國號

「高句麗」一詞最早見于《漢書·地理志》：「玄菟、樂浪，武帝時置，皆朝鮮、濊貉、（高）句驪蠻夷。」據《後漢書·東夷傳》記載，漢武帝滅衛滿朝鮮後，以高句麗人之地設縣並以其族名命名縣名。《漢書·地理志》亦記載玄菟郡由高句麗，上殷台，西蓋馬三縣構成。公元前37年，扶餘王子朱蒙在卒本川（今渾江流域，遼寧省桓仁滿族自治縣或吉林省通化市境內）建卒本扶餘。由于卒本扶餘位于前漢設高句麗縣轄地，而扶餘和高句麗屬同族，中文典籍開始將高句麗作為國號使用，簡稱「句麗」。

「高麗」則一詞最早見于東漢李巡注《爾雅》： 「一曰玄菟、二曰樂浪、三曰高驪、四曰滿飾、五曰鳧臾、六曰索家、七曰東屠、八曰倭人、九曰天鄙.。」中國南北朝時期，高句麗的統治者開始冠以「高麗王」的稱號，並且逐漸以高麗作為正式國號，且中國中原政權應高句麗統治者的請求改以高麗作為高句麗的正式簡稱。高句麗滅亡後，渤海國向日本交流的介紹稱呼和新羅末年弓裔建立的後高句麗的初期國號均稱高麗。918年，王建推翻弓裔複改國號為高麗。兩國的使用均體現了東北亞地區高句麗的深遠影響，自此「高麗」長期成為朝鮮半島的歷史地理名稱。宋代，高麗王朝奉上高麗與高句麗繼承關係的「高麗世次」，中國各朝代政權從此不辨兩個高麗。

歷史

建國

據好太王碑、《三國史記》、《魏書》、《周書》、《北史》、《隋書》等韓、中兩國史書和史料記載，漢建昭二年（前37年），高句麗始祖，扶餘王子朱蒙因在扶餘國受到排斥，南下在鴨綠江沿岸卒本川建卒本扶餘，來附者眾多。建國後，高句麗武力驅逐了肅慎，後于漢建昭三年（前36年）吞併了松讓王的沸流國。漢建昭五年（前34年），高句麗定都卒本城，公元前28年滅北沃沮。

漢鴻嘉二年（前19年），朱蒙長子琉璃明王與其母從扶餘國逃到卒本城，被立為太子，是為高句麗第二代君主琉璃明王。漢綏和元年（前8年），高句麗以少勝多降服鮮卑。漢建平二年（前5年）冬，扶餘王帶素率5萬軍隊攻打高句麗，但因天寒，士兵凍死甚多而退。漢元始三年（3年），琉璃明王棄卒本城遷都于國內城。新始建國四年（12年），王莽強行將高句麗人編入遼西郡進攻匈奴等民族。由于高句麗士卒脫逃，王莽怪罪于高句麗王並改高句麗為「下句麗」。新天鳳一年（14年），琉璃明王西伐居住在今太子河流域的梁貊，進而襲取了西漢玄菟郡的高句麗縣。

大武神王期間（18年－43年），高句麗繼續武力擴張，與扶餘交戰，殺死扶餘王帶素。漢建武十三年（37年），大武神王攻克鴨綠江以南的樂浪郡（一說樂浪國），後又先後滅蓋馬、句茶等國。44年，光武帝派兵解救樂浪，使高句麗擴張受挫。

發展期

早期的中興

太祖王時期，高句麗得到進一步的擴張和加強。56年，高句麗吞併東沃沮，後又吞併東濊一部分領土。高句麗在這時期也開始接受其周邊國家的朝貢，也「遣使如漢」。與此同時，高句麗對樂浪郡、玄菟郡和遼東多次發動攻勢，意圖完全擺脫漢朝的牽制。118年，高句麗聯合濊貊攻打玄菟郡華麗城。121年，太祖王「攻玄菟、遼東二郡，焚其城郭，殺獲二千餘人」。同年夏，太祖王合鮮卑共八千人攻遼東，太守蔡諷以下百餘人戰死；同年冬，太祖王合馬韓、濊貊共萬餘攻玄菟郡，但是由于扶餘對漢軍的援助，高句麗的攻擊沒能取得勝利。146年，太祖王襲擾樂浪郡，殺帶方縣令，掠樂浪太守妻子。

漢光和二年（179年），新大王傳位給故國川王。《三國史記》中敘述184年，故國川王親自領兵打退樂浪軍。191年，故國川王採納精英政治制度，依照才能聘任大臣和官員。其中包括任用農民出身的晏留、乙巴素（被任命為高句麗國相），使高句麗出現了治世。

與曹魏、前燕和百濟的戰爭

漢建安二年（197年），故國川王去世，其三弟山上王繼位，遭到其兄拔奇反對，引發內亂。拔奇後投奔遼東公孫度入侵高句麗。迫于遼東軍事壓力，山上王次年開始修築丸都城。209年，丸都城建立完畢後山上王將都城遷移。

魏景初二年（238年），曹魏太尉司馬懿滅公孫淵，設高句麗、高顯、遼陽、望平四縣于玄菟郡。魏正始七年（246年），幽州刺史毌丘儉入侵高句麗，東川王敗走，毌丘儉又屠殺舊丸都內官員數千人，之後退兵。不久又再次進攻，東川王逃到買溝，毌丘儉又派玄菟太守王頎追擊到沃沮。魏軍進一步追擊。但東川王在紐由、密友等的保衛下得以隱匿。次年，東川王修建平壤城。

曹魏的毌丘儉焚燒了丸都城後以為高句麗滅亡了，所以很快就撤離了。70年後（267年），高句麗重建了舊丸都城，並開始襲擊遼東、樂浪和玄菟。隨著高句麗對遼東半島的挺進，晉建興元年（313年），高句麗美川王侵略原漢四郡的最後一郡——樂浪郡。高句麗在朝鮮半島北部處于強勢。

高句麗的對外擴張幾次招來險些亡國。晉咸康八年（342年），前燕慕容皝侵入高句麗，虜走了高句驪百姓五萬多口，最後一把火燒了高句驪王宮，並將新丸都城再次夷為平地。晉建元元年（343年），高句驪重修由于前燕慕容皝東征而被摧毀的新丸都城，並于同年秋天又一次移居新丸都城。4個月後，舊丸都山城就再次毀于戰火。晉太和六年（371年），百濟近肖古王襲擊高句麗最大城市平壤（前樂浪郡治所），並在戰場上殺死了高句麗故國原王。

複興期

高句麗小獸林王繼位後，開始加強高句麗國內的穩定和統一，仿照中原國家公布「律令」（當于憲法和刑法）。晉咸安二年（372年），立佛教為高句麗國教，並建立國家教育機構「太學」。小獸林王還對高句麗軍隊進行了改革。

鼎盛時期

好太王時期

從高句麗好太王繼位起，高句麗開始進入鼎盛時期。根據好太王的兒子長壽王為他所立的好太王碑記載，好太王在一次與扶餘的戰役中就攻克了扶餘64個城池，1,400個村莊。好太王與遼東地區的後燕也互有徵戰；並降服了北部的扶餘國和靺鞨部落；大敗百濟；瓦解了伽倻；並在新羅與百濟、伽倻和倭的戰爭中將新羅變為高句麗的保護國（399年）。就這樣，在好太王時期，朝鮮半島形成了一個長達50年的鬆散統一局面。好太王時期，高句麗在朝鮮半島的面積已達到半島面積的一半。北部包括今中國遼東半島的大部分。

長壽王時期

晉義熙九年（413年），高句麗長壽王登基。由于百濟和新羅的對抗，宋元嘉四年（427年），長壽王遷都到平壤城以加強對百濟和新羅的控制。長壽王延續了其父好太王的擴張政策。5世紀末，長壽王於宋元徽三年（475年）攻破百濟首都漢山城，殺百濟蓋鹵王，併吞漢江流域，使國家在半島領土的面積增加成3/4，他又吞併了一些扶餘，靺鞨和契丹部落；與北魏交鋒。到長壽王末年時，高句麗人口增加到九萬戶，疆域也空前擴大，其南境自牙山灣經鳥嶺、竹嶺到平海與百濟、新羅相接，擴大到今朝鮮大同江、載寧江、臨津江、漢江沿岸，為高句麗全盛時期。據《魏書·高句麗列傳》載，其「魏時，其地東西二千里，南北一千餘里」，即東臨日本海，西濱黃海，南到漢江流域，北抵遼河為界，是東北亞地區最為強大的王國之一，此時高句麗威名傳至中原，南北朝雙方朝廷都對高句麗王以「樂浪郡王」的冊封。齊永明九年（491年），長壽王死後，扶餘被勿吉國滅亡後扶餘人內附于高句麗，國力達到最大狀態。

6世紀末和7世紀初的混亂

高句麗在6世紀達到鼎盛後，開始走向平世。高句麗安藏王被刺殺後，其兄安原王繼位。在安原王時期，王室間的紛爭加劇。兩政治集團對王位繼承進行爭鬥，最後年僅8歲的陽原王登基。不過對權力的爭奪並沒有結束。反對派的幕僚們開始建設自己的軍隊，對自己的領地進行實際上的控制。內憂外患，6世紀50年代，高句麗北疆受到契丹的襲擊。但高句麗內部的幕僚爭奪依然繼續。梁大寶二年（551年），百濟和新羅聯合隋朝開始攻打高句麗。隋開皇六年（586年），高句麗平原王將都城由平壤城遷至長安城（即今朝鮮平壤市區），直至高句麗滅亡。歷時83年。

6世紀末和7世紀初，高句麗開始與隋、唐頻頻交戰。高句麗與百濟和新羅的關係在這一時期很複雜，一會兒是友，一會兒是敵。

丟失漢江流域

梁大寶二年（551年），百濟和新羅聯手攻打高句麗。高句麗從此失去具有重要戰略意義的朝鮮半島中部之肥沃的漢江流域。百濟新羅聯盟的主戰者百濟在對高句麗的戰爭幾乎精疲力盡。梁承聖二年（553年），新羅以幫百濟的名義出兵。但卻對百濟發動了攻勢，最後將整個漢江流域全部納入囊中。怒于新羅的背叛，百濟聖王第二年攻新羅西部以報複，但被新羅擒住，後被處死。

朝鮮半島中部的戰爭，對朝鮮半島的格局產生了深遠的影響。新羅對百濟的攻擊使百濟成了朝鮮半島的最弱者。新羅由于攻取人口眾多而富饒的漢江流域，給其日後吞併朝鮮半島奠定良好基礎。相反，高句麗卻因丟失漢江流域而國力大減。另外新羅獲得漢江流域後，疆域西界毗鄰黃海，使其可以和中原王朝直接貿易和建立外交。這樣新羅就不再依賴高句麗而是直接從中原王朝學到先進的文化與技術。新羅與中原王朝的直接溝通與聯盟最終使得在七世紀中期邀請唐軍赴朝鮮半島作戰，給高句麗帶來災難性的後果。

隋與高句麗的戰爭

隋開皇九年（589年）四月，隋吞併南陳後，開始要求周邊國家為其臣屬。高句麗與隋朝的關係逐漸進入戰爭狀態。隋開皇十年（590年），高句麗平原王「治兵積穀，為守拒之策」，隨時準備迎戰隋朝大軍。隋開皇十八年（598年），高句麗先發制人突襲遼西的營州，激怒隋文帝，引發高句麗與隋朝第一次戰爭。隋文帝遣三十萬兵分水陸兩路入侵高句麗。但隋軍因遭大雨，運糧困難，水軍遭遇風暴，與高句麗交戰損失慘重。

隋大業三年（607年），楊廣發現高句麗與隋朝的「藩屬」突厥汗國締結聯盟。導致隋大業八年（612年），心懷不滿的隋煬帝親率三十萬軍隊兵分陸路和海路同時入侵高句麗，但遭到高句麗的強烈抵抗，隋軍潰敗而逃。隋大業九年（613年）和隋大業十年（614年）；隋煬帝再次率軍親征高句麗，但因楊玄感起兵反隋煬帝，和高句麗投降並交還叛逃的隋將斛斯政，使得隋對高句麗的這兩次戰役無功而返。隋大業十二年（615年）楊廣又打算侵略高句麗，但由于隋內亂加劇，攻打高句麗的計劃沒實行。

隋對高句麗頻繁發動的侵略戰爭使隋朝國力衰落，早在征伐高句麗之前的隋大業六年（610年）和隋大業七年（611年）就先後爆發了民變，但被迅速鎮壓，在這之後就爆發隋末民變。隋皇泰二年（619年），隋朝滅亡。不過隋與高句麗的戰爭也削弱了高句麗的國力。

唐與高句麗的戰爭和與新羅的聯盟

隋朝攻打高句麗失利後，國內發生民變而滅亡。高句麗對于繼起的唐朝仍然保持警惕。唐貞觀五年（631年），高句麗開始在遼東建千里長城以防止唐朝的進攻，並與突厥聯盟。唐朝第二代皇帝唐太宗李世民雖然以高句麗據有的「遼東」（當時的「遼東」的概念略同于漢朝四郡的範圍，即中國東北遼河以東地區以及朝鮮半島的北部）為「舊中國之有」，而今「九瀛大定，唯此一隅」，但他決心侵犯高句麗，則是由于淵蓋蘇文引發。642年高句麗將軍淵蓋蘇文刺殺榮留王後，不斷征討大唐屬國新羅，對宗主國無禮，使唐與高句麗的關係緊張。

唐貞觀十九年（645年），唐太宗入侵高句麗，占領高句麗千里長城防線的十座城，但安市城主（18世紀以後朝鮮的筆記小說稱其名為楊萬春）堅守安市兩個多月，唐軍因冬天來臨且糧草將盡主動撤離。但唐軍攻占的遼州、蓋州、岩州和卑沙城等重要山城都有人據守，使高句麗在遼東勢力削弱。647年、648年，唐軍萬人繼續打擊遼東其餘高句麗城，使高句麗防線被迫向鴨綠江南岸收縮。

唐顯慶五年（660年），唐和新羅的聯軍滅亡了高句麗西南的盟國百濟。隨後的661年—662年，唐與新羅的聯軍持續進攻高句麗。雖然兩國的攻擊消耗了高句麗的國力，但淵蓋蘇文在世期間，唐和新羅一直沒能完全吞併高句麗。

唐龍朔二年（662年）後，淵蓋蘇文離世後淵家族內部鬥爭間接導致了高句麗失去對遼東的影響力。

滅亡

唐乾封元年（666年），淵蓋蘇文去世後，淵蓋蘇文長子淵男生到前方視察軍情備戰。讓兩個弟弟淵男建和淵男產留守平壤。淵男建和淵男產認為他叛逃到唐，並要求高句麗寶藏王通緝淵男生。淵男生變節投靠唐朝並被唐重用。淵男生率領唐軍攻打高句麗，以期望能奪回大權。許多高句麗護城將領見到淵男生紛紛放棄抵抗。淵男生投靠唐朝成為唐與高句麗的戰爭的重要轉折點。由于淵男生為唐朝提供了可靠的高句麗軍事情報，唐朝于是大幅增加了攻打高句麗的兵力。

唐乾封元年十月十七日（666年11月18日），以李世勣為遼東道行軍大總管兼安撫大使，以司列少常伯郝處俊副之，與契苾何力、龐同善糾集15萬兵力入侵高句麗。詔獨孤卿雲由鴨淥道，郭待封由積利道，在百濟故地駐守的劉仁願由畢列道，新羅金仁問由海谷道，並為行軍總管，與運糧使竇義積，皆受李世勣節度，河北諸州租賦悉詣遼東給軍用。唐乾封二年（667年），李勣在推進途中遇到高句麗軍民極其頑強的抵抗，進攻受到限制，但仍然攻陷高句麗新城（今遼寧撫順北高爾山城），由于新城有著極其重要的戰略地位，新城的淪陷對于高句麗西線戰線來講是毀滅性的打擊；後薛仁貴以策略拿下南蘇、木底、蒼岩三城，與帶路的淵男生順利在鴨綠江附近集合；李勣等攻取扶餘城後，又攻下大行城（今遼寧丹東西南娘娘城）。經過了漫長的冬天，唐總章元年（668年）春夏，各路唐軍在鴨綠江邊集結。高句麗發動最後的反擊，唐軍依然繼續推進到平壤城。高句麗經過了數個月的守城，淵男產被寶藏王委派投降，但淵男建拒絕投降。唐總章元年九月十二日（668年10月22日），高句麗僧人信誠打開平壤城門，唐軍攻入平壤，淵男建被俘虜投降。

與此同時，在南線由于金庾信的攻勢，淵蓋蘇文的弟弟淵淨土向新羅投降。就這樣高句麗由于內部紛爭，長年饑荒和唐與新羅南北聯合夾擊下最終滅亡。

高句麗被滅國後，唐分其境為九都督府、四十二州、一百縣，並于平壤設安東都護府以統之，任命右威衛大將軍薛仁貴為檢校安東都護，領兵二萬鎮守其地，試圖控制朝鮮半島。但遭到了新羅的反擊。新羅擁立投降的淵淨土的兒子安勝為高句麗王（史稱報德王），賞賜金姓。並協助高句麗移民策動叛亂。經過數年的反唐戰爭，新羅最終控制朝鮮半島大同江以南地區。大同江以北則由唐和後來崛起的渤海國瓜分。

後繼複國運動

唐總章元年（668年），高句麗滅亡後大批高句麗遺民展開了反對唐和新羅聯盟的運動。其中較為著名的有劍牟岑，乞乞仲象和大祚榮等。唐曾多次試圖在高句麗東部故地建立都督府以控制此地，但都失敗了。唐為控制原高句麗故地而設置的安東都護府，最初是由薛仁貴來管理的。後來唐朝任命高句麗寶藏王高藏為遼東州都督、朝鮮王。由于寶藏王支持抗唐被流放。寶藏王的兒子高德武接管了安東都督府。日本學者日野開三郎在其著《小高句麗國の研究》中描述高句麗滅亡後，高句麗王族後代在遼東和朝鮮半島大同江以北建立了複興政權小高句麗。但是由于史料較少，所以不被學術界所公認。

高句麗滅亡後，高句麗大將劍牟岑最初在百濟故地漢城立寶藏王后裔安勝為王，試圖重建高句麗，並得到了新羅文武王金法敏的支持。但後來由于內部紛爭，劍牟岑被謀殺，安勝投靠到新羅。新羅給了安勝一片土地，讓他建立了報德國。唐永淳二年（683年），新羅神文王因擔心叛亂將報德國吞併。安勝被賜予新羅王室的「金」姓。

粟末靺鞨酋長乞乞仲象和他的兒子大祚榮原都是高句麗統治下的靺鞨人大將。唐總章元年九月十二日（668年10月22日），高句麗滅亡，三十年後，即武周聖曆元年（698年），乞乞仲象和大祚榮在高句麗故地建立起震國並從唐朝手裡獲得了原屬高句麗的部分國土。乞乞仲象去世後，唐先天二年（713年），震國接受唐朝冊封的「渤海郡王」，與唐朝建立了藩屬關係。渤海國控制了朝鮮半島大同江以北、今中國東北地區東南部和俄羅斯濱海邊疆區部分地方。今朝鮮半島大同江以南則隸屬于新羅。

安史之亂期間，高句麗遺民李正己在營州加入唐朝平盧節度使軍隊，後隨唐軍南遷山東淄青，在成為淄青節度使後，成為今山東地區的割據藩鎮，名義上是唐朝的藩鎮。這是在歸化唐朝的高句麗人中，少有的歷史名人。唐建中二年（781年），李正己病死後，其藩鎮被其後裔李納、李師古和李師道繼承。李納在唐朝削藩時，曾公開反唐，自稱齊王，李氏政權直到唐元和十四年（819年）滅亡。

唐天祐二年（905年），弓裔自稱後高麗王，後改國號為泰封。後梁貞明四年（918年），王建稱王，國號高麗。泰封和高麗先後相繼，都自稱繼承高句麗。有些高句麗人到了日本。

政治體制

高句麗王位以世襲方式傳承，王以下有部落首領，稱大加、相加或古雛加，合稱為「諸加」，與扶餘國相同。王的臣僚包括沛者或對盧（即宰相）、主簿、優台、丞、使者、皂衣、先人，而諸加同樣有類似臣僚制度。諸加可支配下戶（百姓）、奴婢，數目達萬人。受支配的下戶、奴婢需向諸加供以穀物、魚鹽。

高句麗由諸加審理共論犯法案件，重罪者死，其妻沒為奴婢，竊盜罪賠償12倍。諸加也評論國政，高句麗的王有時也受制肘。

中國史書記載高句麗分為五部：一是桂婁部，也叫內部或黃部；二是絕奴部，也叫北部或後部；三是順奴部，也叫東部或左部；四是灌奴部，或譯為貫那部，也叫南部或前部；五是消奴部，也叫西部或右部。

關於高句麗的官職，在各史料中記載皆有不同。現將各史料中高句麗官職列於下表：

社會文化

公元4世紀左右，隨著中國文字、儒家思想和教育制度的傳入，學校教育開始在高句麗出現。據《三國史記》記載，小獸林王二年（372年），高句麗「立太學，教育子弟」。這是朝鮮半島最早的學校教育。太學以貴族子弟為教育對象，傳授中國的古典和儒學。高句麗在地方設有面向百姓的最早私學-扃堂，其教育內容主要是讀書和射箭。

高句麗人是農耕民族，農作物有米、粟、麥等，但早期疆域局限於長白山脈，同時代的中國史書言其國多大山深谷，無原澤良田，雖力作卻不足以實腹，節食為俗，好治宮室。每年10月舉行秋收祭典「東盟」，祭祀國祖神、隧穴神（衪有農業神的性質，從洞穴中迎出，移到鴨綠江邊國內城的木製神象，象徵水神與日神交接，東盟的高潮），陽光與水是作物生產基礎，有求豐收之意，其間人民飲酒歌舞慶祝。也有養馬，朱蒙的果下馬是高句麗的土種馬。高句麗與勿吉、鮮卑不同，不剪髮與辮髮，而是結髮為髻（與扶餘相同），這種東盟祭不是只是在桂婁部進行，五部也進行，但整個過程中主祭是國王。

高句麗社會崇尚厚葬，以石為棺，加以金銀等貴重陪葬物，外層多次封墳，砌成石塚。高句麗有二座神廟，一是祭祀扶餘神（柳花夫人）由朱蒙立祀，一是祭祀登高神（朱蒙）由大武神王立。周書/卷49中記載：「一曰夫余神，刻木作婦人之象；一曰登高神，雲是其始祖夫余神之子。並置官司，遣人守護。蓋河伯女與朱蒙雲。」舊唐書卷199上記載後世的高句麗「頗有箕子之遺風」，「其俗多淫祀，事靈星神、日神、可汗神、箕子神。」

婚俗方面，高句麗行一夫一妻制，並允許男女以己意自由婚配，即所謂「有婚嫁，取男女相悅，即為之」。成婚後男方入住由女家準備的「婿屋」（在婿屋中受辱，通過外家考驗，可結婚，待兒女長大，男方才可攜妻兒返回男家），是母系社會產品。高句麗社會雖實行一夫一妻制，但「其俗尚淫」，並不認為男女之間有染可恥。在這種風俗之下，「男女多相奔誘」。可見未婚男女和已婚男女中，性關係隨便而不受約束，「兄死妻嫂」（如山上王續娶兄長故國川王之妻），寡婦改嫁，均屬常見。「多詐偽，言辭鄙穢，不簡親疏，乃至同川而浴，共室而寢。風俗好淫，不以為愧。有游女者，夫無常人。婚娶之禮，略無財幣，若受財者，謂之賣婢，俗甚恥之。」

國王世代與絕奴部通婚，通過婚姻關係確保自己的政治地位。

文學

《留記》是高句麗自建國之初(公元一世紀)就開始編纂的大型記事史書，共計100卷。公元600年，高句麗太學博士李文真在《留記》的基礎上，又修撰了《新集》五大卷。後世文獻中還出現了大量朝鮮三國時期的史書名字。然而，這些文獻大多在唐高句麗戰爭後遭唐軍焚毀，可供參考的留世典籍很少。據李德懋（1741-1793）之《青莊館全書·紀年兒覽序》，「唐李勣平高句麗，聚東方書籍于平壤，忌其文物不讓中國，舉以焚之。新羅之末，甄萱據完山，輸置三國遺書，蕩為灰燼。此三千年來二大厄也。」

《箜篌引》是首個被翻譯成漢語而保留下來的高句麗歌謠，記載于東漢蔡邕的《琴操·九引》和西晉崔豹的《古今注·音樂》中。此歌全篇僅16字，但意尤深遠。朝鮮古籍中還留有少數《玄鶴》、《來遠城》、《延陽》、《溟州》等高句麗鄉曲的名稱，但並沒有留下歌詞。這些鄉曲在朝鮮文學史上發揮了重要的影響。

琉璃明王創作的四言詩《黃鳥歌》是朝鮮半島現存最早的漢詩。曾到中國北周留學的高句麗僧人定法師在高句麗平原王在位期間創作有五言寫景律詩《詠孤石》，流傳至今。《遣于仲文詩》是高句麗大將乙支文德在隋與高句麗的戰爭期間寫給隋將于仲文的五言詩，勸他「知足」退兵。該詩用詞巧妙，不卑不亢，是首被歷代稱頌的作品。

現存最早的朝鮮漢文散文是高句麗大武神王寫給漢遼東太守的一封書函。公元28年，漢遼東太守率兵侵犯高句麗，高句麗閉城固守。漢軍原以為城內無水，久守城外期待高句麗不戰自降。猜測出漢軍意圖後，高句麗大武神王從池中釣了一條鯉魚，用水草包裹好，並附了封信和酒，派人一起送到漢營。信上寫道：「寡人愚昧，獲罪于上國，致令上將軍率百萬之軍，暴露敝境。無以將厚意，輒用薄物致供左右。」遼東軍見到鯉魚和水草後，認為城中有水，一時很難攻陷，逐退兵。

現存的高句麗的散文還包括一些碑誌和銘文。現存于中國吉林省集安市的《好太王陵碑文》是高句麗長壽王于公元414年為其父廣開土大王而立。整篇碑文共1800餘字，由高句麗建國神話、廣開土大王南征北伐的豐功偉績、守墓煙戶情況以及有關守墓的教諭和制令四部分組成，是朝鮮古代碑誌的代表作。此外，朝鮮三國的碑誌還有高句麗的《牟頭婁墓誌文》、《新羅真興王巡狩四碑》和百濟的《武寧王墓誌》等。其中立于現今昌寧、北漢山、磨雲嶺、黃草嶺的新羅真興王巡狩四碑碑誌中寫有「聯紹太祖之基，篡承王統，兢身自慎，四方托境，廣獲民土。鄰國誓言，和使交通」，顯示出新羅當時的興盛狀況。

宗教信仰

高句麗人信仰多神崇拜，是薩滿文化的反映。《新唐書·高麗傳》載高句麗「俗多淫祀」，表明高句麗的多神文化。據《後漢書·東夷·高句麗傳》記載高句麗「以十月祭天大會，名曰『東盟』」，可見高句麗有祭天的風俗，並在每年的10月份舉辦盛大的祭天儀式。高句麗壁畫墓多繪有日月神像，表明其有日月星辰崇拜。高句麗五盔墳四號墓「日月神繪于北角二層抹角石上，人首蛇身。日神居左，男相，披髮，雙手捧日輪于頭上，日中有三足鳥，月神居右，長發女相，雙手捧月輪于頭上，月中有蟾蜍。」長川一號墓後室藻井頂部繪日神（三足鳥）、月神（塘蜍與免）和北斗七星圖。高句麗古墓壁畫中也有位列中國史籍與傳說中的三皇五帝中的三皇、伏羲、女媧和神農氏，箕子表明高句麗深受傳統中國文化影響。

高句麗人崇拜三足烏、龍和鳳。高句麗的三足烏文化由中國中原地區傳入。三足烏又被稱為金烏，體現古代中國人對鳥和太陽的崇拜。高句麗人對三足烏的這種崇拜在高句麗古墓壁畫中有描述。

隨著佛教從中國傳入高句麗，佛教地位在高句麗不斷提高。故國壤王時期，佛教被定為高句麗國教。

高句麗舞蹈

高句麗是個喜歌擅舞的民族。《三國志》卷30《魏書·東夷傳·高句驪》記載：「其民喜歌舞，國中邑落，暮夜男女相聚，相就歌戲」。高句麗壁畫上也繪有各種的舞蹈，其中中國集安高句麗古墳壁畫繪有「長鼓舞」，朝鮮黃海道安岳第三號墳墓和八青里墳墓群的壁畫上繪有「刀舞」。這些舞蹈形式在朝鮮族的傳統舞蹈中傳承。高句麗壁畫上的「西瓜遊戲」、「扇舞」也可以看到現代朝鮮族「西瓜舞」、「扇舞」的影子。

高句麗建築

高句麗建築富有濃厚的高句麗地域和文化特色。今存遺蹟多是山城和墓葬。

世界文化遺產

高句麗遺民

高句麗遺民裡一部分變為渤海人，渤海國滅亡前後和複國運動過程中部分渤海人遷入到高麗王朝境內融入高麗人，複國運動過程中被契丹俘虜的一部分人融入契丹，金元大部分逐漸融入漢族。

高句麗王族和百濟王族被遷到唐朝境內，在洛陽北邙山一帶發掘面世的高句麗王族泉男生、泉男產、泉獻誠、高慈、高震、泉毖，以及百濟王族扶餘隆的墓誌銘，清末民初著名金石學者羅振玉編成《唐代海東藩閥志存》一書。

中國社會科學院的楊保隆認為有1/3到一半的高句麗人曾被內遷至內地，並且成為中國內地一重要的武人集團，在唐末五代歷史中扮演了重要的角色。

高句麗王族高麗若光率領高句麗遺民1799人亡命到日本，在日本武藏國開拓高麗郡，並建立高麗神社。甲斐國巨麻郡，河內國大縣郡，河內國若江郡巨麻鄉，山城國相樂郡大狛鄉、下狛鄉也有高句麗人。

高句麗相關現代爭議

對于高句麗的歷史歸屬，中國大陸、朝鮮與韓國學者存在爭議。2004年8月22日，中韓兩國就高句麗歷史問題達成《五項諒解事項》。此後，兩國領導人都在不同場合表示遵守《五項諒解事項》，學術與政治分開，現實與歷史分開，正確對待，妥善處理，不讓爭議影響兩國關係。

延伸閱讀

注釋

Names and etymology

The kingdom was originally called Guryeo (Old Korean: 句麗, Yale: Kwulye, ) or something similar to kaukuri), Both words were derived from "忽" (*kuru or *kolo) which meant castle or fortress. The word was possibly a Wanderwort like the Middle Mongolian qoto-n.

Several possible cognates for 忽 exist as well, which was used at a later stage as an administrative subdivision with the spelling of hwol , as in 買忽 mwoyhwol/michwuhwol , alongside the likely cognate of 骨 kwol . Nam Pung-hyun presents it also as a Baekje term, probably a cognate with the Goguryeo word with the same meaning and spelling.

The iteration of 徐羅伐 Syerapel as 徐羅城 *SyeraKUY equated the Old Korean word for village, 伐 pel with the Old Japanese one for castle 城 ki, considered a borrowing from Baekje 己 *kuy, in turn a borrowing from Goguryeo 忽 *kolo. Middle Korean 골〯 kwǒl ko̞ɭ and ᄀᆞ옳 kòwòlh kʌ̀.òl ("district") are likely descended from *kolo.

The name Goguryeo (; ), which means "high castle", is a combination of Guryeo and the prefix Go. The name came from Goguryeo-hyeon, a subdivision that was established by the Xuantu Commandery. As Han influence over Korea declined, Goguryeo-hyeon became the center of the early Goguryeo union.

From the mid-5th century, Goguryeo was shortened to the calque of Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, Kwòwlyéy), which by itself had the meaning of "high and beautiful".

History

Origins

The earliest record of the name of Goguryeo can be traced to geographic monographs in the Book of Han and is first attested as the name of one of the subdivisions of the Xuantu Commandery, established along the trade routes within the Amnok river basin following the destruction of Gojoseon in 113 BC. The American historian Christopher Beckwith offers the alternative proposal that the Guguryeo people were first located in or around Liaoxi (western Liaoning and parts of Inner Mongolia) and later migrated eastward, pointing to another account in the Book of Han. The early Goguryeo tribes from whom the administrative name is derived were located close to or within the area of control of the Xuantu Commandery. Its tribal leaders also appeared to have held the ruler title of "marquis" over said nominal Gaogouli/Goguryeo county. The collapse of the first Xuantu Commandery in 75 BC is generally attributed to the military actions of the Goguryeo natives. In the Old Book of Tang (945), it is recorded that Emperor Taizong refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century Samguk sagi and the 13th-century Samguk yusa, a prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Amnok/Yalu and Hun River basin.

In 75 BC, a group of Yemaek who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's Xuantu Commandery west of the Yalu. The first mention of Goguryeo as a group label associated with Yemaek tribes is a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryeo revolt in 12 AD, during which they broke away from the influence of the Xuantu Commandery.

According to Book 37 of the Samguk sagi, Goguryeo originated north of ancient China, then gradually moved east to the side of Taedong River. At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms. The Records of the Three Kingdoms, in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", implied that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke a similar language.

Chinese people were also in Gorguyeo. Book 28 of Samguk sagi stated that "many people of China fled to East of the Sea due to the chaos of war by Qin and Han". Later Han dynasty established the Four Commanderies, and in 12 AD Goguryeo made its first attack on the Xuantu Commandery. The population of Xuantu Commandery was about 221,845 in 2 AD, and they lived in the commandery's three counties of Gaogouli, Shangyintai, and Xigaima. Later on, Goguryeo gradually annexed all the Four Commanderies of Han during its expansion.

Both Goguryeo and Baekje shared founding myths and originated from Buyeo.

Jumong and the foundation myth

The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th-century Gwanggaeto Stele. Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 Jumong, 鄒牟 Chumo, or 仲牟 Jungmo.

The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of Habaek, the god of the Amnok River or, according to an alternative interpretation, the sun god Haebak. The Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa. Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named Haemosu who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince." The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River due to her pregnancy, where she met and became the concubine of Geumwa.

Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave Eastern Buyeo. The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from Buyeo and the Samguk yusa and Samguk sagi say he came from Eastern Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to Jolbon, where he married Soseono, daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of his followers from his native country.

A traditional account from the "Annals of Baekje" section in the Samguk sagi says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal, a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon and married to Jumong. However, the same source officially states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong, who had escaped with his followers from Eastern Buyeo, in marriage. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support in founding the new statelet, Goguryeo. After Yuri, son of Jumong and his first wife, Lady Ye, came from Dongbuyeo and succeeded Jumong, she left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms, one of which was Baekje.

Jumong's given surname was "Hae", the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk yusa, Jumong changed his surname to "Go" in conscious reflection of his divine parentage. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu in 36 BC, Haeng-in in 33 BC, and Northern Okjeo in 28 BC.

Centralization and early expansion (mid-first century)

Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun River drainage. In the time of Taejodae in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern Manchuria and northern Korea, which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from the region to feed its population and thus, following historical pastoralist tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also aided expansion, allowing Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and dominate them politically and economically.

Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of what is now northeastern Korea as well as the Dongye and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Taejodae led Goguryeo in attacking the Han Commanderies of Lelang and Xuantu on the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from them.

Generally, Taejodae allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line; tribes under Goguryeo's jurisdiction were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejodae and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing Goguryeo's expansion to the north and west. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, stabilizing the royal court.

The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong Commandery to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord Gongsun Kang established the Daifang Commandery by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. Balgi, a brother of King Sansang of Goguryeo, defected to Kang and asked for Kang's aid to help him take the throne of Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo defeated the first invasion and killed Balgi, in 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo. Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Hwando.

Goguryeo–Wei Wars

In the chaos following the fall of the Han dynasty, the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of Cao Wei in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery.

When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. Thus, Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei War in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, the Wei state responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. The capital at Hwando was destroyed by Wei forces in 244. It is said that Dongcheon, with his army destroyed, fled for a while to the Okjeo state in the east. Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok; according to the Samguk sagi, Jungcheon assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies.

Revival and further expansion (300 to 390)

In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital Hwando and again began to raid the Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years. From that point on, until the 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of Gogukwon in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol Xianbei people occupied northern China; during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan, ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the Queen Dowager and Queen prisoner, and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula. In 371, Geunchogo of Baekje killed Gogukwon in the Battle of Chiyang and sacked Pyongyang, one of Goguryeo's largest cities.

Sosurim, who succeeded the slain Gogukwon, reshaped the nation's institutions to save it from a great crisis. Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the state religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak. Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered at the hands of the Xianbei and Baekje, Sosurim instituted military reforms aimed at preventing such defeats in the future. Sosurim's internal arrangements laid the groundwork for Gwanggaeto's expansion. His successor and the father of Gwanggaeto the Great, Gogukyang, invaded Later Yan, the successor state of Former Yan, in 385 and Baekje in 386.

Goguryeo used its military to protect and exploit semi-nomadic peoples, who served as vassals, foot soldiers, or slaves, such as the Okjeo people in the northeast end of the Korean peninsula, and the Mohe people in Manchuria, who would later become the Jurchens.

Zenith of Goguryeos Power (391 to 531 AD)

Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu. During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the Korean Peninsula, including what is now Seoul, almost all of Manchuria, and parts of Inner Mongolia. There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in now Mongolia, based on discoveries of Goguryeo fortress ruins in Mongolia.

Gwanggaeto the Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic emperor who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm. He instituted the era name of Yeongnak or Eternal Rejoicing, affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland. Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns. To the west, he destroyed neighboring Khitan tribes and invaded Later Yan, conquering the entire Liaodong Peninsula; to the north and east, he annexed much of Buyeo and conquered the Sushen, who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus; and to the south, he defeated and subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of Gaya, and vassalized Silla after defending it from a coalition of Baekje, Gaya, and Wa. Gwanggaeto brought about a loose unification of the Korean Peninsula, and achieved undisputed control of most of Manchuria and over two thirds of the Korean Peninsula.

Gwanggaeto's exploits were recorded on a huge memorial stele erected by his son Jangsu, located in present-day Ji'an on the border between China and North Korea.

Jangsu (r. 413–491) ascended to the throne in 413 and moved the capital in 427 to Pyongyang, a more suitable region to grow into a burgeoning metropolitan capital, which led Goguryeo to achieve a high level of cultural and economic prosperity. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Songhua River to the north. He invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the Didouyu, located in eastern Mongolia, with his Rouran allies. Like his father, Jangsu also achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He defeated Baekje and Silla and gained large amounts of territory from both. In addition, Jangsu's long reign saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements. Jangsu ruled Goguryeo for 79 years until the age of 98, the longest reign in East Asian history.

During the reign of Munja, Goguryeo completely annexed Buyeo, signifying Goguryeo's furthest-ever expansion north, while continuing its strong influence over the kingdoms of Silla and Baekje, and the tribes of Wuji and Khitan.

Internal strife (531 to 551)

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, however, it began a steady decline. Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as renegade magistrates with private armies appointed themselves de facto rulers of their areas of control.

Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551.

Conflicts of the late 6th and 7th centuries

In the late 6th and early 7th centuries, Goguryeo was often in military conflict with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Its relations with Baekje and Silla were complex and alternated between alliances and enmity. A neighbor in the northwest were the Eastern Türks which was a nominal ally of Goguryeo.

Goguryeos loss of the Han River Valley

In 551 AD, Baekje and Silla entered into an alliance to attack Goguryeo and conquer the Han River valley, an important strategic area close to the center of the peninsula and a very rich agricultural region. After Baekje exhausted themselves with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortifications, Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked and took possession of the entire Han River valley in 553. Incensed by this betrayal, Seong launched a retaliatory strike against Silla's western border in the following year but was captured and killed.

The war, along the middle of the Korean peninsula, had very important consequences. It effectively made Baekje the weakest player on the Korean Peninsula and gave Silla an important resource and population rich area as a base for expansion. Conversely, it denied Goguryeo the use of the area, which weakened the kingdom. It also gave Silla direct access to the Yellow Sea, opening up direct trade and diplomatic access to the Chinese dynasties and accelerating Silla's adoption of Chinese culture. Thus, Silla could rely less on Goguryeo for elements of civilization and could get culture and technology directly from China. This increasing tilt of Silla to China would result in an alliance that would prove disastrous for Goguryeo in the late 7th century.

Goguryeo–Sui War

The Sui dynasty's reunification of China for the first time in centuries was met with alarm in Goguryeo, and Pyeongwon of Goguryeo began preparations for a future war by augmenting military provisions and training more troops. Although Sui was far larger and stronger than Goguryeo, the Baekje-Silla Alliance that had driven Goguryeo from the Han Valley had fallen apart, and thus Goguryeo's southern border was secure. Initially, Goguryeo tried to appease Sui by offering tribute as Korean kingdoms had done under the Tributary system of China. However, Goguryeo continued insistence on an equal relationship with Sui, its reinstatement of the imperial title "Taewang" (Emperor in Korean) of the East and its continued raids into Sui territory greatly angered the Sui Court. Furthermore, Silla and Baekje, both under threat from Goguryeo, requested Sui assistance against Goguryeo as all three Korean kingdoms had desired to seize the others' territories to rule the peninsula, and attempted to curry Sui's favor to achieve these goals.

Goguryeo's expansion and its attempts to equalize the relationship conflicted with Sui China and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi which led to the Battle of Linyuguan, but was beaten back by Sui forces. This caused Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.

Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui dynasty, mobilized 30 division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the Liao River, a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies.

However, Goguryeo was able to defeat the Sui navy, thus when the Sui's nine division armies finally reached Pyongyang, they didn't have the supplies for a lengthy siege. Sui troops retreated, but General Eulji Mundeok led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui into an ambush outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which split the Sui army and cut off their escape route. Of the original 305,000 soldiers of Sui's nine division armies, it is said that only 2,700 escaped to Sui China.

The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch—the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered a truce and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule and his failed attempts to conquer Goguryeo. They could not attack further because the provinces in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support.

Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty.

Goguryeo–Silla War, Goguryeo-Tang War and the Silla–Tang alliance

First campaign in the Goguryeo–Tang War.

In the winter of 642, King Yeongnyu was apprehensive about Yeon Gaesomun, one of the great nobles of Goguryeo, and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a coup d'état. He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as King Bojang while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the Dae Magniji (; a position equivalent to a modern era dual office of prime minister and generalissimo). At the outset of his rule, Yeon Gaesomun took a brief conciliatory stance toward Tang China. For instance, he supported Taoism at the expense of Buddhism, and to this effect in 643, sent emissaries to the Tang court requesting Taoist sages, eight of whom were brought to Goguryeo. This gesture is considered by some historians as an effort to pacify Tang and buy time to prepare for the Tang invasion Yeon thought inevitable given his ambitions to annex Silla.

However, Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against Silla Korea and Tang China. Soon, Goguryeo formed an alliance with Baekje and invaded Silla, Daeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses were conquered by the Goguryeo-Baekje alliance. Since the early 7th century, Silla had been forced on the defensive by both Baekje and Goguryeo, which had not yet formally allied but had both desired to erode Sillan power in the Han Valley. During the reign of King Jinpyeong of Silla, numerous fortresses were lost to both Goguryeo and the continuous attacks took a toll on Silla and its people. During Jinpyeong's reign, Silla made repeated requests beseeching Sui China to attack Goguryeo. Although these invasions were ultimately unsuccessful, in 643, once again under pressure from the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Jinpyeong's successor, Queen Seondeok of Silla, requested military aid from Tang. Although Taizong had initially dismissed Silla's offers to pay tribute and its requests for an alliance on account of Seondeok being a woman, he later accepted the offer due to Goguryeo's growing belligerence and hostile policy towards both Silla and Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo.

In 645, Emperor Taizong, who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where Emperor Yang had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important Yodong/Liaodong Fortress (遼東城, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning). During his first campaign against Goguryeo, Taizong famously showed generously to the defeated inhabitants of numerous Goguryeo fortresses, refusing to permit his troops to loot downs and enslave inhabitants and when faced with protest from his commanders and soldiers, rewarded them with his own money. Ansi City (in modern Haicheng, Liaoning), which was the last fortress that would clear the Liaodong Peninsula of significant defensive works and was promptly put under siege. Initially, Taizong and his forces achieve great progress, when his numerically inferior force smashed a Goguryeo relief force at the Battle of Mount Jupil. Goguryeo's defeat at Mount Jupil had significant consequences, as Tang forces killed over 20,000 Goguryeo soldiers and captured another 36,800, which crippled Goguryeo's manpower reserves for the rest of the conflict. However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general (whose name is controversial but traditionally is believed to be Yang Manchun) stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, with winter fast approaching and his supplies running low, Tang forces under the command Prince Li Daozong attempted to build a rampart to seize the city in a last ditch effort, but was foiled when Goguryeo troops managed to seize control of it. Afterwards, Taizong decided to withdraw in the face of incoming Goguryeo reinforcements, deteriorating weather conditions and the difficult supply situation. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Tang Chinese, failing to capture Ansi Fortress after a protracted siege that lasted more than 60 days. Emperor Taizong invaded Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was defeated both times.

Emperor Taizong prepared another invasion in 649, but died in the summer, possibly due to an illness he contracted during his Korean campaigns. His son Emperor Gaozong continued his campaigns. Upon the suggestion of Kim Chunchu, the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered Baekje in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo. However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by Yeon Gaesomun; one of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the Battle of Sasu (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading ex-rebel Nanman general Pang Xiaotai (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons. Therefore, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo.

Fall

In the summer of 666, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother. He was initially succeeded as Dae Mangniji, the highest position newly made under the ruling period of Yeon Gaesomun, by his oldest son Yeon Namsaeng. As Yeon Namsaeng subsequently carried out a tour of Goguryeo territory, however, rumors began to spread both that Yeon Namsaeng was going to kill his younger brothers Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan, whom he had left in charge at Pyongyang, and that Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan were planning to rebel against Yeon Namsaeng. When Yeon Namsaeng subsequently sent officials close to him back to Pyongyang to try to spy on the situation, Yeon Namgeon arrested them and declared himself Dae Mangniji, attacking his brother. Yeon Namsaeng sent his son Cheon Heonseong (泉獻誠), as Yeon Namsaeng changed his family name from Yeon (淵) to Cheon (泉) observe naming taboo for Emperor Gaozu, to Tang to seek aid. Emperor Gaozong saw this as an opportunity and sent an army to attack and destroy Goguryeo. In the middle of Goguryeo's power struggles between Yeon Gaesomun's successors, his younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side.

In 667, the Chinese army crossed the Liao River and captured Shin/Xin Fortress (新城, in modern Fushun, Liaoning). The Tang forces thereafter fought off counterattacks by Yeon Namgeon, and joined forces with and received every possible assistance from the defector Yeon Namsaeng, although they were initially unable to cross the Yalu River due to resistance. In spring of 668, Li Ji turned his attention to Goguryeo's northern cities, capturing the important city of Buyeo (扶餘, in modern Nong'an, Jilin). In fall of 668, he crossed the Yalu River and put Pyongyang under siege in concert with the Silla army.

Yeon Namsan and Bojang surrendered, and while Yeon Namgeon continued to resist in the inner city, his general, the Buddhist monk Shin Seong (信誠) turned against him and surrendered the inner city to Tang forces. Yeon Namgeon tried to commit suicide, but was seized and treated. This was the end of Goguryeo, and Tang annexed Goguryeo into its territory, with Xue Rengui being put initially in charge of former Goguryeo territory as protector general. The violent dissension resulting from Yeon Gaesomun's death proved to be the primary reason for the Tang–Silla triumph, thanks to the division, defections, and widespread demoralization it caused. The alliance with Silla had also proved to be invaluable, thanks to the ability to attack Goguryeo from opposite directions, and both military and logistical aid from Silla. The Tang established the Andong Protectorate on former Goguryeo lands after the latter's fall.

However, there was much resistance to Tang rule (fanned by Silla, which was displeased that Tang did not give it Goguryeo or Baekje's territory), and in 669, following Emperor Gaozong's order, a part of the Goguryeo people were forced to move to the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River, as well as the regions south of the Qinling Mountains and west of Chang'an, only leaving old and weak inhabitants in the original land. Over 200,000 prisoners from Goguryeo were taken by the Tang forces and sent to Chang'an. Some people entered the service of the Tang government, such as Go Sagye and his son Gao Xianzhi (Go Seonji in Korean), the famed general who commanded the Tang forces at the Battle of Talas.

Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, which lead to the Silla–Tang Wars, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River. Although the Tang forces were expelled from territories south of Taedong River, Silla failed to regain the former Goguryeo territories north of the Taedong River, which were now under Tang dominion.

Revival movements

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several famous generals. The Tang dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.

In 677, Tang crowned Bojang as the "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to Sichuan in 681, and died the following year.

The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. It was first put under the control of Tang General Xue Rengui, but was later replaced by Bojang due to the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Bojang's descendants declared independence from Tang during the same period as the An Lushan Rebellion and Li Zhengji (Yi Jeong-gi in Korean)'s rebellion in Shandong. The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "Little Goguryeo" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of Seon.

Geom Mojam and Anseung rose briefly at the Han Fortress (한성, 漢城, in modern Chaeryong, South Hwanghae), but failed, when Anseung surrendered to Silla. Go Anseung ordered the assassination of Geom Mojam, and defected to Silla, where he was given a small amount of land to rule over. There, Anseung established the State of Bodeok, incited a rebellion, which was promptly crushed by Sinmun. Anseung was then forced to reside in the Silla capital, given a Silla bride and had to adopt the Silla royal surname of "Kim."

Dae Jung-sang and his son Dae Jo-yeong, either a former Goguryeo general or a Mohe chief, regained most of Goguryeo's northern land after its downfall in 668, established the Kingdom of Jin, which was renamed to Balhae after 713. To the south of Balhae, Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, and Manchuria (now northeastern China) was conquered by Balhae. Balhae considered itself (particularly in diplomatic correspondence with Japan) a successor state of Goguryeo.

In 901, the general Gung Ye rebelled against Later Silla and founded Later Goguryeo (renamed to Taebong in 911), which considered itself to be a successor of Goguryeo. Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions, including Songak (modern Kaesong), which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees. Later Goguryeo's original capital was established in Songak, the hometown of Wang Geon, a prominent general under Gung Ye. Wang Geon was a descendant of Goguryeo and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan. In 918, Wang Geon overthrew Gung Ye and established Goryeo, as the successor of Goguryeo, and laid claim to Manchuria as Goryeo's rightful legacy. Wang Geon unified the Later Three Kingdoms in 936, and Goryeo ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392.

In the 10th century, Balhae collapsed and much of its ruling class and the last crown prince Dae Gwang-hyeon fled to Goryeo. The Balhae refugees were warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, who felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.

Government

Early Goguryeo was a federation of five tribes, which later turned into five districts. As the autonomy of these five tribal collectives waned, regional officers were appointed with valley as a unit.As Goguryeo progressed into the 4th century, a regional administration unit arose that centred around fortresses that were built in the newly enlarged areas. From the 4th century to the early 6th century, The gun (roughly translated as counties) system began to be established in most of the regions controlled by Goguryeo, though not all, evidenced by the existence of 16 counties near the Han river and the nickname of a military post called Malyak, nicknamed the gundu (roughly translated as the head of county). The gun subdivision had sub subdivisions which was either a seong (fortress) or chon (village). The official that was governing the whole county was called a susa, though its names changed to Yoksal, Choryogunji and Rucho. Yoksal and Choryogunji had both military and civil capabilities, and its residence often assigned inside fortresses.

Military

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state. Goguryeo has been described as an empire by Korean scholars. Initially, there were four partially autonomous districts based on the cardinal directions, and a central district led by the monarch; however, in the first century the cardinal districts became centralized and administered by the central district, and by the end of the 3rd century, they lost all political and military authority to the monarch. In the 4th century, after suffering defeats against the Xianbei and Baekje during the reign of Gogukwon, Sosurim instituted military reforms that paved the way for Gwanggaeto's conquests. During its height, Goguryeo was able to mobilize 300,000 troops. Goguryeo often enlisted semi-nomadic vassals, such as the Mohe people, as foot soldiers. Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of Bojang.

Equipment

The main projectile weapon used in Goguryeo was the bow. The bows were modified to be more composite and increase throwing ability on par with crossbows. To a lesser extent, stone-throwing machines and crossbows were also used. Polearms, used against the cavalry and in open order, were mostly spears. Two types of swords were used by Goguryeo warriors. The first was a shorter double-edged variant mostly used for throwing. The other was longer single-edged sword with minimal hilt and ring pommel, of eastern Han influence. The helmets were similar to helmets used by Central Asian peoples, decorated with wings, leathers and horsetails. The shield was the main protection, which covered most of the soldier's body. Goguryeo would likely have been the earliest Korean state to incorporate horses into combat, and artifacts like wall paintings indicate that horses and soldiers alike wore armor. Scholars and archaeologists posit that contemporary Korean and Japanese adversaries first encountered fortified Goguryeo mounted troops between the fourth and fifth centuries CE. The cavalry were called Gaemamusa, and similar in type to the Cataphract.

Hwandudaedo

Goguryeo used a sword called Hwandudaedo. It looks like the sword drawing in the following picture which is 2000 years old from an old Goguryeo tomb. As Korean swords changed from Bronze Age to Iron Age, the sword shapes changed. There are many archaeological finds on ancient Korean iron swords particularly the swords with a ring at the end.

Fortifications

The most common form of the Goguryeo fortress was one made in the shape of the moon, located between a river and its tributary. Ditches and ground walls between the shores formed an extra defense line. The walls were extensive in their length, and they were constructed from huge stone blocks fixed with clay, and even Chinese artillery had difficulty to break through them. Walls were surrounded by a ditch to prevent an underground attack, and equipped with guard towers. All fortresses had sources of water and enough equipment for a protracted siege. If rivers and mountains were absent, extra defense lines were added.

Organization

Two hunts per year, led by the king himself, maneuvers exercises, hunt-maneuvers and parades were conducted to give the Goguryeo soldier a high level of individual training.

There were five armies in the capital, mostly cavalry that were personally led by the king, numbering approximately 12,500. Military units varied in number from 21,000 to 36,000 soldiers, were located in the provinces, and were led by the governors. Military colonies near the boundaries consisted mostly of soldiers and peasants. There were also private armies held by aristocrats. This system allowed Goguryeo to maintain and utilize an army of 50,000 without added expense, and 300,000 through large mobilization in special cases.

Goguryeo units were divided according to major weapons: spearmen, axemen, archers composed of those on foot and horseback, and heavy cavalry that included armored and heavy spear divisions. Other groups like the catapult units, wall-climbers, and storm units were part of the special units and were added to the common. The advantage of this functional division is highly specialized combat units, while the disadvantage is that it was impossible for one unit to make complex, tactical actions.

Strategy

The military formation had the general and his staff with guards in the middle of the army. The archers were defended by axemen. In front of the general were the main infantry forces, and on the flanks were rows of heavy cavalry ready to counterattack in case of a flank attack by the enemy. In the very front and rear was the light cavalry, used for intelligence, pursuit, and for weakening the enemy's strike. Around the main troops were small groups of heavy cavalrymen and infantry. Each unit was prepared to defend the other by providing mutual support.

Goguryeo implemented a strategy of active defense based on cities. Besides the walled cities and fortified camps, this active defense system used small units of light cavalry to continuously harass the enemy, de-blockade units and strong reserves, consisting of the best soldiers, to strike hard at the end.

Goguryeo also employed military intelligence and special tactics as an important part of the strategy. Goguryeo was good at disinformation, such as sending only stone spearheads as tribute to the Chinese court when they were in the Iron Age. Goguryeo had developed its system of espionage. One of the most famous spies, Baekseok, mentioned in the Samguk yusa, was able to infiltrate the Hwarangs of Silla.

Foreign relations

The militaristic nature of Goguryeo frequently drew them into conflicts with the dynasties of China. In the times when they are not in war with China, Goguryeo occasionally sent tributes to some of the Chinese dynasties as a form of trade and nonaggression pact. Like Buyeo before it, Goguryeo alternately offered tribute to and raided China. These activities of exchange promoted cultural and religious flow from China into the Korean peninsula. Goguryeo has also received tribute from other Korean kingdoms and neighboring tribal states, and frequently mobilized Malgal people in their military. Baekje and Goguryeo maintained their regional rivalry throughout their history, although they eventually formed an alliance in their wars against Silla and Tang.

Culture

The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged.

The Book of Sui (Volume 81) recorded: "The customs, laws and clothes of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla are generally identical."

Attributed with the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.

Singing and dancing played an important part in Goguryeo society, a legacy that, according to Kim Hunggyu, continues to this day in modern Korean society.

The practice of matrilocality in Korea started in the Goguryeo period, continued through the Goryeo period and ended in the early Joseon period. The Korean saying that when a man gets married, he is "entering jangga" (the house of his father-in-law), stems from the Goguryeo period.

Goguryeo held an annual national seokjeon (stone battle) attended by the king himself. Originally a product of the warlike Goguryeo period, seokjeon gradually evolved into a widely enjoyed pastime during the more peaceful Goryeo and Joseon periods.

The Korean tradition of mothers eating seaweed after birth originated in Goguryeo. The Korean word for seaweed, miyeok, originated in Goguryeo.

Goguryeo tombs

The tombs of Goguryeo display the prosperity and artistry of the kingdom of the period. The murals inside many of the tombs are significant evidence of Goguryeo's lifestyle, ceremonies, warfare and architecture. Mostly tombs were founded in Ji'an in China's Jilin province, Taedong river basin near Pyongyang, North Korea and the Anak area in South Hwanghae province of North Korea. There are over 10,000 Goguryeo tombs overall, but only about 90 of those unearthed in China and North Korea have wall paintings. In 2004, Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom located in Ji'an of Jilin Province of China and Complex of Koguryo Tombs located in North Korea became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Lifestyle

The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the three kingdoms. There are murals and artifacts that depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses.

Festivals and pastimes

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.

Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.

Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred.

Religion

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. There was even a temple in Pyongyang dedicated to Jumong. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.

Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The Fenghuang and Loong were both worshipped, while the Sanzuwu, the three-legged crow that represented the sun, was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.

They also believed in the 'Sasin', which were 4 mythical animals. Chungryong or Chunryonga (blue dragon) guarded the east, baek-ho (white tiger) guarded the west, jujak (red phoenix (bird)) guarded the south, and hyunmu (black turtle, sometimes with snakes for a tail) guarded the north.

Buddhism was first introduced to Goguryeo in 372. The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in Silla and Baekje, which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.

Buddhism, a religion originating in what is now India, was transmitted to Korea via China in the late 4th century. The Samguk yusa records the following 3 monks among first to bring the Buddhist teaching, or Dharma, to Korea: Malananta (late 4th century) – an Indian Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Baekje in the southern Korean peninsula, Sundo – a Chinese monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea, and Ado monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea.

Xian and Taoists seeking to become immortals were thought to aid in fortune telling and divination about the future.

Cultural legacy

As the Three Kingdoms period emerged, each Korean state sought ideologies that could validate their authority. Many of these states borrowed influences from Chinese culture, sharing a writing system that was originally based on Chinese characters. However the language was different and not mutually intelligible with Chinese. An integral part of Goguryeo's culture, along with other Korean states, was Korean shamanism. In the 4th century, Buddhism gained wide prominence in Baekje and spread rapidly across the peninsula. Buddhism struck a careful balance between shamanism, the Korean people, and the rulers over these states, briefly becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms. Buddhism's foothold in the Korean peninsula would surge up to the Goryeo period and would spread rapidly into Yamato Japan, playing a key role in the neighboring state's development and its relations with the Korean peninsula.

In Baekje, King Onjo founded the kingdom and according to legend, he is the third son of Jumong of Goguryeo and the younger brother of King Yuri, Goguryeo's second king. The Korean Kingdoms of Balhae and Goryeo regarded themselves as successors to Goguryeo, recognized by Tang China and Yamato Japan.

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour and fine detail of its imagery. Many of the art pieces have an original style of painting, depicting various traditions that have continued throughout Korea's history.

Cultural legacies of Goguryeo are found in modern Korean culture, for example: Korean fortress, ssireum, taekkyeon, Korean dance, ondol (Goguryeo's floor heating system) and the hanbok.

Legacy

Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in present-day China, for example at Wunü Mountain, suspected to be the site of Jolbon fortress, near Huanren in Liaoning province on the present border with North Korea. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the Gwanggaeto Stele, which is one of the primary sources for pre-5th-century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site

UNESCO added Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China and Complex of Koguryo Tombs in present-day North Korea to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.

Name

The modern English name "Korea" derives from Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ) (918–1392), which regarded itself as the legitimate successor of Goguryeo. The name Goryeo was first used during the reign of Jangsu in the 5th century. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo after 520 AD in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.

Language

There have been some academic attempts to reconstruct the Goguryeo words based on the fragments of toponyms, recorded in the Samguk sagi, of the areas once possessed by Goguryeo. However, the reliability of the toponyms as linguistic evidence is still in dispute. The linguistic classification of the language is difficult due to the lack of historical sources. The most cited source, a body of placename glosses in the Samguk sagi, has been interpreted by different authors as Koreanic, Japonic, or an intermediate between the two. Lee and Ramsey also look broadly to include Altaic and/or Tungusic.

Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while they differed from that of the Malgal (Mohe).

Controversies

Goguryeo was viewed as a Korean kingdom in premodern China, but in modern times, there is a dispute between China and Korea over whether Goguryeo can be considered part of Chinese history or if it is part of Korean history.

In 2002, Chinese government started a five-year research project on the history and current situation of the frontiers of Northeast China which lasted from 2002 to 2007. It was launched by the Chinese Academy of Social Science (CASS) and received financial support from both the Chinese government and the CASS.

The stated purpose of the Northeast Project was to use authoritative academic research to restore historical facts and protect the stability of Northeast China—a region sometimes known as Manchuria—in the context of the strategic changes that have taken place in Northeast Asia since China's "Reform and Opening" started in 1978. Two of the project's leaders accused some foreign scholars and institutions of rewriting history to demand territory from China or to promote instability in the frontier regions, hence the necessity of the Project.

The Project has been criticized for applying the contemporary vision of China as a "unified multiethnic state" to ancient ethnic groups, states and history of the region of Manchuria and northern Korea. According to this idea, there was a greater Chinese state in the ancient past. Accordingly, any pre-modern people or state that occupied any part of what is now the People's Republic of China is defined as having been part of Chinese history. Similar projects have been conducted on Inner Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang, which have been named North Project, Southwest Project and Xinjiang Project respectively.

Due to its claims on Gojoseon, Goguryeo and Balhae, the project sparked disputes with Korea. In 2004, this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between the People's Republic of China and South Korea, although all governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations.

In 2004, the Chinese government made a diplomatic compromise, pledging not to place claims to the history of Goguryeo in its history textbooks. However, online discussion regarding this topic among the general public has since increased. The Internet has provided a platform for a broadening participation in the discussion of Goguryeo in both South Korea and China. Thomas Chase points out that despite the growing online discussion on this subject, this has not led to a more objective treatment of this history, nor a more critical evaluation of its relationship to national identity.