歷史

起源

據《史記·秦本紀》記載，秦人的先祖，為三皇五帝時期的大業之子伯益。秦最早為夏朝諸候，後歸順商湯而滅夏。商朝大戊以後，成為重要的諸侯。

秦國先祖為商朝「保西垂」。後代蜚廉是商朝末年帝辛的寵臣。據清華簡《系年》的第三章，周初三監之亂平定後，蜚廉「東逃於商奄氏。成王伐商奄，殺蜚廉，西遷商奄之民於邾，以御奴之戎，是秦先人。」李學勤鑑於秦人和東方的奄國同姓，同主少皞，又蜚廉東逃於此，認為秦人可能最初起源於東方，和奄國同源。在西周初年因獲罪及曾「保西垂」，被謫戍西方。

中潏之子為蜚廉，蜚廉有惡來、季勝二子。武王克殷時，惡來被殺。蜚廉一系在此時分為兩支，惡來之子孫居於犬丘，為秦國之祖。季勝為趙氏之祖。

秦人遷至西垂地區，有兩種說法，一據戰國末年的《孟子》，說是在晚商時期，因為周武王討伐殷商時，蜚廉支持殷商，因此被殺，其氏族被強迫遷至西垂。另一個傳說是，在商朝時，戎胥軒與酈山之女通婚生下中潏，遷至西垂。

西周周穆王之後，秦人地位繼續提升，惡來的後代大駱與申侯結為婚姻，居犬丘，以畜牧為生。大駱生非子。

秦最初領地在當時屬于周朝的邊緣地區，西接西戎。公元前905年，周孝王封非子于「秦（秦邑）」（今甘肅省天水市境，一說在清水縣，一說在張家川回族自治縣），為天子之附庸，使複嬴氏祀，號曰「秦嬴」，秦國伊始。據司馬遷的說法，非子被別封于秦，為周王室的大夫，後來升格為附庸。天子之附庸與諸侯之附庸級別是不同的，其地位相當于一個畿內諸侯。司馬遷也補充，秦人成為附庸後，長期對戎人作戰，實力得到擴充。

在秦景公一號大墓中發現過一片石罄，銘文如下：天子郾喜，龔桓是嗣；高陽有靈，四方以鼐。大意為天子舉行宴饗，（作罄者是）（秦）共公、（秦）桓公的繼承者，先祖高陽在天有靈，國內得以四方生平。高陽氏，即顓頊，黃帝之孫，位列「五帝」。所以秦人源自華夏人群，早期秦文化源自中原商周文化，與西戎差異甚大，但由于長期闢居西隅，亦吸收了不少戎狄文化，在長期與戎狄的戰爭中，秦人養成了粗獷好戰的性格。

早期歷史

非子死後，其子秦侯即位，秦侯元年（前855年），秦國始有確切紀年。秦侯在位十年，死後其子秦公伯即位，公伯在位三年，死後其子秦仲即位。秦仲三年（前842年），周厲王暴虐無道，西戎反叛周王室，滅掉犬丘大駱之族，秦仲二十一年（前824年），周宣王以秦仲為大夫，命其率軍討伐西戎。秦仲二十三年（前822年），秦仲在與西戎的戰爭中戰死，秦仲有子五人，由長子嬴祺即位，史稱秦莊公；二子嬴福；三子嬴祿；四子嬴壽；少子嬴康(第五子，謚號慶)為梁嬴伯爵(春秋時期梁國國君)。周宣王召見秦莊公兄弟五人，授予他七千士卒，命其討伐西戎。嬴祺五兄弟採取閃電夜襲，分頭殲滅、擒賊先擒王，攻破獫狁老巢，打亂他們指揮而獲勝，重新奪取犬丘之地。隨後莊公遷都犬丘，秦莊公因為戰功被周宣王封為西陲大夫。莊公生子三人，長子名世父，世父對祖父秦仲被西戎殺死的事情耿耿于懷，于是帶兵攻打西戎，將太子之位讓與其弟襄公。 秦襄公元年（前777年），將妹妹繆嬴嫁予西戎豐王，以緩和秦戎關係。次年（前776年），西戎圍犬丘，世父率軍奮力禦敵，不幸被俘，由于秦戎聯姻，一年之後世父又被戎人放歸秦國。

春秋時期

獲封為伯

秦襄公七年（前771年），因幽王寵信褒姒，不滿的外戚申侯聯合犬戎攻打周王室，殺死周幽王，秦襄公率軍勤王，屢立戰功，隨後秦襄公審時度勢，支持幽王之子周平王並護送其東遷洛邑。秦襄公因此被周平王封為秦伯，又被賜封岐山以西之地，秦正式成為諸侯國。

向東擴張

秦襄公得到周平王的許諾後，大力征伐犬戎，秦襄公十二年（前766年)，率軍伐犬戎抵達周朝故地岐山，戰死。其子德即位，是為秦文公，秦文公四年（前762年），在渭水與汧水交匯處營建新的都邑，文公十六年（前750年），秦文公驅逐戎人，收納周朝的遺民，將疆域擴展到岐山。文公之子靜公（史記作靖公）早死，文公死後由其孫憲公即位（史記誤作寧公），秦憲公二年（前714年），遷都平陽，三年（前713年），伐滅蕩社，其君亳王逃往戎地，十二年（前704年），滅亡蕩氏。

秦晉關係

到了秦穆公時代，降服西戎八國，亦同時參與中原爭霸，成為與晉國、楚國的霸主級別強國。晉獻公時，秦晉兩國維持著良好關係(秦晉之好），而秦亦致力鞏固及開拓西陲。公元前651年，晉獻公死，眾晉公子爭位，晉國陷入動亂，而秦穆公亦開始把戰略目標東移。晉公子夷吾流亡國外，並許諾秦穆公若以秦助繼晉侯位，則以黃河以西的土地報答秦國。及秦軍送夷吾回晉，立為晉惠公。而晉惠公卻與梁國聯姻，秦卻沒有得河西土地，秦穆公亦沒有追究。過了數年晉國旱災，晉求糧于秦，穆公賣糧食及農具與助晉。翌年，秦國大旱，穆公欲購糧于晉，而惠公不許。秦穆公大怒伐晉，戰于韓，俘虜了晉惠公。因晉惠公的姐姐是穆公的夫人，才得以被放回晉國。前643年，晉惠公讓太子圉到秦當人質。前641年，秦國滅梁國。後來秦穆公聽說晉獻公有一公子重耳流亡于楚國，遂請重耳到秦，並舉兵助其回晉國。時晉惠公已死，其子晉懷公剛立不足一年，被公子重耳和秦軍攻殺。公元前636年，重耳繼位為晉文公，在位九年，秦晉修好。

公元前628年，晉文公去世，晉襄公立。這一年秦穆公秘密攻打鄭國，秦軍于行軍途中被販牛的鄭國商人弦高識破，失去了突襲的先機，遂收兵回秦。當時晉襄公探得秦軍回軍的路徑，兩軍大戰于殽，秦軍覆沒。消息傳回秦國，穆公懊悔悲慟，秦人大憤。前625年，秦穆公發兵伐晉複仇，又敗于彭衙。過了一年，秦穆公親自率兵再次討伐晉國，渡過黃河以後，將渡船全部焚毀，表示誓死克敵的決心。晉軍拒不出戰。穆公在當年的殽戰場埋葬尸骨及樹立標記，然後班師回國。

及後，因秦國東進的路被晉國堵塞（晉國滅虢後佔據了函谷關），秦國的戰略轉回傳統的經營西陲。秦康公、桓公、景公時期，秦晉一再發生戰爭，幾經拉鋸。秦國國勢亦隨著戰爭被拖至逐漸衰弱。

弭兵之會

公元前546年，秦景公在位期間，宋國、晉國、楚國、齊國、秦國等14國舉行弭兵之會，簽訂的盟約是：「晉、楚之從，交相見也。」（奉晉、楚兩國為共同霸主，除齊、秦外，各國須向晉、楚同樣納貢，晉的僕從國要朝貢楚國，而楚的僕從國要朝貢晉國，齊國作為晉國的盟國，不朝拜楚國，秦國為楚國的盟國，亦不朝于晉國），秦哀公在位期間，申包胥曾前往秦庭痛哭求師助楚昭王複國，留下「申包胥哭秦庭」這一典故。

戰國時期

戰國初期魏國連年進攻秦國，奪取河西之地，設立西河郡(見河西之戰)，秦國被迫退守洛水以西，走入下坡。

公元前356年，秦孝公任命商鞅為左庶長，商鞅開始第一次變法。主要內容為：第一，「令民為什伍」，實行連坐法；第二，重農抑商，獎勵耕織；第三獎勵軍功，按功受爵，貴族無軍功不再受爵；第四，「燔詩書而明法令」。前350年商鞅又進行第二次變法，主要內容有：統一秦國的度量衡；廢分封，行縣制；「為田開阡陌封疆」，廢除井田制，以法律形式確立土地私有制度。商鞅變法後，秦國逐步強盛起來，軍隊的戰鬥力也有所提高，使秦國成為當時最強盛的諸侯國，為後來秦統一六國奠定了基礎。但是商鞅實行的嚴刑峻法和文化高壓政策，對後來的秦朝有消極影響。商鞅變法遭到了舊貴族的強烈反對。秦孝公死後，商鞅被施以車裂之刑。但商鞅變法的措施在秦國繼續下去，他主張的法家思想，也成為秦國占統治地位的政治思想。

公元前三世紀以後，東方各國衰落下去，秦國無敵于天下。秦昭襄王時，其母宣太后與義渠戎王通姦，使詐殺義渠戎王於甘泉，將義渠併入秦國。公元前279年的郢之戰和前278年的鄢之戰，白起統帥的秦軍攻占當時政治核心在南陽和丹陽一帶的楚國，攻陷楚國首都，所得領土改置南陽郡、南郡、臨江郡（江夏郡）、黔中郡，楚遷都壽郢；至此南方大國楚國因為喪失大片疆土和人口而走向衰落，公元前260年白起在長平之戰重創趙國，秦國消滅及坑殺趙國降卒，號稱四十餘萬人，這是戰國時期兼併戰爭中規模最大、殺戮最多的一次戰役，秦國威震天下。公元前256年秦國滅西周國，周王朝統治的最後象徵被消滅。

前247年秦王政登基，開始征服六國。從前230年秦滅韓國起，到前221年秦滅齊國，統一六國。中國歷史結束諸侯封建時代，進入中央集權君主專制時代。

社會經濟

秦國社會經濟仍以農業為主。在耕作上經歷了青銅工具到鐵農具的變革，大約在春秋時代晚期，出現了鑄鐵農具。秦國的土地在商鞅變法之前為分封採邑制，商鞅變法大部分土地特別是耕地被國有化，再以授田方式分于有軍工之人。但主要的土地還是掌控在秦朝廷手上，由朝廷機構經營管理，收益直接上交國庫，為秦國的對外擴張戰爭提供了巨大的財政基礎。

• 戰國時代，修建了鄭國渠、都江堰等水利工程，進一步促使農業生產發展。

• 手工業以冶銅和制陶最為發達。發明了鉻鹽氧化處理兵器的新工藝；建築材料頗具特色，瓦當更是精美的藝術品。

• 重視小兒的健康與教育，有專門的小兒醫生。

葬儀

秦國國君陵園在雍城陵區發現13座，芷陽陵區發現4座，士大夫與國人墓葬已發掘至近千座，國君稱王之前使用「中」字形諸侯級墓制，稱王之後使用「亞」字形王級墓制，廣泛使用人殉（秦獻公廢除），殉葬物品豐富，規模宏大。其中秦公一號大墓（及秦景公墓地）殉葬186人，為中國有史以來發掘墳墓中殉葬人數最多的一座。

人口

西元前360年，約130萬~160萬

軍事

秦國軍隊自商鞅變法實行獎勵軍功政策後愈戰愈勇。武器裝備不斷改進。軍隊數量多時達到「帶甲之士百萬」，出現了尉繚、白起、王翦、蒙恬等著名軍事家和將領。

人物簡表

春秋時期 （前770年～前5世紀）

;公子

• 公子世父，秦襄公兄

• 公子白，秦德公子

• 公子憖，秦穆公子

• 公子弘，秦穆公子

• 公子鍼，秦桓公子

• 公子縶

;諸臣

• 子車氏

　• 奄息，子車氏子

　• 仲行，子車氏子

　• 鍼虎，子車氏子

• 醫卜

　• 醫緩

　• 醫和

　• 卜徒父

• 弗忌，秦大庶長

• 威壘，秦大庶長

• 三父，秦大庶長

• 公孫枝，字子桑

• 泠至

• 繞朝

• 庶長無地

• 士雃

• 右大夫詹

• 庶長鮑

• 庶長武

• 子蒲

• 子虎

• 杞子

• 杜回

• 右大夫說

• 逢孫

• 楊孫

• 史顆

• 成差

• 不更女父

• 丕豹，本晉人

;女性

• 繆嬴，秦襄王妹，嫁豐王

• 魯姬，生秦武公、德公

• 王姬，周王室女，生秦出子

• 穆姬，晉獻公女

• 簡璧，秦穆公女

• 秦嬴，秦穆公女，楚共王夫人

戰國時期 （前5世紀～前221年）

公族

• 秦昭子，秦懷公太子（《秦本紀》）

• 公子虔，太子傅（《商君列傳》）

• 公孫賈，太子師（《商君列傳》）

• 公子少官（《秦本紀》）

• 藍田君秦子向（古本《竹書紀年》）

• 公孫壯（古本《竹書紀年》）

• 公子桑（《六國表》，《張儀列傳》作公子華，注作公子革）

• 公子繇（《張儀列傳》）

• 公子通，惠文王子（《秦本紀》、《華陽國志》）

• 秦悼太子（《秦本紀》）

• 桑君（《六國表》）

文官

• 司馬唐（《呂氏春秋》，《淮南子》、《漢書·古今人表》作司馬庾）

• 庶長鼂（《秦本紀》）

• 庶長國（《秦本紀》）

• 監突（《呂氏春秋》）

• 景監（《商君列傳》）

• 甘龍（《商君書》、《秦本紀》）

• 杜摯（《商君書》、《秦本紀》）

• 祝歡（《商君列傳》）

• 公孫衍，後奔魏（《張儀列傳》）

• 史定，史官（《呂氏春秋》）

• 泠向（《秦策一》）

• 陳軫（《陳軫列傳》）

• 左成（《秦策二》）

• 陳壯（《六國表》）

• 共立（《韓非子》）

• 公孫竭（《呂氏春秋》）

• 張若（《華陽國志》）

• 屈蓋，相秦（《秦策》）

• 李讎（《秦策二》）

• 馮宜（《秦策二》）

• 李醯（《扁鵲列傳》）

• 行願（《韓策》）

• 庶長壯（《六國表》）

• 昌文君

武官

• 胡蘇，一作蘇胡（古本《竹書紀年》）

• 右主然（《呂氏春秋》）

• 菌改，即庶長改（《呂氏春秋》、《秦本紀》）

• 章蟜（《六國表》）

• 庶長操（《秦本紀》）

• 公子卬（《六國表》）本魏國人，秦孝公數與衛鞅戰，為衛鞅所欺。惠文王初年為秦將。

• 橫門君（《秦策一》）

• 魏章（《秦本紀》、《樗里子列傳》）

• 田真黃（《華陽國志》）

• 都尉墨（《華陽國志》）

• 到滿（《秦本紀》）

• 庶長封（《秦本紀》）

• 任鄙（《樗里子列傳》）

• 烏獲（《燕策》）

• 孟賁（《范雎列傳》，《秦本紀》作孟說）

• 孟卯（《韓非子》）

• 王齮

• 庶長奐

• 內史騰

女性

• 秦出公母（《秦本紀》，《呂氏春秋》作秦小主夫人）

• 秦惠文后，楚人（《秦本紀》）

• 秦悼武后，魏人（《秦本紀》）

• 宣太后，昭王母，楚人（《秦本紀》）

其他

• 智開，本晉人（《秦本紀》、《六國表》）

• 智寬，本晉人（《六國表》）

• 尸佼，食客（《商君列傳》）

• 孟蘭皋（《商君列傳》）

• 趙良（《商君列傳》）

• 唐姑果，墨者（《呂氏春秋》）

• 腹䵍，墨者（《呂氏春秋》）

• 寒泉子，處士（《秦策一》）

• 秦侏儒（《韓非子》）

• 醫竘（《尸子》）

• 邵鼛（《秦詛楚文》）

• 田萃之（《秦策一》）

• 南宮揭，道士（《秦本紀》）

• 牛缺（《呂氏春秋》）

• 魏醜夫（《秦策二》）

• 庸芮（《秦策二》）

秦朝|秦朝時期（前221年～前207年）

楚漢|楚漢時期（前207年～前202年）

世系簡表

文化作品

影視

• 《大秦帝國之裂變》

• 《大秦帝國之縱橫》

• 《大秦帝國之崛起》

• 《大秦賦》

• 《秦始皇》

• 《東周列國戰國篇》

• 《皓鑭傳》

• 《羋月傳》

動作角色扮演遊戲

• 《秦殤》

動畫

• 《王者天下》

注釋

History

Founding

According to the 2nd-century BC Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, the Qin state traced its origin to Zhuanxu, one of the legendary Five Emperors in ancient times. One of his descendants, Boyi, was granted the family name of Ying by Emperor Shun. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Ying clan split into two: a western branch that migrated across the Ordos Plateau to Quanqiu ( 'hill of the Quanrong', modern Li County, Gansu), and an eastern branch that settled east of the Yellow River in modern Shanxi. The latter became the ancestors of the rulers of the later state of Zhao.

The western Ying clan at Quanqiu were lords over the Xichui ('western march') region west of Mount Long and served as a buffer state for the Shang dynasty against invasions by the Xirong barbarians. One of them, Elai, was killed defending King Zhou of Shang during the rebellion led by Ji Fa that established the Zhou dynasty. The Ying clan was, however, allied with the politically influential marquesses of Shen, whom the Zhou monarch relied upon heavily to manage the Rong people and was thus allowed to retain their lands and continued serving as an attached vassal under the Zhou dynasty. Feizi, a younger son of Elai's fourth-generation descendant Daluo, impressed King Xiao of Zhou so much with his horse breeding skills, that he was awarded a separate fief in the valley of Qin (modern Qingshui and Zhangjiachuan in Gansu) northeast of Quanqiu, and his seat was named Qinyi (秦邑 Qin's hamlet) in today's town of Qinting (秦亭). Both branches of the western Ying clan lived in the midst of the Rong tribes, sometimes fighting their armies and sometimes intermarrying with their kings.

Scholars such as Annette Juliano and Arthur Cotterel have suggested that having a horse-breeder as their ancestor may imply that the Ying family had a partial connection to nomadic tribes. As late as 266 BC, it was remarked by a noble of Wei that they shared customs with the Rong and Beidi tribes; the central plains states seemed to hold Qin culture and other peripheral states like Yan and Chu in low regard, due to the marginal ___location of their states. Qin was the second state after Zhao to adopt cavalry tactics from the nomads. Following the collapse of the Zhou dynasty, the Qin state absorbed cultures from two of the Four Barbarians from the west and north, which made the other warring states see their culture in low esteem. However, the Qin state was sensitive to the cultural discrimination by the Central Plains states and attempted to assert their Huaxia identity. In Qin law, mixed-ethnicity offspring were categorised as Huaxia, as well as in their preference for importing recruits from the neighbouring state of Jin.

In 842 BC, nobles revolted against the corrupt King Li of Zhou in a coup known as the 'countrymen's riot'. They overthrew him the following year, leading the country into political turmoil. The Xirong tribes seized this opportunity to rebel against the Zhou dynasty, attacking and exterminating the senior branch of the Ying clan at Quanqiu. This left the cadet branch at Qinyi as the only surviving Ying clan in the west.

After King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne in 827 BC, he appointed Qin Zhong, Feizi's great-grandson, as the commander of his forces in the campaign against the Xirong. In 822 BC, Qin Zhong was killed in battle and succeeded by his eldest son, Duke Zhuang. To commemorate Qin Zhong's loyalty, King Xuan summoned Duke Zhuang and his four younger brothers and gave them 7,000 soldiers. The Qin brothers successfully defeated the Rong and recovered their lost patrimony, formerly held by the deceased branch of the Ying clan. King Xuan formally awarded them the territory of Quanqiu. Duke Zhuang then moved his seat from Qinyi to Quanqiu and had three sons.

When Duke Zhuang died in 778 BC, his eldest son Shifu chose to continue fighting the Xirong and avenge their grandfather, turning down the succession. As a result, his second son, Duke Xiang, ascended as the clan leader. In 777 BC, Duke Xiang married his younger sister, Mu Ying, to a Rong leader named King Feng in an apparent attempt to make peace. The following year, he moved the Qin capital eastward from Quanqiu to Qian (; modern Long County, Shaanxi). However, Quanqiu soon fell to the Rong again after he left. His older brother Shifu, who led the defense of Quanqiu, was captured by the Rong but was released a year later.

In 771 BC, the Marquess of Shen, in collaboration with the state of Zeng and the Quanrong nomads, attacked and sacked the Zhou capital Haojing, killing King You of Zhou and ending the Western Zhou. Duke Xiang led his troops to escort King You's son, King Ping, to Luoyi (modern Luoyang), where the new capital city of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was established. In gratitude for Duke Xiang's service, King Ping formally enfeoffed Duke Xiang as a feudal lord and elevated Qin from an 'attached state' (, a minor state with limited self-rule under the authority of another liege-lord) to a major vassal state with full autonomy. He further promised to permanently grant Qin the lands west of Qishan, the former heartland of Zhou, if Qin could expel the Rong tribes that were occupying it. Encouraged by this promise, the following generations of Qin rulers launched several military campaigns against the Rong, eventually expanding their territories far beyond the original lands lost by the Western Zhou dynasty. The Qin state therefore viewed the Zhou rulers King Wen and Wu as their predecessors and themselves as the legitimate inheritors of their legacy.

Spring and Autumn period

During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), the Qin state's interaction with other central Chinese states remained minimal due to their primary concern with the Rong to the west. The exception was their immediate eastern neighbor, Jin, a large vassal of the Zhou. Qin maintained diplomatic relations with Jin through intermarriages between the royal clans, but relations occasionally deteriorated to the point of armed conflict.

In the early reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the Jin state, under the leadership of Duke Xian of Jin, was a formidable power. However, after Duke Xian's death, Jin descended into internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought for succession. Duke Hui of Jin, one of the contenders, emerged victorious. However, Jin was struck by a famine in 647 BC, and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu of Qin, married to Duke Hui's half-sister, sent relief food supplies and agricultural equipment to Jin out of goodwill. However, when Qin experienced a famine the following year, Duke Hui did not reciprocate, leading to diplomatic deterioration and a war in 645 BC. The war ended with Duke Hui's defeat and capture, but Duke Mu later released him after Jin agreed to cede land and form an alliance.

During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu learned that Chong'er, one of Duke Xian's exiled sons, was taking refuge in the state of Chu. After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissary to Chu to invite Chong'er and supported him in his challenge against his brother, Duke Hui. After Chong'er defeated Duke Hui to become Duke Wen of Jin, he expressed gratitude to Duke Mu, and relations between the two states improved. With stability on his eastern front, Duke Mu seized the opportunity to launch military campaigns against the Rong tribes in the west.

In 630 BC, Qin and Jin agreed to wage war on the state of Zheng, but Duke Mu was lobbied by the Zheng emissary to abandon the alliance. In 627 BC, Duke Mu planned a covert attack on Zheng, but the Qin army retreated after being deceived into believing that Zheng was already prepared for Qin's invasion. By that point, Duke Wen had died and his personal alliance with Duke Mu no longer stood, and his successor Duke Xiang ordered an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated at the Battle of Xiao (near modern Luoning County, Henan) and suffered heavy casualties, and all three of its generals were captured. Three years later, Qin attacked Jin for revenge and achieved a major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance further east after holding a memorial service for those killed in action at the Battle of Xiao and returned to focus on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's dominance in the west. Duke Mu's achievements in Qin's western campaigns and his handling of foreign relations with Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period.

In a speech pronounced on the eve of a major interstate conference of 546 BC, a Jin leader recognized Qin, along with Jin, Chu and Qi, as one of the four pivotal great powers of the current world.

In 506 BC, King Helü of Wu defeated Chu at the Battle of Boju and captured the Chu capital, Ying (modern Jingzhou). Helü's adviser, Wu Zixu, who had previously been forced into exile by the already deceased King Ping of Chu and craved vengeance for the brutal execution of his father and brother, exhumed King Ping's corpse and posthumously lashed it. This was a great humiliation for the Chu state. Consequently, Shen Baoxu, a Chu official and a former friend of Wu Zixu, travelled to the Qin court and pleaded for assistance from Duke Ai of Qin to recover the capital. After Duke Ai initially refused to help, Shen spent seven days crying in the palace courtyard. Duke Ai was eventually moved by his devotion and agreed to send troops to assist Chu. The famous poem, "No Clothes" (無衣 Wú Yī), recorded in the Classic of Poetry, was a battle hymn personally composed by Duke Ai to boost the morale of the Qin troops. In 505 BC, the Qin and Chu armies jointly defeated Wu in several battles, allowing King Zhao of Chu to be restored and return to the recaptured capital.

Warring States Period

Early non-involvement

Mozi (460–390 BC) did not list Qin among the powerful states. However, other scattered information of its military exploits indicates that Qin remained a powerful polity ever since Lord Mu. Its armies acted, even if infrequently, in the eastern and southeastern parts of the Chinese world, occasionally against great power Wu. Although not weak, the overall impact of Qin on the affairs of the Zhou world in the 5th and the early 4th century BC considerably diminished. Another research also finds that Qin was strong and explains the weak influence on the Central Plain by the Qin isolationist policy. Initially, Qin avoided involvement using its protective geography and, responding to growing external threats, gradually turned to intervention in the manner of "defensive imperialism."

During the early Warring States period, its neighbours in the Central Plains began rapidly developing. The Wei state, formed from the partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin largely relied on natural defences such as the Hangu Pass (northeast of modern Lingbao, Henan) and Wu Pass (modern Danfeng County) in the east, to protect its Guanzhong heartland. Between 413 and 409 BC, during the reign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army, led by Wu Qi and supported by Zhao and Han, attacked Qin and conquered some Qin territories west of the Yellow River.

Legalist reforms

In 362 BC, Qin defeated Wei and Han. Following these victories, the Qin rulers actively pursued legal, economic, and social reforms. In 361 BC, Duke Xiao ascended the throne of Qin. He issued an announcement inviting men of talent (including scholars, administrators, theorists, and militarists) from other states to enter Qin and assist him with his reforms, promising rewards of high offices and lands in return.

Among these foreign talents, Shang Yang successfully conducted a series of Legalist reforms in Qin with the support of Duke Xiao, despite facing strong opposition from conservative Qin politicians. Direct primogeniture was abolished, with all commoners granted citizenship rights. Many were resettled in new clusters with a focus on increasing agricultural output. Meritocracy was practiced throughout, especially in the military, with soldiers and officers receiving due rewards according to their contributions, regardless of their backgrounds.

However, stringent and strict laws were also imposed, with severe punishments being meted out for the slightest of offences, and even the nobility and royalty were not exempt. After decades, the reforms strengthened Qin economically and militarily, and transformed it into a highly centralised state with an efficient administrative system.

Following the death of Duke Xiao, King Huiwen ascended as the new ruler of Qin. He executed Shang Yang by tearing him apart with chariots, citing charges of treason. However, some speculated that the king harboured a personal grudge against Shang, as he had been severely punished for a minor infraction during his adolescence under Shang's reformed system. Despite this, King Huiwen and his successors maintained the reformed systems, which laid the foundation for Qin's eventual unification of China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Shang Yang's theories were later expanded upon by Han Fei, another Legalist scholar. Han Fei amalgamated Shang's ideas with those of Shen Buhai and Shen Dao, forming the core philosophies of Legalism. Following these reforms, Qin rose to prominence in the late fourth century BC and emerged as the dominant superpower among the Seven Warring States.

Hegemonic stage

In 364 BC, Qin defeated the combined armies of Wei and Han, and King Xian of Zhou, the nominal ruler of China, declared Duke Xian the Hegemon (ba) of China (Sima Qian 4:160). His successor, Duke Xiao, who ascended the throne in 361 BC, was also appointed Hegemon (Sima Qian 7:203). The Guanzi defines the status of hegemon as intermediate between king and emperor. A text from the late Warring States period describes hegemon as controlling military forces and commerce of the states under the hegemony and using court visits as a means of supervision.

After Xiao, the status of hegemon was not officially granted to the kings of Qin, but de facto Qin remained hegemonic until its universal conquest in 221 BC. It seldom suffered defeats and repeatedly crashed other states in at least 15 major campaigns. Memorial on the Abolition of Feudal Lords by Qin official Li Si, dated to 246 BC, described: Through military victories, Qin has, "in the time of the last six kings", that is from Xiao in 361 BC to the First Emperor, brought the other states "into submission". Already by the 240s BC, other states "yielded obeiscence to Qin as if they were its commanderies and prefectures". Sima Qian (6:282) confirmed and dated the beginning of the Qin hegemonic policy already from the reign of Xiao's predecessor, Xian (384–361 BC): Since his reign, Qin "gradually swallowed up the six states until, after 100 years or so", the First Emperor conquered them. "For more than one hundred years 221 BC, Qin commanded Eight lands and brought the lords of equal rank to its court."

By the late 4th century BC, other states in China became alarmed by the Qin power and began forming anti-hegemonic alliances, called Perpendicular (Sima Qian 5:208; 6:279). Qin repeatedly clashed with these alliances. This pattern continued during the last century of the Warring States.

The success of Qin is attributed to the industriousness of its people. The Qin kings authorised numerous state development projects, including significant public works such as irrigation canals and defensive structures.

One of the most evident outcomes of the reforms was the transformation in Qin's military. Previously, the army was under the control of Qin's nobles and comprised feudal levies. Following Shang Yang's reforms, the aristocracy system was abolished and replaced by a meritocracy, in which ordinary citizens had the same opportunities as the nobles to be promoted to high ranks. Additionally, military discipline was strictly enforced, and the troops were trained to adapt more effectively to various battle situations. Qin's military strength increased significantly with the full support of the state. In 318 BC, the states of Wei, Zhao, Han, Yan, and Chu formed an alliance and attacked Qin, but failed to advance beyond Hangu Pass, and were defeated by counter-attacking Qin forces. The alliance crumbled due to mistrust, suspicion, and a lack of coordination among the five states.

In addition to the effects on Qin's military, Shang Yang's reforms also increased labour for numerous public works projects aimed at enhancing agriculture, and enabled Qin to maintain and supply an active military force of more than a million troops. This achievement could not be matched by any other state, except Chu, during that time. Qin's conquests of the southern states of Ba and Shu (modern Sichuan) also provided Qin with significant strategic advantages. The lands in the new territories were highly fertile and served as a "backyard" for supplies and additional manpower. It was difficult for Qin's rivals to attack Ba and Shu, as the territories were located deep in the mountains upstream of the Yangtze. Simultaneously, Qin's strategic position in Ba and Shu provided it with a platform for launching attacks on the Chu state, which lies downstream of the Yangtze.

Actions against Chu

During the reign of King Huiwen of Qin, the state of Chu to the southeast became a target for Qin's aggression. Although Chu had the largest operation-ready army of all the Seven Warring States at over a million troops, its administrative and military strength was plagued by corruption and divided among the nobles. The Qin strategist Zhang Yi suggested to King Huiwen to exercise Qin's interest at the expense of Chu. Over the following years, Zhang engineered and executed a number of diplomatic plots against Chu, supported by the constant military raids on Chu's north-western border. Chu suffered many defeats in battles against Qin and was forced to cede territories to Qin. King Huai I of Chu was furious and ordered a military campaign against Qin, but he was tricked by Zhang Yi into breaking diplomatic ties with his allies, and his angered allies joined Qin in inflicting a crushing defeat on Chu. In 299 BC, King Huai I was tricked into attending a diplomatic conference in Qin, where he was captured and held hostage until his death. In the meantime, Qin launched several attacks on Chu and eventually sacked the Chu capital city of Chen (; modern Jiangling County, Hubei). The crown prince of Chu fled east and was crowned King Qingxiang of Chu in the new capital city of Shouchun (; modern Shou County, Anhui).

Wars against Zhao, Han, and Wei

In the five decades following King Huiwen's death, King Zhaoxiang of Qin shifted his focus to the central plains after victories in the south against Chu. In the early years of King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Marquis of Rang served as Qin's chancellor and actively advocated for military campaigns against the state of Qi in the far eastern part of China. However, the marquis had personal motives, intending to use Qin's formidable military to secure his own fief in Qi territories, as these lands were not directly linked to Qin and would not be under the Qin government's direct administration.

King Zhaoxiang's foreign adviser, Fan Sui, counselled the king to abandon these fruitless campaigns against distant states. King Zhaoxiang heeded this advice and altered Qin's foreign policy to foster good diplomatic relations with the distant states of Yan and Qi), while focusing on attacking the nearby Zhao, Han, and Wei. As a result, Qin began to launch constant attacks on Han and Wei over the subsequent decades, conquering several territories in its campaigns. By then, Qin's territories had expanded beyond the eastern shore of the Yellow River, and Han and Wei were reduced to the status of "buffers" for Qin against the other states in the east.

Starting from 265 BC, Qin launched a massive invasion on Han and forced Han to cede its territory of Shangdang (; modern Shanxi). However, Han offered Shangdang to Zhao instead, leading to a conflict between Qin and Zhao for control of Shangdang. Qin and Zhao engaged in the three-year-long Battle of Changping, followed by another three-year siege by Qin on Zhao's capital city of Handan. The conflict at Changping was seen as a power struggle, as both sides pitted their forces against each other not only on the battlefield, but also domestically. Although Qin had an abundance of resources and vast manpower, it had to enlist every man above the age of 15 for war-related duties, ranging from front-line service to logistics and agriculture. King Zhaoxiang even personally directed his army's supply lines. Qin's eventual victory in 260 BC was attributed to its use of schemes to stir up internal conflict in Zhao, which led to the replacement of Zhao's military leaders.

Following the Qin victory at the Battle of Changping, the Qin commander, Bai Qi, ordered the 400,000 prisoners of war from Zhao to be executed by burying them alive. Subsequently, the Qin forces marched on the Zhao capital city of Handan in an attempt to conquer Zhao completely. However, the Qin troops were unable to capture Handan as they were already exhausted and also because the Zhao forces put up fierce resistance. King Xiaocheng of Zhao offered six cities to Qin as a peace offer, and King Zhaoxiang of Qin accepted the offer after being persuaded by Fan Sui. Within Zhao, many officials strongly opposed King Xiaocheng's decision to give up the cities, and subsequent delays caused the siege on Handan to be prolonged until 258 BC. Meanwhile, Bai Qi was consecutively replaced by Wang Xi, Wang Ling, and Zheng Anping as the Qin commander at the siege.

In 257 BC, Qin was still unable to penetrate Handan after besieging it for three years, and Zhao requested aid from the neighbouring states of Wei and Chu. Wei was hesitant to help Zhao initially but launched an attack on Qin after seeing that Qin was already exhausted after years of war. The Qin forces crumbled and retreated, and Zheng Anping surrendered. The combined forces of Wei and Chu continued to pursue the retreating Qin army, and Wei managed to retake part of its original lands that were lost to Qin earlier.

Infrastructural works

In the middle of the 3rd century, Zheng Guo, a hydraulic engineer from the state of Han, was dispatched to Qin to advise King Zhaoxiang on the construction of irrigation canals. Qin had a predilection for constructing large-scale canals, as evidenced by its irrigation system for the Min River. King Zhaoxiang approved Zheng Guo's proposal to construct an even larger canal. The project was completed in 264 and the canal was named in honour of Zheng. Qin benefited from the project as it became one of the most fertile states in China due to the efficient irrigation system, and also because it could now muster more troops as a result of increased agricultural yield.

Unification

In 247, the 13-year-old Ying Zheng became King of Qin following the sudden death of King Zhuangxiang. However, Ying Zheng did not fully wield state power until 238, after eliminating his political rivals, Lü Buwei and Lao Ai. Ying formulated a plan for conquering the other six states and unifying China, with assistance from Li Si and Wei Liao.

In 230, Qin attacked Han, the weakest of the Seven Warring States, and succeeded in conquering Han within a year. Since 236, Qin had been launching several assaults on Zhao, which had been devastated by its calamitous defeat at the Battle of Changping three decades earlier. Although Qin faced strong resistance from the Zhao forces, led by General Li Mu, it still managed to defeat the Zhao army by using a ploy to sow discord between King Qian of Zhao and Li Mu, leading King Qian to order Li Mu's execution and replace Li with the less competent Zhao Cong. Zhao eventually fell to Qin in 228 after the capital city of Handan was taken. However, a Zhao noble managed to escape with remnant forces and proclaim himself King in Dai. Dai fell to Qin six years later.

After the fall of Zhao, Qin turned its attention towards Crown Prince Dan of Yan, who had sent Jing Ke to assassinate Ying Zheng, but the assassination attempt failed, and Qin used that as a pretext to attack Yan. Yan lost to Qin at a battle on the eastern bank of the Yi River in 226, and King Xi of Yan fled with remnant forces to Liaodong. Qin attacked Yan again in 222 and annexed Yan completely. In 225, the Qin army, led by Wang Ben, invaded Wei and besieged Wei's capital city of Daliang for three months. Wang directed the waters from the Yellow River and the Hong Canal to flood Daliang; King Jia of Wei surrendered, and Wei was conquered.

In 224, Qin prepared for an attack on Chu, its most powerful rival among the six states. During a discussion between Ying Zheng and his subjects, the veteran general Wang Jian claimed that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, but the younger general Li Xin thought that 200,000 men would suffice. Ying Zheng put Li Xin in command of the Qin army to attack Chu. The Chu defenders, led by Xiang Yan, took Li Xin's army by surprise and defeated the Qin invaders. The defeat was deemed the greatest setback for Qin in its wars to unify China. Ying Zheng put Wang Jian in command of the 600,000-strong army as he had requested and ordered Wang to lead another attack on Chu. Wang scored a major victory against the Chu forces in 224, and Xiang Yan was killed in action. The following year, Qin pushed on and captured Chu's capital city of Shouchun, bringing an end to Chu's existence. In 222, the Qin army advanced southward and annexed the Wuyue region (modern Zhejiang and Jiangsu).

By 221, Qi was the only rival state left. Qin advanced into the heartland of Qi via a southern detour, avoiding direct confrontation with the Qi forces on Qi's western border and arrived swiftly at Qi's capital city of Linzi. The Qi forces were taken by surprise and surrendered without putting up resistance. Following the fall of Qi in 221 BC, China was unified under the rule of Qin. Ying Zheng declared himself "Qin Shi Huang" (meaning "First Emperor of Qin"), founded the Qin dynasty, and became the first sovereign ruler of a united China.

Culture and society

Before Qin unified China, each state had its own customs and culture. According to the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu, composed in the 4th or 5th century BC and included in the Book of Documents, there were nine distinct cultural regions of China, which are described in detail in this book. The work focuses on the travels of the titular sage, Yu the Great, throughout each of the regions. Other texts, predominantly military, also discussed these cultural variations.

One of these texts was the Wuzi, written in response to a query by Marquis Wu of Wei on how to cope with the military threat posed by competing states. Wu Qi, the author of the work, declared that the government and nature of the people were reflective of the terrain they live in. Of Qin, he said:

According to Wu, the character of the populace is a consequence of the government, which in turn is a result of the ruggedness of the terrain. Wu expounds upon each of the states in this manner.

Following a visit to Qin in 264, the Confucian philosopher Xun Kuang observed that Qin society was "simple and unsophisticated", and its people held their officials in awe but were entirely devoid of Confucian literati. Despite being disliked by many Confucians of its time for "dangerously lacking in Confucian scholars", Confucian Xun Kuang wrote of the later Qin that "its topographical features are inherently advantageous", and that its "manifold natural resources gave it remarkable inherent strength. Its people were unspoiled and exceedingly deferential; its officers unfailingly respectful, earnest, reverential, loyal, and trustworthy; and its high officials public-spirited, intelligent, and assiduous in the execution of the duties of their position. Its courts and bureaus functioned without delays and with such smoothness that it was as if there were no government at all."

In his Petition against driving away foreigners, Li Si mentioned that the guzheng and percussion instruments made of pottery and tiles were characteristic of Qin music.

Rulers

List of Qin rulers based on the Records of the Grand Historian with corrections by Han Zhaoqi:

Astronomy

Qin is represented by two stars, Theta Capricorni and 30 Capricorni, in Twelve States asterism. Qin is also represented by the star Delta Serpentis in the Right Wall asterism, part of the Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation).