生平

早年

清宣宗道光十七年八月初三日（1837年9月2日），張之洞出生於貴州。張中進士後，先進翰林院當編修，到光緒初年時已是正六品國子監司業，並任四川學政，光緒二年夏主持府考，其時四川東鄉發生血案，東鄉縣大多數考生的答卷上寫的不是考題內容，而是東鄉血案的經過，以此拒考，並為死難鄉民申冤。張之洞綜合考生所陳情節，結合當地民間議論，知悉了事件真相，之後面見慈禧太后時巧妙表達翻案請求，結果不僅慈禧允准，自己一天之內連上三道奏摺。結果到了光緒五年（1879年）十月，慈禧命刑部將東鄉血案平反昭雪，判決東鄉知縣孫定揚、四川提督李有恆犯濫殺無辜罪，由原來的革職改為秋後處斬；判前後任四川總督文格、丁寶楨等人犯瀆職包庇罪，交刑部議處；其他數十名相關官員均依法量刑定罪。東鄉血案不再是「叛逆」，而是「鬧糧仇鬥」，而主要的農民領袖袁廷蛟則是「引賊劫掠，罪犯應斬」，後被丁寶楨暗中派獄卒在監獄裡打死了事。而經過東鄉血案一役，張之洞從此官運亨通，漸以清流派健將面目出現。

1884年（光緒十年）中法戰爭時，由山西巡撫升任兩廣總督，起用退休老將馮子材，在廣西邊境擊敗法軍。又設廣東水陸師學堂，立廣雅書院，武備文事並舉。

經歷

1889年（光緒十五年）至1907年（光緒三十三年）任湖廣總督。在英國、德國支持下，成為後起的洋務派首領。督鄂期間，著力扶持民族工業，先後開辦漢陽鐵廠、湖北兵工廠、馬鞍山煤礦、湖北織布局、湖北繅絲局等重輕工業企業，並籌辦蘆漢鐵路，並獲得成功，而這些政績也使他成為世界經濟史上最偉大的人物之一。他主持修築的武昌南北長堤和漢口後湖長堤排除水患，劃定了20世紀初的武漢三鎮與今天的武漢市相近的城市規模，同時支持民族企業家操辦水電等現代化市政建設，為武漢自近代以來的繁榮奠定了基礎。同年，張之洞上奏慈禧太后，提出鑄造銀圓「龍洋」，抵抗外國貿易銀。

1890年（光緒十六年），創建兩湖書院。1893年（光緒十九年），奏請光緒帝創辦自強學堂（武漢大學前身）。1894年（光緒二十年），署理兩江總督。曾上疏阻和議，要求變通陳法，力除積弊。邀請外國教官訓練江南自強軍。1895年（光緒二十一年），與袁世凱、徐世昌等都列名參加強學會，並出資贊助。

1896年（光緒二十二年）回武昌，任湖廣總督，按照德國制式改造湖北舊軍為新式陸軍。創辦湖北武備學堂。德國教官法金漢後來是第一次世界大戰時期德意志帝國總參謀長。同年，請奏創辦江南陸師學堂。

1898年（光緒二十四年），發表《勸學篇》，提出「舊學為體，新學為用」，以維護中國傳統倫理綱常，與戊戌變法的激進主張保持距離。戊戌政變後，張之洞以先著《勸學篇》得免議。

1899年（光緒廿五年）處理假光緒帝案。

1900年（光緒二十六年），力主鎮壓義和團運動，與劉坤一、李鴻章等東南督撫實行東南自保，不理會慈禧太后對聯軍開戰的命令。鎮壓唐才常自立軍起義。

1901年（光緒二十七年）與劉坤一聯銜上奏慈禧太后，提出「興學育才」辦法四條，仿日本學制擬定「癸卯學制」（即1903年經修改重頒的《奏定學堂章程》），為全國最早採用的近代教育體制。邀請日本教官訓練湖北新軍。

1902年（光緒二十八年）繼劉坤一，再度署理兩江總督。1903年（光緒二十九年）二月上奏《創辦三江師範學堂折》，強調辦學首重師範，擬「先辦一大師範學堂，以為學務全局之綱領」，並委任劉世珩繆荃孫等負責籌建，為近代南京大學之開端。1903年（光緒二十九年）回武昌，任湖廣總督。

1905年9月2日，直隸總督袁世凱、湖廣總督張之洞奏請立停科舉，推廣學堂。9月9日，張之洞在漢口與英屬香港政府簽訂《香港政府粵漢鐵路借款合同》，總額110萬英鎊，用於贖回粵漢鐵路。9月27日，湖廣總督張之洞借英款100萬兩興自來水。11月4日，湖廣總督張之洞開辦川漢、漢粵鐵路局。12月25日，張之洞以留日學生風潮為革命黨孫文煽動回上海實行革命，電請四川、河南、山東、貴州各省督撫迅速派員各就本省留日學生開導解散會商辦法，以弭後患。

1906年，湖北新軍經清政府中央練兵處統一編為陸軍第八鎮和第二十一混成協。2月18日，張之洞奏報湖北、湖南、廣東三省官紳修築鐵路，議定14條款；又奏湖北境內川漢鐵路條建辦法大綱。3月23日，清廷命張之洞會同外務部妥為商辦民教相安之法。9月2日，張之洞電湖南巡撫龐鴻書，凡新選新補州縣官，均須先自費出洋考察。12月9日，湖廣總督張之洞派新軍第八鎮十五協協統王得勝，二十九標標統李襄鄰率步兵三營、炮隊二隊赴萍鄉，會剿萍瀏醴起義軍，12月18日抵萍。12月10日，清廷命湖廣總督張之洞、湖南巡撫岑春蓂、江西巡撫吳重憙等分頭剿捕萍瀏醴會黨起義軍，並傳旨申斥吳重憙。12月11日，清廷命兩江總督端方、湖廣總督張之洞及湖南巡撫岑春蓂迅派得力營隊，會剿萍瀏醴起義軍，並著江西巡撫吳重憙速飭臬司秦炳直選帶精兵，前往萍鄉一帶相機堵剿。12月15日，湖廣總督張之洞續派第三十二標統帶白壽銘率領所部全標三營暨炮隊一隊馳往瀏陽，會剿萍瀏醴起義軍。12月18日，清廷以萍瀏醴起義軍大多趨瀏陽，諭仍著端方、張之洞、吳重憙、岑春蓂「嚴飭各軍，合力防剿」。12月22日，清廷諭端方、張之洞、岑春蓂，著嚴飭各軍合力兜剿，並嚴密查拿王勝。

1907年1月6日，清廷諭內閣著湖廣總督張之洞籌辦曲阜學堂。1月11日，張之洞奏請將湖南省商辦鐵路改為官督商辦。1月13日，張之洞派兵逮捕劉靜庵，封閉武昌日知會。1月14日，清廷重行申明教育宗旨，並命學部會同張之洞議訂曲阜學堂規則，慎選師儒，注重行誼。1月24日，張之洞派第三十一標到黃州府捕緝革命黨。3月31日，張之洞電郵傳部，請於籌贖京漢鐵路借款總額內代借英款千萬或1,500萬修築湖北境粵漢鐵路、川漢鐵路之用。6月12日，張之洞奏湘鄂各軍剿平萍瀏醴會黨情形，請獎出力員弁，清廷諭旨：「仍著嚴飭緝拿匪首姜守旦、龔春台等，務獲懲辦，以淨根株，請獎各員，著該部議奏。」6月21日，清廷命湖廣總督張之洞為協辦大學士。7月2日，湖廣總督張之洞在武昌與德華銀行總辦柯達士面議津鎮鐵路借款自辦大綱。7月7日，湖廣總督張之洞以安慶徐錫麟舉義，即派令第八鎮統制張彪、漢軍旗湖北候補道李孺率新軍兩營、炮兵一隊並兵輪兩艘赴安徽彈壓。7月23日，清廷授協辦大學士張之洞為大學士，仍留湖廣總督任，以鹿傳霖為協辦大學士；張之洞奏准於湖北省城設立存古學堂，以保國粹而息亂源。7月27日，清廷以張之洞為體仁閣大學士。8月6日，軍機處以安徽巡撫被戕事，電湖廣總督張之洞，嚴防「沿江各省匪徒」，以弭隱患。8月7日，湖廣總督張之洞以革命黨各處橫行，人心惶擾，奏請特頒諭旨，化除滿漢畛域，令內外各衙門詳議切實辦法，迅速奏請核定施行，以靖人心，而伐逆謀。8月10日，清廷電張之洞迅速到京陛見，湖廣總督著李岷琛暫行護理。9月4日，清廷任大學士張之洞、外務部尚書袁世凱為軍機大臣。9月14日，湖廣總督張之洞、護理四川總督趙爾豐、護理兩廣總督胡湘林、湖南巡撫岑春煊會奏粵湘川鄂四省於武昌城外新河地方合資興建工廠、製造粵漢鐵路、川漢鐵路所需鋼鐵各項材料，請予立案。9月21日，清廷命大學士張之洞管理學部事務。

1908年督辦粵漢鐵路，晉太子太保。慈禧臨終時受顧命，後力勸攝政王載灃不殺袁世凱。

有《張文襄公全集》、《書目答問》。

逝世

宣統元年八月二十一日（1909年10月4日）張之洞在北京白米斜街寓所病逝，享壽七十二歲，謚號文襄，安葬於南皮縣雙廟北。陳衍作《張相國傳》。

評價

張之洞是慈禧扶植起來以抗衡湘軍和淮軍勢力的重要人物，又是清流派重要成員，一生在清廷權力的中心周旋，試圖改革中國而又不動政制。他對西方政治、經濟、科學技術瞭解甚深，但與以康有為、梁啓超為代表的激進改良派持有不同的主張。他對革命黨人採取鎮壓態度。

而另一方面，他又是繼曾國藩、李鴻章後，洋務運動的領袖人物，推動清朝軍工改革，因此在清亡後被遺老們視為清朝滅亡的「禍首」。張之洞為官清廉，家族只有薄田若干，即使死後亦不增一畝，但為支撐工廠龐大開支而濫權募資（如抽籤捐款），得罪了當地富商。因此，張之洞雖為晚清政治界、思想界、經濟界和文學界舉足輕重的人物，但樹敵頗多，死後毀譽不一，甚至毀多譽少。特別是張之洞對李鴻章似有成見，尤其不滿其身後諡為文忠（似乎更不滿其師曾國藩之文正），不料自己死後是個三等「文襄」。

去世之際，《天津大公報》評論說：觀其一生，「張相國毫無宗旨，毫無政見，隨波逐流，媚主以求榮之人也。」

梁啓超直言張之洞愛名愛身甚于愛國：「除弊之事，最易犯眾忌而觸眾怒，故全軀保位惜名之人，每不肯為之……張之洞且嘗與余言，言廢八股為變法第一事矣。而不聞其上折請廢之者，蓋恐觸數百翰林、數千進士、數萬舉人、教十萬秀才、數百萬童生之怒，懼其合力以謗己而排擠己也。今夫所謂愛國之士，苟其事有利于國者，則雖敗己之身，裂己之名，猶當為之。今既自謂愛國矣，又複愛身焉，又複愛名焉，及至三者不可得兼，則舍國而愛身名，至二者不可得兼，又將舍名而愛身……乃浮華之人也。」但他主政湖廣多年，百姓口碑頗佳，到處都是自強自詡，包括漢陽鐵廠和江灘的大場面。而且，他在湖北的建樹為日後辛亥革命作出貢獻。

孫中山曾稱「張之洞是不言革命之大革命家」。

袁世凱曾盛讚張之洞學問。但卻又消遣其不夠務實：「張中堂是講學問的；我是不講學問的，我是講辦事的。」張之洞幕僚辜鴻銘聽聞，憤而斥之。

陳夔龍在其著的《夢蕉亭雜記》裡說，「當制軍無仕時，憑恃恩寵，嫉惡如仇，頗有赫赫之名，與南皮（張之洞）、項城（袁世凱）相鼎峙。時論南皮屠財，項城屠民，西林屠官。三屠之名，流傳幾遍中外。又謂南皮有學無術；項城有術無學；西林不學無術。此言殊不盡然。」

鄭孝胥曾說「南皮（張之洞）有學無術，項城（袁世凱）不學有術，西林（岑春煊）無學無術，惟端公（端方）有學有術。」張之洞聽說之後，笑著表示：「我是無術，也無學。不過比項城跟西林多認識了幾個字。袁項城何止有術，根本是多術！至於端方，只是整天蒐集假字畫跟假碑文，這樣也叫做有學？根本是鄭孝胥在巴結。」消遣了鄭、端、袁三人。日本探討近代史1990年名著辛亥革命，認為革命發生在湖北，與張生前任湖北總督的長期包庇革命黨人大有關系。

清政府駐日本學監、漢軍旗李孺（原名李寶巽，漢軍旗進士胡俊章侄女婿）在其《挽張之洞聯》中評論道：「魂魄有知，猶登峴山，羊太傅未忘舊治；庶政躬親，不舍晝夜，司馬公同此忠清」。

身後

張之洞墳於1966年農曆九月廿六被紅衛兵刨開。在此之後，一說紅衛兵將張氏夫婦尚未腐爛的屍體吊在樹上，後人不敢收屍，任屍體吊在樹上月餘，至被狗啃食；二說張氏夫婦的遺體被紅衛兵抬出後放在墳坑東面暴曬了數十天，遺骨不知去向，後來墓地附近的南關村村民張執信應村里膽小婦女提出的要求，和一位王姓老人把曝曬得異味撲鼻的兩具尸骨拽到墳地的大坑裡，偷偷將張之洞尸體和西側一位夫人尸體用土掩埋起來。

至2007年6月，其尸骨被重新發現，目前張之洞和夫人遺骨被安置在南皮縣烈士陵園，等進一步科學鑑定後，祭奠重葬。

2018年，"張之洞與武漢博物館"建成開館，由美國建築師李布斯金（Daniel Libeskind）設計。

逸事

張之洞的作息與常人不同，每天下午二時睡覺，晚上十時起床辦公。大理寺卿徐致祥參劾張之洞辜恩負職，「興居不節，號令無時」。後來兩廣總督李瀚章奏稱：「譽之則曰夙夜在公，勤勞罔懈。毀之者則曰興居不節，號令無時。既未誤事，此等小節無足深論」。

張之洞喜愛貓，在家中養了數十隻貓，其兄張之萬在寫信給張之京時說：「香濤（張之洞）飲食起居，無往不謬。性又喜畜貓，臥室中常有數十頭，每親自飼之食。貓有時遺矢（通屎）于書上，輒自取手帕拭凈，不以為穢。且向左右侍者說：『貓本無知，不可責怪，若人如此，則不可恕。』」

張之洞對於新翻譯名詞的憎厭，在當時流傳很廣。1908年2月1日，《盛京時報》刊出《張中堂禁用新名詞》短訊一條：「聞張中堂以學部往來公文稟牘，其中參用新名詞者居多，積久成習，殊失體制，已通飭各司，嗣後無論何項文牘，均宜通用純粹中文，毋得抄襲沿用外人名詞，以存國粹。」留日歸國的汪榮寶曾和葉瀾在1903年編纂出版過新名詞詞典《新爾雅》，風行一時。學部司員作出推薦，張之洞指著汪的名字說「是輕薄子，不可用」。還有翰林奉派出國辭行，說：「到國外見到的情形，隨時向中堂『作報告』。」連說兩句，張都不理。來人以為他沒有聽見，又說了一句。張說：「我不願聽這亡國之音。」有一考生名叫冒征君，字鶴亭，經濟特科考試時在答卷文章中用「盧梭」二字，閱卷考官是張之洞，因而被貶斥不中。當時都中有人寫詩調侃：「贏得南皮喚奈何，不該試卷用盧梭。從今捲起書包去，且應明年進士科」。張之洞有次請幕僚路孝植擬辦學大綱，見擬文有「健康」一詞，便勃然大怒，提筆批道：「健康乃日本名詞，用之殊覺可恨。」擲還。路孝植回曰：「名詞亦日本名詞，用之尤覺可恨。」於是張之洞無奈之下，只好將「日本名詞」改稱「日本土話」。

張之洞喜好建設，動輒用盡官府積蓄，被指為浪費銀兩，且又向當地門閥富豪募款，人稱「財屠」。岑春煊喜好彈劾官吏，人稱「官屠」。袁世凱則喜好打仗，殺人無數，人稱「民屠」，並戲稱為「清末三屠」。

曾學習古琴，師從黃勉之。

家庭

• 父嘉慶十八年（1813）科舉人、貴州知府張鍈。

• 生母再繼妻朱氏（父嘉慶甲戌科進士朱紹恩）。繼母蔣氏（父嘉慶十年（1805年）乙丑科進士蔣策；胞姊蔣氏嫁內務府正白旗漢軍、道光壬午進士李希增，其父嘉慶十三年（1808）戊辰進士李恩繹）。

• 姊夫同治元年（1862年）壬戌科進士鹿傳霖。

張之洞有13個兒子：

• 長子：張權。

　• 曾孫女：張遵顏、張遵領。

• 張頲

• 張仁侃

• 張仁樂

• 張仁涑

• 張仁實

• 十子：張燕卿，滿州國實業大臣。

• 幼子：張仁蠡（排行十三）。

　• 孫女：張厚粲，北京師範大學心理系教授、博士生導師。

　• 孫子：張厚珹；

　• 孫子：張厚珕，北京自來水集團工程師；

　• 孫子：張厚玫，計算機工程師，在美國多年。

　• 孫女：張厚茜， 張厚關

　　• 曾孫女：張遵健

　　　• 玄孫：張法鶴，目前在台灣。

Other names

Zhang Zhidong was also known by other names. An older Wade–Giles form was Chang Chih-tung. His courtesy name was Xiaoda (t Xiàodá) or Xiangtao (t Xiāngtāo). His pseudonyms were Xiangyan (香岩 Xiāngyán|labels=no), Hugong (t Húgōng), Wujing Jushi (t Wújìng Jūshì) and Baobing (抱冰 Bàobīng|labels=no). The posthumous name given to him by the Qing government was Wenxiang (文襄 Wénxiāng|labels=no).

Early life

Zhang was born in Xingyi Prefecture (興義府), Guizhou Province, but his ancestral roots were in Nanpi, Tianjin, Zhili Province. He was the cousin of Zhang Zhiwan. In 1852, he sat for the provincial-level imperial examination in Shuntian Prefecture (present-day Beijing) and achieved the top position as jieyuan (解元) in the juren class. In 1863, he sat for the palace-level examination and emerged as tanhua (探花), the third highest-ranked candidate of the jinshi class. He was then admitted to the Hanlin Academy as a (編修; editor) before taking up other positions, including (教習), (侍讀) and (侍講). In 1882, he was transferred as the xunfu (provincial governor) of Shanxi Province. Empress Dowager Cixi promoted him to Viceroy of Huguang in August 1889.

During the Dungan Revolt of 1862–1877, the Russian Empire occupied the Ili region in Xinjiang. After Qing imperial forces successfully crushed the Dungan Revolt, they demanded that the Russians withdraw from Ili, which led to the Ili Crisis.

After the incompetent negotiator Chonghou, who was bribed by the Russians, without permission from the Qing government, signed a treaty granting Russia extraterritorial rights, consulates, control over trade, and an indemnity, a massive uproar by the Chinese literati ensued, some of them calling for Chonghou's death. Zhang demanded for Chonghou's execution and urged the Qing government to stand up to Russia and declare the treaty invalid. He said, "The Russians must be considered extremely covetous and truculent in making the demands and Chonghou extremely stupid and absurd in accepting them... If we insist on changing the treaty, there may not be trouble; if we do not, we are unworthy to be called a state." The Chinese literati demanded the Qing government mobilize their armed forces against the Russians. The Qing government allocated important posts to officers from the Xiang Army, while British military officer Charles George Gordon advised the Chinese.

First Sino-Japanese War

Zhang became involved in the First Sino-Japanese War, although not on the frontline. He initially advocated foreign aid from European forces near Tianjin in fighting the Japanese. In October 1894, he telegraphed Li Hongzhang, the Viceroy of Zhili, proposing the purchase of naval equipment, and loans from foreign banks. He further advocated this, and in addition the purchase of arms, alliance with European powers, and the "clear division of rewards and punishments" for troops, once the Japanese crossed the Yalu River into China in late October, threatening the northeastern provinces. In early 1895, the Japanese had begun an assault on Shandong, and Zhang telegraphed the governor Li Bingheng in an emergency that suggested fast civil recruitments, the building of strong forts, and the use of landmines, to prevent further Japanese advance. He had also sent arms and munitions to aid the campaign.

Taiwan

Zhang held on a strong opinion on the issue of ceding Taiwan to the Japanese, per the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki that ended the First Sino-Japanese War. In late February 1895, he made his stance clear to the Qing government, and even offered ideas on how to prevent the loss of Taiwan. He suggested that they take huge loans from the British, who would in turn send their navy to defend Taiwan from the Japanese. In addition, he proposed giving mining rights to the British on Taiwan for about 10 to 20 years. In May 1895, the Qing government ordered all civil and military officials to evacuate Taiwan. Zhang also refused to provide aid to the remaining Qing forces in Taiwan, especially after the fall of Keelung and with Taipei as the sole remaining Qing stronghold in Taiwan. On 19 October 1895, the last of the Qing forces in Taiwan, led by Liu Yongfu, withdrew to Xiamen.

Modernization of Chinas military

After China's defeat in the Sino-French War in 1885, Zhang was said to reflect on the events of the war and expressed his desire to establish a modern military to match up to that of the Western forces in a memorial to the throne. Upon Zhang's reflection, the weaknesses of traditional Chinese troops were identified in comparison with the Western troops, which had better firepower, mobility, and individual combat capability. When Zhang created the Guangdong Military Academy, also known as Guangdong Naval and Military Officers Academy, and the Guangdong Victorious Army, he set physical admission standards high and hired German officers as instructors to address the weaknesses of the Chinese troops. Specifically, in modernizing the troops in Guangdong, Zhang made newly trained troops to be "the nucleus" of newer troops, passing the training unit to unit. In addition, Zhang synthesized Chinese traditional learning and Western military learning in Guangdong Military Academy under his guiding principle of tiyong (體用), which stresses Chinese traditional values and deems Western imports to be for practical uses only. Seeking to industrialize for the sake of China's defense, he ordered an iron-and-steel smelting plant from England. This came with issues as Zhang was not intimately familiar with the processes of metallurgy; Zhang was not previously aware of the availability of ores for said plant, nor was the plant located near a coal-mining area. The plant began production in 1894. The losses stemming from the misstep were substantial, leading to some political ridicule. Zhang also established the Hubei Military Academy in 1896, where he employed instructors from the Guangdong Academy. The majority of the staff were Chinese. He also hired some German officers as instructors.

While serving as the governor of Nanjing in 1894, Zhang invited a German training regiment of 12 officers and 24 warrant officers to train the local garrison into a modern military force. In 1896, acting under an imperial decree, Zhang moved to Wuchang to serve as the Viceroy of Huguang, an area comprising Hubei and Hunan provinces. Zhang drew on his experience in Nanjing to modernize the military forces under his command in Huguang. He additionally proposed construction of a railway from Hankou to near Beijing, of which he was appointed in charge of. The railway was not completed until 1906. Further advocating for the industrialization of China, he founded a mint, tanneries, tile and silk factories, as well as paper, cotton, and woolen mills, among other industries.

In Wuchang, Zhang effectively trained and equipped modern units of sappers, engineers, cavalry, police, artillery and infantry. Of the 60,000 men under his command, 20,000 men were directly trained by foreign officers, and a military academy was established in Wuchang in order to train future generations of soldiers. Zhang armed the troops with German Mauser rifles and other modern equipment. Foreign observers reported that, when their training was complete, the troops stationed in the Wuchang garrison were the equal of contemporary European forces.

During the Boxer Rebellion, Zhang, along with some other regional governors who commanded substantial modernized armies, refused to participate in the central government's declaration of war against the Eight-Nation Alliance. Zhang assured the foreigners during negotiations that he would do nothing to help the central government. He told this to Everard Fraser. This clique was known as The Mutual Protection of Southeast China.

Zhang's troops later became involved in politics. In 1911, the Wuchang garrison led the Wuchang Uprising, a coup against the local government that catalyzed the nationwide Xinhai Revolution. The Xinhai Revolution led to the collapse of the Qing dynasty and its replacement by the Republic of China.

Involvement in reform

Zhang Zhidong's reformist faction in the late Qing court was extremely influential. Yang Rui, one of the Six Martyrs, was Zhang's political informant in Beijing who carried out Zhang's instructions during Hundred Days' Reform of 1898. Chen Baozhen is another subordinate who shared Zhang's academic visions, and Chen coauthored a memorial to the court with Zhang to suggest the reform of Civil Service Exam. Zhang had a strong grasp of the progress of reforms as he had more temporary confidants and informants from other regions.

In the third month of 1898, Zhang published his work Exhortation to Study (勸學篇), which addresses the questions of educational reform. He insisted on a method of relatively conservative reform, summarized in his phrase "Chinese Learning as Substance, Western Learning for Application" (中學為體，西學為用). In Exhortation to Study (勸學篇), Zhang brought up reform methodology of implementing new schools at the expense of Buddhist and Taoist monasteries. While doing so, reservation of 30 percent of the monasteries and introduction of Confucianization were also part of the methodology to help the two religions subsist. Zhang Zhidong's reform on education is said not to eliminate religious institutions, but to better allocate resources.

Kang Youwei, another late Qing reformist, later expressed similar mode of thinking - he also advocated aiding modern education at the cost of temples. However, Kang Youwei is more radical as he envisions destruction of religions in comparison to Zhang's conservative approach. Zhang was supportive of Kang's vision of scholarly learning, but rejects Kang's proposal of Confucian religion. Historians commonly regard Zhang Zhidong's reform as an attempt to reconcile modernity and China's existing social fabric.

He succeeded Liu Kunyi as Viceroy of Liangjiang in 1901, and moved to Nanjing, where he laid the foundations for the modern University of Nanjing. Zhang Zhidong, along with Liu Kunyi and Wei Guangtao, were the founders of Sanjiang Normal College. Zhang espoused Japanese educational system and principles, and announced his plan to hire 12 Japanese teachers(教习) in a communication with Moriyoshi Nagaoka (長岡護美) before the establishment of the college.

Later life

In 1900, he advocated the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion. When the Eight-Nation Alliance entered Beijing, Zhang, along with Li Hongzhang and others, participated in The Mutual Protection of Southeast China. He quelled local revolts and defeated the rebel army of Tang Caichang. He was appointed the Minister of Military Affairs in 1906, and worked in Beijing for the central government.

He was aware that a change in Chinese affairs was necessary, and at the same time realized that the Chinese officials and people clung with unyielding tenacity to their traditional ideas and institutions and penned his ideas in a book: China's only hope: An Appeal. The book was distributed to the Grand Council of State, Viceroys, Governors and Literary Examiners of China.

Zhang Zhidong had 13 sons, including Zhang Yanqing and Zhang Renli. Zhang Houcan, a Chinese psychologist, is his granddaughter.

Zhang died of illness in 1909 in Beijing at the age of 72. He was given the posthumous title Wenxiang (文襄).