silver, but they refused, citing that the Ministry of Renvenue only had a reserve of 350,000 liang. After much negotiation, the Minister of Renvenue reluctantly agreed to send 500,000 liang. In response, the Zhengde Emperor ordered the guards at the Beijing gates to prevent any officials from entering the city in January 1518.

In October 1517, the Mongol Dayan Khan led a raid into Chinese territory with 50,000 horsemen. The emperor, eager for a fight, sent an army to confront them. After a few minor skirmishes, a major battle took place on 18 October at Yingzhou, located 65 km south of Datong. The following day, the emperor arrived with reinforcements and on 20 October, he personally led a day-long battle. The Mongols were ultimately defeated and forced to retreat across the border. This was the only instance in the entire 16th century where a Ming army successfully defeated a major Mongol raid. In recognition of their bravery, the Zhengde Emperor decorated a large number of officers and soldiers, including Jiang Bin and Xu Tai who were both granted the title of count.

In mid-February 1518, the emperor returned to Beijing for a twenty-day visit. In March, he traveled to Xuanfu once again. On 22 March 1518, he returned to Beijing to arrange the funeral of Empress Dowager Wang, the widow of the Chenghua Emperor, the grandfather of the Zhengde Emperor. In May, he inspected the imperial tombs and then visited the garrison at Miyun, which is located 65 km northeast of Beijing. He then returned to Beijing for the funeral of Empress Dowager Wang, which began on 22 July. In August 1518, he forced the grand secretaries to write an edict naming him "Zhu Shou" and granting him the titles of general and duke for his successes in fighting against the Mongols. He returned to his "home" in Xuanfu in September 1518, and then traveled to Datong and Yansui. In January-February 1519, he headed to Beijing via Taiyuan and arrived there in March 1519.

Upon his return, the Zhengde Emperor announced his intention to travel to Shandong and the southern region, but his decision was met with strong opposition from the grand secretaries, minister of rites, ministers, and censors. Despite mass arrests and beatings, which resulted in the deaths of twelve or fourteen officials, the protests continued. The main concern behind the protests was not just the journey itself, but also the fear of the Prince of Ning's potential plots to assassinate the emperor during the trip. Due to the widespread defiance of the officials, the emperor ultimately decided to postpone his trip.

Prince of Ning rebellion

Zhu Chenhao, Prince of Ning, belonged to a minor branch of the Ming dynasty, which was based in Nanchang, the capital of the southern Chinese province of Jiangxi. Driven by ambition and a desire for greatness, he sought to gain power and influence. In order to achieve this, he initially resorted to bribery, targeting Liu Jin. After Liu Jin's downfall, his main supporters in the government were Zang Xian, Qian Ning, and Lu Wan (who served as minister of war from 1513 to 1515, and then as minister of personnel). Through their help, he was able to obtain permission to establish a personal guard and gain authority over local military garrisons and members of the imperial family.

He built his own armed force from local "strong men". However, his actions sparked numerous complaints from Jiangxi, with reports of land grabbing, excessive taxation, and intimidation of officials. Despite the severe punishment typically imposed on princes for even minor offenses, his behavior was overlooked. In an attempt to gain power through non-violent means, he sought to exploit the emperor's lack of an heir. In the spring of 1516, he bribed Qian Ning and others to summon his eldest son to Beijing as a candidate for crown prince, but this plan ultimately failed.

The Zhengde Emperor was only made aware of the issue with the Prince of Ning in the summer of 1519, when Jiang Bin and Zhang Yong convinced him of the prince's and Qian Ning's misconduct. The prince had received information from his spies in Beijing about unfavorable developments, prompting him to openly rebel in Nanchang on 10 July 1419. He claimed that the Zhengde Emperor was an impostor and not a member of the imperial family, and that the empress had ordered his dethronement. His vanguard departed from Nanchang and headed north, taking control of Jiujiang on the Yangtze River on 13 July and beginning the siege of Anqing (a prefectural seat on the Yangtze River, 240 km from Nanjing) on 23 July. Meanwhile, on 14 July, Wang Yangming, the governor of southern Jiangxi, learned of the rebellion and immediately began assembling an army. He also fed the prince false information about the movements of government troops and the betrayal of his closest confidants. Believing this misinformation, the prince cautiously retreated to Anqing with his main forces (consisting of 60,000–70,000 soldiers) until 26 July, but their attempt to capture Anqing failed and resulted in heavy losses. At the same time, Wang Yangming's army had gathered and took control of Nanchang on 14 August. The prince then returned south with his main forces, but was defeated in a three-day river battle at Lake Poyang, resulting in his capture by Wang Yangming's army.

Southern tour

The rebellion of the Prince of Ning gave the Zhengde Emperor a solid justification for taking the southern tour. He departed from Beijing on 15 September 1519. He arrived in Nanjing in January 1520 and stayed there for eight months. During this time, he mostly indulged in leisure activities. While the alcohol he consumed was relatively harmless, a decree was issued shortly before his arrival in Nanjing that banned the breeding and killing of pigs. This sparked outrage among the population, as it was believed by Muslims (who held influence in the emperor's court) that pigs were impure and could spread diseases. This ban may have also contributed to the negative perception of the phrase "kill a pig" among the emperor's court, as the word for pig (Zhu, ) had the same pronunciation as the imperial family's surname (Zhu, ). Additionally, the emperor's habit of taking women for himself caused resentment among his subjects. Some women were forced into the imperial harem, while others were able to buy their way out or bribe officials who were extorting women from their households. However, many women ended up in the imperial laundries in Beijing. The sheer number of women was overwhelming, leading to overcrowding and lack of resources, resulting in cases of malnutrition and even starvation. Furthermore, the emperor's frequent hunting trips with a large entourage in the densely populated south were deeply unpopular among the people.

The emperor dispatched soldiers from the north, led by Jiang Bin and the eunuch Zhang Yong, to Jiangxi. Their goal was to prevent Wang Yanming from achieving victory by staging a fake battle and capturing the prince on behalf of the emperor. Wang Yangming refused to cooperate and instead worked to minimize the impact of the troops' presence in Jiangxi, earning him widespread admiration.

During the prince's trial, all of his associates were charged, but Wang Yangming had the foresight to destroy most of the prince's records, which documented his dealings with local elites. This ensured that only the main conspirators could be prosecuted. Zang Xian and Qian Ning were arrested in December 1519, followed by the arrest of minister Lu Wan and a group of eunuchs and imperial guards in December 1520. All of them were subsequently executed.

Return to the north, illness, and death

The Zhengde Emperor remained in Nanjing until 23 September 1520, before departing for the north. However, his journey was plagued by constant drunkenness, which ultimately took a toll on him on 25 October. While fishing in Qingjiangpu (in present-day Huaiyin), his boat capsized and he was rescued by helpers. His excessive alcohol consumption had already weakened his health, and he fell seriously ill. Despite his condition, he continued his journey without stopping until he reached Tongzhou, located east of Beijing, in December 1520.

The emperor was gravely ill and his death was imminent. Jiang Bin requested a transfer to Xuanfu in order to have control over succession decisions while the emperor was away from officials, but the emperor's condition was too weak. Eventually, the doctor convinced him to travel to Beijing for better recovery before his next trip. On 18 January 1521, he arrived in Beijing with great ceremony. Just three days later, while performing a ritual at the Temple of Heaven, he collapsed and had to be carried back to the palace. He died three months later on 20 April 1521 in the Leopard Quarter. He was given the temple name Wuzong and the posthumous name Emperor Yi, and was buried in the Kang Mausoleum. He died without leaving an heir.

Succession

Jiang Bin's plan was to take control of the imperial city and place the emperor's distant relative, Zhu Junzhang, a prince from Datong, on the throne. In order to do so, he needed to be present with the emperor at the time of his death, in order to claim that he was acting on the emperor's orders. His first step was to forge a decree on 15 April, which would give him authority over the border troops stationed in Beijing. However, his plan failed because he was not by the Zhengde Emperor's side when he died. Instead, two eunuchs recorded the emperor's supposed last words, which stated that his mother, Empress Dowager Zhang, and grand secretaries would rule the empire.

Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe took the initiative and had a plan of his own: to put the emperor's closest cousin, thirteen-year-old Zhu Houcong, on the throne. This cousin was the son of the recently (in 1519) deceased Zhu Youyuan, Prince of Xing. By noon on 20 April, Yang Tinghe had received approval from Lady Zhang and the matter was settled. However, the Minister of Personnel, Wang Qiong (1459–1532), insisted on convening a general assembly to discuss the new emperor.

Jiang Bin was a powerful figure with his own army, making him a potential threat. On 22 April, he returned to the Forbidden City where he was informed by Yang Tinghe about a decree to return border troops from Beijing to the border. This meant that Jiang Bin's main support was taken away from him. Despite being urged by his allies to take action, he hesitated and was eventually arrested on 24 April. Yang Tinghe obtained permission for his arrest from the eunuch-heads of the Directorate of Ceremonial, Wei Bin and Zhang Rui, in exchange for the other eunuchs being granted immunity. Only Jiang Bin's allies among the officers were arrested with him. With Jiang Bin out of the way, Yang Tinghe was able to secure the succession and rule the empire virtually indefinitely. He dismissed the eunuch inspectors from the border garrisons, sent the border troops in Beijing back to the border, and sent foreign envoys, monks from the Leopard Quarter, artisans, entertainers, and women who had been assembled by the emperor in Beijing back to their respective homes. All of this was done under the guise of carrying out the emperor's will, even though the emperor's will did not actually exist. Most of the Zhengde Emperor's favorites were recalled and faced punishment, demotion, or exile. Jiang Bin's wealth was also confiscated, including 70 chests of gold and 2,200 chests of silver.

Economy and culture

Currency

In 1503, after a hiatus of seventy years, the government resumed the production of coins. They attempted to bolster their value by issuing a decree that reduced the worth of coins from previous dynasties by half, and by reiterating the prohibition on the use of privately minted coins. By 1507, it became evident that the new coins were not performing well, and the government was forced to accept the old coins at their full value. Private minting continued to thrive, with profits exceeding expenses by five times. The state eventually shut down the mints again in 1509.

During the last decades of the 15th century, private coins were the dominant currency, and Hongwu's coins from the early years of the dynasty were no longer in circulation. Officials referred to Tang and Song coins as "old coins" (guqian, jiuqian), while merchants in the market referred to them as "good coins" (haoqian). The "new coins" of the first decade of the 16th century were known as "bogus coins" (daohao) and were only valued at half their face value by merchants. In the Zhengte era, their value decreased even further to only a third or a quarter of their face value.

After 1510, merchants generally preferred old coins. Ming coins were only accepted at half their face value, while private light coins were only worth a quarter of their face value. However, it was the latter that dominated the market. In the early 1520s in Jiangnan, good coins that had previously been in circulation alongside new ones disappeared, leaving only the new, light coins. By 1527, the value of these coins had dropped to one-fifth or even one-tenth of their nominal value.

Relations with Southeast Asia and the arrival of the Portuguese

During the Hongzhi and Zhengde eras, the government showed little interest in Southeast Asia, in stark contrast to the first third of the 15th century when it actively enforced "Pax Ming" in the region. Even when the Portuguese showed aggression towards Malacca and the Sultan there requested help, the Beijing politicians remained lethargic. However, foreign trade with Southeast Asia continued to thrive. In 1510, local authorities recognized the separation of maritime trade and tribute relations and began taxing merchant ships arriving from abroad. By 1517, the import tax was set at 20% of the value of the ship's cargo. This de facto legalization of foreign trade led to its expansion, benefiting buyers and increasing government revenues. However, the uncontrolled mobility of traders, often armed, caused concern among some officials who called for restrictions on trade and the establishment of order. After the death of the Zhengde Emperor and the rise of the new government of the Jiajing Empeoror, their views gained the upper hand, resulting in an anti-trade ordinance in 1524.

In 1513, the first Portuguese explorer, Jorge Álvares, arrived in China. Three years later, in 1516, Portuguese captain Rafael Perestrello arrived in Guangzhou with his ship, which had a Malayan crew. This marked the beginning of trade between China and Europe. The following year, Fernão Pires de Andrade's squadron sailed from Malacca to China with the intention of establishing official trade and diplomatic relations. The envoy, Tomé Pires, carried a letter from King Manuel I of Portugal to the Chinese emperor and stayed in Guangzhou until the beginning of 1520, when he was finally able to travel to the imperial court. Despite the assistance of Jiang Bin, he was unable to secure an audience with the Zhengde Emperor in the summer of 1520 in Nanjing, where the emperor was staying at the time, or later in Beijing. After the Zhengde Emperor's death in April 1521, the new government refused to accept him and sent him back to Guangzhou.

Meanwhile, Fernão's brother, Simão de Andrade, incited the anger of the Chinese with his aggressive actions and the purchase of children, including those who were kidnapped from wealthy families. Rumors began to circulate in Guangzhou that the Portuguese were cannibals who consumed children (although in reality, they were selling them into slavery, and some were later discovered in Diu, India). The Portuguese's defiance of Ming authorities led to armed conflicts, and in 1521, a Ming fleet defeated them at the Battle of Tunmen. As a result, the Portuguese were expelled from China. Upon returning to the south, Tomé Pires was held responsible by the local authorities for the violent behavior of his comrades and was imprisoned. He ultimately died in prison in 1524.

In addition to new crops, syphilis also spread from America to China. It first appeared in Guangzhou in 1505, even before the arrival of the Portuguese.

Culture

The Zhengde Emperor was known for his love of songwriting and singing, as well as his appreciation for court music. He also placed a strong emphasis on funding the arts. During his reign, the production of high-quality porcelain, including blue and white, polychrome, monochrome, and enameled varieties, flourished for export. These pieces often featured inscriptions in Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. In addition, a new type of pottery called Yixing pottery was developed in the region west of Lake Tai, which was referred to as "boccaro" by the Portuguese.

During the Zhengde Emperor's reign, there was also a significant development in Neo-Confucian philosophy, thanks to the work of Wang Yangming, who is considered the most important thinker of the Ming era. Unlike Zhu Xi, who focused on the concept of li (principle), Wang Yangming centered his philosophy around the idea of xin (heart/mind). He also developed a theory of the unity of cognition and action.

During the reign of the Zhengde Emperor's grandfather, the Chenghua Emperor, publishers began to release collections of songs in colloquial language, but it was during the Zhengde Emperor's own reign that the number of published collections saw a significant increase. This could be attributed to his popularity as a singer and the growing popularity of theater during that time. One of the most influential figures in literature during this period was Li Dongyang, a grand secretary who wrote poems in the secretariat style and emphasized the importance of scholars with broad knowledge (taking Song's Ouyang Xiu as his role model). He also played a crucial role in educating and inspiring a new generation of writers and poets. In Jiangnan, the hub of artistic activity, the most prominent calligraphers, painters, and poets included Wen Zhengming (1470–1559). Wen was a master of poetry, calligraphy, and painting, and was known for his monochrome or lightly colored landscapes in the style of Shen Zhou, as well as his "green-blue landscapes" in the Tang style. He was particularly skilled in regular and seal script as a calligrapher. Another highly admired artist of the time was Zhu Yunming, who was known for his "crazy cursive script". Tang Yin was also recognized for his semi-cursive script, landscapes, and figure painting.

Legacy

Classical historians were highly critical of Liu's group, despite their efforts to improve administration efficiency, halt the decline of central authority, and prevent officials from prioritizing personal interests. These reforms, which predated similar efforts by Zhang Juzheng, were met with rejection by the conservative faction of the bureaucracy due to their initiation by eunuchs. This gave the critics another reason to condemn Liu's clique.

The call-up of front-line units to Beijing, even for a short period, disrupted the traditional organization of the army, hindered unit training, and resulted in insubordination in some units. In particular, detachments from Datong rebelled multiple times.

Due to his refusal to fulfill his government duties, the true power shifted to the eunuch Liu Jin, who was well-versed in the traditional ways of governing, but as time went on, the emperor's favorites among the officers gained more influence, leading to chaos that the grand secretaries and ministers struggled to rectify. Eventually, the executive power shifted from the emperor (who was aided by eunuchs) to the Grand Secretariat, particularly its leader. In 1521, Yang Tinghe was able to assume almost imperial powers, in contrast to his predecessor, the humble Li Dongyang, who was the last of the old-style grand secretaries. As imperial power weakened, the social status of educated officials in their communities rose. With the added benefit of tax exemption, they expanded their land holdings, placing the burden of taxes on the common people. Despite efforts to halt this trend, it persisted until the end of the dynasty.

After the Zhengde Emperor's death, his private life had significant consequences, as a dispute arose over the status of the new emperor's parents.

The negative portrayal of the Zhengde Emperor by Chinese classical historians, which began as early as the 16th century, has also been adopted in the West. For example, the Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 (pp. 307–315, 1976) includes a sharply negative entry on the emperor. The most comprehensive Western work on the Zhengde Emperor, as of 2001, was the chapter "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521" (pp. 403–439) in The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1988) by James Geiss.

Family

Consorts

• Empress Xiaojingyi, of the Xia clan (; 1492–1535)

• Consort Shuhuide, of the Wu clan (; d. 1539)

• Consort Rongshuxian, of the Shen clan (; 1492–1542)

• Consort, of the Wang clan

• Beauty, of the Liu clan

• Wang Mantang; 1471–1541)

• Lady, of the Ma clan

• Lady, of the Dai clan

• Lady, of the Du clan