祖源

大致可分為以下幾說：

• 顓頊（高陽）說：楚國詩人屈原在其《離騷》中亦稱：「帝高陽之苗裔兮，朕皇考曰伯庸。」

• 祝融說：胡厚宣在《楚民族源于東方考》（北京大學《史學論叢》第一冊，1934年）認為楚之始祖為祝融。

• 華夏說：王族出自華夏，夏商周三代分封諸侯國一直奉行「夏君夷民」的做法。

• 東夷說：郭沫若《中國古代社會研究》（中國華僑出版社，2008年，ISBN 9787802224735）和胡厚宣《楚族源于東方考》認為楚為東夷部落。

• 土著說：楚人來自中原，但臣民大多為當地土著部落。

• 西來說：認為楚之先祖高陽氏顓頊來自在中國西北境，即崑崙山一帶，還有學者認為楚人是來自西亞拜火教的米底亞人。

• 部落融合說：楚先民是由華夏高陽氏的一支，南下與當地土著融合的結果。

歷史

起源

楚之先祖出自黃帝之孫，昌意之子，帝顓頊高陽氏。顓頊後第五代曾孫吳回，是帝高辛氏的火正（火官），主管天火與地火，能光融天下，帝嚳命之曰祝融。其部落分布在今河南新鄭一帶，直到春秋時期鄭國都城新鄭仍被稱為祝融之墟。吳回之子陸終，生有六子，幼子曰季連，羋姓，是楚之先祖。周文王曾拜季連後裔鬻熊為師，由于這層師徒關係，鬻熊曾孫熊繹被周朝二代君主周成王封為子楚（楚國國君，爵位為子爵）。

西漢史家司馬遷在《史記·楚世家》中記載西周初期楚人領袖熊繹：「當成王之時，舉文、武勤勞之後嗣，而封熊繹于楚蠻，封以子男之田，姓羋氏，居丹陽。」此一論述認為商末周初，楚先人祝融的後裔從北方遷徙至「丹陽」。「楚鬻熊居丹陽，武王徙郢」，楚國國都在楚武王時期從丹陽遷至郢，據考古學家劉玉堂、王紅星、高崇文研究，古「丹陽」位于丹水和淅水交匯之處（今河南省淅川縣丹江口水庫淹沒區），因處丹水之北，故稱為丹陽。國學大師錢穆在《國史大綱》中說：「楚之先亦顓頊後，始起在漢水流域丹、淅水入漢水處，曰丹陽」，而楚國令尹（相當于宰相）之墓子庚墓和大量楚國貴族墓在淅川縣倉房鎮的香嚴寺下寺附近的發現，印証了古丹陽位于河南淅川境內。楚國曆史有800多年，其中有300多年在丹江流域建都。

據《清華簡·楚居》記載，商王盤庚的女兒妣隹徵婚，楚部族的首領季連趁機追上了她，此後便居住在盤地，與妣隹生了𦀚伯、遠仲兩個兒子，他被尊為楚國的始祖。可見楚人與殷人存在親緣關係，這也為後來楚國人「不服周」埋下了伏筆。湖北省武漢市有商代的盤龍城遺址，這裡出土有青銅器和玉器，說明商代時荊楚地區已有初步發達的文明。

建國及南征

商代早期，楚人逐漸從河南新鄭一帶南遷許昌，位于商朝王畿的南部，《詩經•殷武》寫到「唯女荊楚，居國南鄉」，約前13世紀，商王武丁派大軍征伐荊蠻，將楚人向南驅逐。商朝晚期，楚人最終遷徙到河南淅川一帶（古丹陽）。鬻熊擔任部落首領後審時度勢，主動投奔周文王，鬻熊像兒子一樣侍奉文王。《尚書·牧誓》中提到的跟隨周武王的八個國家中並沒有楚國，楚國參與周人伐商的故事很可能是戰國秦漢以後古史層累形成。武王克殷後，楚人並沒有封國賜爵，直到周成王即位後，封賞曾經侍奉文王、武王有功之人的後裔，才將鬻熊的曾孫熊繹封于丹陽，賜為子爵，楚子熊繹與王孫牟、 晉侯燮 、齊丁公共同侍奉周康王。楚國初創之時十分貧弱，熊繹闢居荊山，篳路藍縷，開闢山林，不僅如此還要跋山涉水向周王進貢桃木弓、棘矢。然而楚人的忠誠並沒有引起周王的重視，《國語•晉語》記載，周成王在岐陽主持諸侯會盟，拒絕讓熊繹參與儀式，而讓其狄夷鮮卑一起守燎，並負責茅蕝縮酒，根本是僕役的工作，為日後周楚的決裂埋下了種子。

周昭王十六年，周軍渡過漢水南征荊楚，掠奪大量物資。昭王十九年，再次伐楚，這次卻遭遇失敗，周王室的核心軍事力量宗周六師全軍覆沒。周昭王在回師的途中渡過漢水時被伏擊身亡，這是楚國與西周的第一次大規模衝突。但當時的楚國闢居荊山，國貧民少，恐怕不值得昭王派大軍征討，昭王討伐的對象應當是居住在江漢地區的土著，周人把這些土著統稱荊蠻，周軍遠征目的是掠奪銅礦。到熊渠在位時期，正值周夷王之時，周室衰微，諸侯開始輕慢周天子，部分諸侯已經停止朝貢，甚至相互攻伐。楚國也打算分庭抗禮，熊渠在江漢一帶的民心和威望很高，於是派兵攻打庸、楊粵、鄂，甚至表示「我蠻夷也，不與中國之號謚」，並立長子康為句亶王，中子紅為鄂王，少子執疵為越章王。

周厲王時，南方國家鄂國反叛，被周厲王攻滅，周厲王擊敗鄂國之後，熊渠畏周伐楚，於是不再稱王。熊勇六年（前841年），宗周鎬京國人暴動，周厲王奔彘。熊勇死後，其弟熊嚴即位，熊嚴死後，長子熊霜即位，熊霜五年（前823年），周宣王派大臣方叔伐楚，大獲全勝，俘獲楚國宗廟重器楚公逆鐘。周宣王為防止楚國坐大，在江漢間封了許多周室成員或者依附于周朝的勢力，史稱「江漢諸姬」，西周的戰略就是試圖以這些親周勢力封鎖江漢通往中原的門戶用以遏制楚國的北上對西周造成威脅，而且周王還從「漢陽諸姬」抽調兵力，組建南國之師，直接聽命于周天子，以達到威懾楚國等懷有異心的諸侯國。楚若敖二年（前789年），周宣王徵調南國之師伐姜氏之戎，在千畝之戰中全軍覆沒，周朝的構築南方防線全面崩潰。楚國乘機向外擴張，江漢諸姬盡被吞併、臣服融合于楚。

自立為王

不滿自己國大爵小的楚君熊通從傳說中找到例証，他說其先祖鬻熊是周文王的老師，有輔佐推翻殷商，建立周朝的功勞，只因早死而僅得到子爵，遂攻打姬姓諸侯隨國，目的是要周天子晉升其爵位，遭拒，熊通率兵再次征討隨國（今湖北隨州），迫使隨侯投降。熊通因此在前704年自稱為王（後諡武）。被楚國消滅的小國還有古麋國（湖北鄖陽、房州一帶）、盧國、羅國（湖北襄陽、荊門一帶），一路向南征伐百苗等大小諸侯國，成為江漢流域的霸主。

爭霸中原

熊通子楚文王定都于郢（今湖北省宜城市西南），因取名于該地已被填埋的湖泊「疆浧」而得名，後人通稱為「鄢郢」，以區別于日後為防備吳國的再次入侵而遷徙的新國都紀郢及一系列皆稱之為「郢」的同名陪都。此後為擴充領域，楚國與中原的中原諸侯國經常發生戰事。

楚成王時，楚在令尹子文的治理下更顯強盛。前632年，晉楚城濮之戰，楚人大敗。晉師「三日館穀」，向周天子獻楚捷「駟介百乘、徒兵千，」，楚國幾十年不敢北向。《子犯和鐘》即記載此事，中有「諸楚荊不聽命于王所，子犯及晉公率西之六師博伐楚荊，孔休大功，楚荊喪厥師，滅厥渠」雲。後來的楚莊王武功彪炳，又勵精圖治，選拔孫叔敖施行文冶，使楚國經濟繁榮、文化鼎盛。前606年莊王征伐陸渾之戎（在雒邑西南），派人向周天子問九鼎之輕重。

前597年，楚圍鄭，迫鄭降，晉派兵救鄭，兩軍于邲會戰，晉大敗。此後，陳、蔡、許、鄭俱從楚。公元前594年，楚圍宋，宋告急于晉，晉不能救，宋遂與楚言和，尊楚。這時中原各國除晉、齊、魯之外，盡尊楚莊王為霸主，確立了楚莊王在春秋五霸的歷史地位。史載，透過戰事，楚國先後吞併了四十五個較弱小的諸侯方國。

邲之戰後，楚莊王稱霸一時，但是晉國國勢猶不可忽視，晉、楚雙方形成南北對峙、各霸一方。前546年，宋國執政向戌倡議弭兵，奔走于晉國執政趙武和楚國令尹子木之間，使晉、楚、齊、秦、宋、魯、鄭、衛、陳、蔡、曹、許、邾、滕等十四國于宋召開弭兵大會。結果由前述十國簽訂盟約，規定除齊、秦等大國外，小國須既朝晉又朝楚，霸權乃由晉、楚二強平分，尊兩國為共同霸主。史稱『向戌弭兵』。

衰而複興

前506年，楚昭王時，吳國君主闔閭派孫武、伍子胥率軍攻打楚國，于柏舉之戰中擊敗楚國，攻占其首都郢，楚國幾乎覆亡。這時越國允常趁機攻打吳國，秦國也出兵幫助楚國，楚國得以保全。

根據史記楚世家記載，公元前505年，楚昭王將新的國都遷往郢都（紀郢），當時規模宏大的皇城郢都盛極一時、揚名天下。

及後楚惠王即位，繼續執行安邦定國、伺機發展的方針。對外，楚惠王四十二年（前447年），楚兼併蔡。兩年後，兼併杞，楚東拓疆土至泗水之上，盡有江淮以北之地。楚簡王元年（前431年），楚又兼併掉莒。

吳起變法

進入戰國時代，主要的六大強國皆曾進行片面或全面性的政經改革，唯有楚國固步自封未曾稍加變法。前400年，自晉分家的韓、趙、魏三國屢次聯軍攻楚。當時在位的楚悼王為求富國強兵，任用吳起開始變法興革，使楚國國力迅速強大起來。由于楚悼王不幸早逝，吳起失去了堅強的靠山，被舊貴族殘酷殺害。雖然變法時間不長，但變法的成果還是有所保留，比如之後的楚國封君的繼承不超過三代沒有自己獨立的武裝，一切財政大權聽命于中央等等。

至楚威王時代，楚國的西部領土已擴張至巴蜀之間，東滅越國，興盛一時。在經過5年的昭滑諜報與臥底工作後，楚懷王派後者率軍消滅越國殘餘勢力，占領吳、越故地，並設立江東郡。 《史記。甘茂傳》「王前嘗用台滑于越，而內行章義之難，越國亂，故楚南塞厲門而郡江東。計王之功，所以能如此者，越國亂而楚治也。」《楚策一．楚王問于范環》亦有記載，范環曰：「且王嘗用滑于越而納句章，昧之難，越亂，故楚南察瀨胡而野江東，計王之功所以能如此者，越亂而楚治也。」

衰落

楚懷王即位後，開始重用屈原等大臣，針對主要弊政進行一系列的革新，卻引來楚國貴族一致反對。日久，難以抵擋反對聲浪的楚懷王遂意興闌珊，變法終告失敗。

秦國併吞了巴、蜀之後，在秦國張儀合縱連橫的策略下，挑撥楚國和齊國的聯盟，楚懷王被騙；前312年，秦國和楚國因此接連在丹陽、藍田之戰兩場戰役中交戰，然而皆為楚軍大敗，是楚國和秦國勢力反轉的一個拐點。前299年，楚懷王晚年被秦昭襄王騙去秦國，客死咸陽，欲興兵奪回楚王的楚國軍隊又為秦將白起擊敗。楚國國勢迅速衰弱。

楚頃襄王即位後，周赧王二十二年（前293年），秦國派大將白起攻打韓國，在伊闕獲大勝。伊闕之戰後，秦昭王寫給楚頃襄王一封國書說：「楚國背叛了秦國，秦國將率領諸侯軍攻打楚國，決一雌雄。希望您重整軍隊，以便痛快地打一場。」楚頃襄王很擔心，便打算跟秦國講和。周赧王二十三年（前292年），楚國到秦國迎接新婦，秦楚講和。

周赧王三十年（前285年），楚頃襄王與秦昭王在宛（今河南省南陽市宛城區一帶）友好相會，議和結親。

周赧王三十二年（前283年），楚頃襄王與秦昭王在楚國的別都鄢（今湖北省宜城市東南）友好相會，同年秋季，又和秦昭王在秦國的穰（今河南省鄧州市）相會。

前281年楚頃襄王意圖聯合齊國和韓國聯合討伐秦國為楚懷王複仇，前280年，秦先發制人，派大將司馬錯率領軍隊從隴西郡出兵，攻取了楚國的黔中郡，楚頃襄王被迫割讓上庸（今湖北省竹山縣東南）和漢江以北的土地給秦國。次年（前279年）秦白起率軍大舉攻楚，占領鄧，並水淹鄢城，城中百姓死亡數十萬，之後勢如破竹，一舉攻陷楚國國都郢，燒毀其先王陵墓夷陵（今湖北省宜昌市夷陵區），向東進兵至竟陵（今湖北省潛江市東北）楚軍敗，楚頃襄王在兵敗後，向東北方潰逃至陳（今河南省淮陽縣），被迫遷都于此以自保。

危局

前263年，楚考烈王繼位，任用春申君為令尹，春申君派兵助趙國解邯鄲之圍，又領兵滅魯國，楚國一度復興。但前241年，春申君組織東方國家最後一次合縱，但被秦軍所敗，楚考烈王怕秦國報復，再次遷都至更東面的壽春。

前238年楚考烈王死後，春申君門客李園發動政變殺害春申君，楚國國力更加一蹶不振。秦王政親政後，知楚將項燕擅戰，先遣李信為將，領二十萬兵馬，欲滅楚，慘敗。

前229年（秦王政十八年），楚軍敗走，秦軍把已經完全控制郢都的疆域，並改郢為南郡，並委任來自韓國的降將騰駐守於此。

覆亡

前223年，由秦國老將王翦所統率的秦師六十萬大敗楚軍，俘虜了楚國國君負芻。到了公元前222年，王翦平定了楚國長江以南的廣大土地，楚國徹底滅亡。

楚人作為六國最強的國家，對於秦國的亡國之辱極為痛恨，在秦末天下大亂時楚地開始興起「楚雖三戶，亡秦必楚」的順口溜以彰興兵雪恨之志。後來項燕之孫項羽果然滅秦。

複國餘緒

秦二世元年（前209年）七月，赴燕京的戍卒領袖陳勝、吳廣，自稱秦始皇長子扶蘇與楚國大將軍項燕，發動大澤起義，建立張楚，恢復楚國。旋即敗亡。陳勝敗亡後，陳勝的大司馬秦嘉，立楚宗室景駒為楚假王（即代理楚王），後又稱楚王。項燕之子項梁起兵，將景駒斬殺。

前208年六月，項梁立楚懷王孫熊心，仍為楚懷王。陳嬰為上柱國，項梁自號為武信君，楚國複國。

楚國複國後，齊國受到秦將章邯的進攻，項梁引兵北攻亢父、救東阿，破秦軍。後不久項梁戰死。而楚將項羽、劉邦率楚軍西略地至雍丘，與秦軍戰，大破之，斬其將李由（丞相李斯之子），還攻外黃，未下。

秦二世三年（前207年），楚懷王徙都盱眙，並呂臣、項羽軍，自將之。以沛公劉邦為碭郡長，封武安侯，將碭郡兵；項羽為長安侯，號魯公；呂臣為司徒，其父呂青為令尹。

秦將章邯攻趙，趙向楚求救兵。楚懷王分兵，令宋義為上將軍，項羽為次將、范增為末將，北上救趙。同時令沛公劉邦為將，率楚軍西略咸陽。項羽斬殺宋義，奪其軍權，北上于巨鹿之戰大破秦軍主力，虜秦將王離，秦將涉間不降楚，自燒殺。與此同時，楚將劉邦經過一系列戰鬥，成功攻入關中。（前207年）十月，沛公劉邦軍駐灞上，秦王子嬰素車白，系頸以組，封皇帝印璽，向劉邦投降。秦朝滅亡。

前207年十一月，項羽引兵西入關。十二月中，至戲（今陝西西安），與劉邦會霸上鴻門宴。漢王元年（前206年）正月，項羽自封為西楚霸王，分封諸侯，比如劉邦被分封為漢王。尊楚懷王為義帝。四月，項羽徙義帝都郴州，途中，使九江王黥布與衡山王吳芮弒義帝于江南。

西元前202年9月，項羽所率楚軍兵敗垓下，楚霸王在長江北岸烏江渡自刎，楚漢戰爭結束，西楚國滅亡。

楚文化

語言

在春秋時代，楚語和中原語言之間有明顯的區別。楚國的官名和其他諸侯國不同：楚國宰相叫令尹，司馬叫莫敖。除此之外，《左傳·宣公五年》還記載春秋時代楚語的兩個詞意：

• 穀為「乳（母乳）」

• 於菟（wūtú，上古漢語發音為*qa-laa）為「虎」（hǔ，*qhlaaʔ）（有人懷疑可能與緬甸語 က���ား kla 同源）

我們之所以知道這兩個詞的意思，是因為令尹子文名字叫做鬬穀於菟，《左傳》對他名字的原意做了解釋。

《左傳·莊公二十八年》有一句話：「楚言而出」（今譯：「他們講楚語就撤退了」），証明當時的楚語和中原的語言有差異。

在戰國時代，屈原《楚辭》所用詞彙也顯示出楚國語言的特點。

音樂

據《左傳 襄公十八年》載「南風不競多死聲」，楚音綿軟無力。楚國巫風盛行，喜歡舉行祭祀活動，由巫女主持祭祀。祭祀時要奏樂、歌唱、跳舞以娛神。王國維在《宋元戲曲史》中曾談到楚國：「至于浴蘭沐芳，華衣若芙，緩節安歌，歌舞之盛也。乘風載雲之詞，生別新知之語，荒淫之意也。是則靈之為職，或偃蹇以像神，或婆娑以樂神……」

風俗

楚俗尊鳳尚赤、崇火拜日、喜巫近鬼。

楚人認為自己是日神遠裔，火神嫡嗣，日火皆為赤色，故而尚赤，楚地廣闊。楚王族是祝融（中國神話中的火神）的後裔于史有載，尚赤之俗源遠流長。《墨子》中有記載「楚莊王鮮冠組纓，絳衣博袍……」。「絳衣」就是大紅色的衣服。王族的信仰和喜好具有很大的影響力，如「楚王好細腰，宮中多餓死」。王族尚赤，久而久之，楚地百姓也都以赤為貴了。從現今出土的楚文物也可以佐證楚人尚赤。

楚國君主列表

楚國公族

• 若敖氏

• 鬬氏

• 成氏

• 屈氏

• 景氏：楚平王之子子西之後

• 昭氏：楚昭王之子子良之後

• 莊氏：楚莊王之後

• 囊氏：楚莊王之子公子貞之後

• 柳氏：北宋 章定 據《名賢氏族言行類稿》楚義帝之後

人物

令尹

女性

• 鄧曼，楚武王夫人，生楚文王

• 息媯，楚文王妾，生楚堵敖及楚成王

• 鄭瞀，楚成王夫人

• 楚莊夫人，楚莊王夫人，生楚共王

• 樊姬，楚莊王妾

• 嬴氏，一作秦嬴，楚共王夫人

• 巴姬，楚共王妾

• 郹陽封人女，楚平王妾，生太子建

• 孟嬴，秦女，楚平王后，生楚昭王

• 貞姜，楚昭王夫人

• 越姬，楚昭王妾，生楚惠王

• 江羋，楚文王女

• 季羋畀我，楚平王女，嫁鍾建

• 江乙之母（《列女傳》）

• 鄭袖 （《屈原賈生列傳》）

• 莊姪，楚頃襄王王后

• 李後，楚考烈王王后

詩人

• 屈原

• 宋玉

• 景差

其他

• 公輸般（《墨子》魯問篇）

• 孟勝，墨子弟子（《呂氏春秋》）

• 徐弱，孟勝弟子（《呂氏春秋》）

• 汗明

• 莊善，（《卷八 義勇第八》）

考古

• 淅川下寺春秋楚墓群：有春秋墓葬25座、車馬坑5座，從這座古墓葬群中共發掘出青銅器、玉器7000多件。楚國令尹子庚便葬于此地。

• 淅川和尚嶺與徐家嶺楚墓群：是繼下寺楚墓之後在河南發現的最大的一批春秋戰國時期的楚國貴族墓群，從楚國箴尹克黃的墓內出土了大批精美的青銅器。

備註

History

Founding

According to legends recounted in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, the ruling family of Chu descended from the Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui (吳回) was put in charge of fire by Emperor Ku and given the title Zhurong. Wuhui's son Luzhong (陸終) had six sons, all born by Caesarian section. The youngest, Jilian, adopted the ancestral surname Mi. 's descendant Yuxiong was the teacher of King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BC). After the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty, King Cheng (r. 1042–1021 BC) enfeoffed Yuxiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi with the fiefdom of Chu in the Nanyang Basin and the hereditary title of 子 (zǐ, "viscount"). Then the first capital of Chu was established at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan).

Sinologist Yuri Pines wrote that Chu originated as a normative Zhou polity that gradually developed cultural assertiveness in tandem with the increase in its political power, rather than being a "barbarian entity" drawn to the glory of the Zhou culture as suggested in the Mencius, and that divergent cultural patterns associated with Chu only emerged during the Spring and Autumn period.

Western Zhou

In 977 BC, during his campaign against Chu, King Zhao of Zhou's boat sank and he drowned in the Han River. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BC but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler Xiong Tong became the ruler of Chu.

Spring and Autumn period

Under the reign of King Zhuang, Chu reached the height of its power and its ruler was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BC, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing other states in its original area (modern Hubei), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain. In the summer of 648 BC, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu.

The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of Jin. These alliances kept Chu in check, and the Chu kingdom lost their first major battle at the Chengpu in 632 BC. During the 6th century BC, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of central plain. In 597 BC, Jin was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu, Wey, and Song. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until the year of 579 BC when a truce was signed between the two states.

At the beginning of the sixth century BC, Jin strengthened the state of Wu near the Yangtze delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated Qi and then invaded Chu in 506 BC. Following the Battle of Boju, it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing King Zhao to flee to his allies in Yun and "Sui". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BC, he temporarily moved the capital into the territory of the former state of Ruo. Chu began to strengthen Yue in modern Zhejiang to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by King Fuchai of Wu until he released their king Goujian, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu.

Warring States period

Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BC and overran Cai to the north in 447 BC. By the end of the 5th century BC, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality.

In the late 390s BC, King Dao of Chu made Wu Qi his chancellor. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BC, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BC, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue. Yue was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334 or 333 BC. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BC. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, The Book of Master Wu. Of Chu, he said:

During the late Warring States period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the Legalistic reforms of Shang Yang. In 241 BC, five of the seven major warring states–Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han–formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian Yang Kuan, the Zhao general Pang Nuan (庞煖) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic Hangu Pass but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed Lord Chunshen for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun, farther away from the threat of Qin.

As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BC. By the late 4th century BC, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually completely wiped out by Qin.

Defeat

The Chu state was completely eradicated by the Qin dynasty.

According to the Records of the Warring States, a debate between the Diplomat strategist Zhang Yi and the Qin general Sima Cuo led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering Han and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that "conquering Shu is conquering Chu" and, "once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united".

The importance of Shu in the Sichuan Basin was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, leading directly into the Chu heartland. King Huiwen of Qin opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BC, Qin invaded and conquered Shu and nearby Ba, expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following the fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun in 241 BC. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping in 260 BC. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states.

By 225 BC, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan, and Qi. Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BC, Ying Zheng called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng ordered Li Xin and Meng Wu to lead the army against Chu.

The Chu army, led by Xiang Yan, secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching a surprise offensive and destroying Li Xin army. Upon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng replaced Li with Wang Jian, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing Meng Wu beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce the king's suspicion.

Wang Jian's army passed through southern Chen (陳; present-day Huaiyang in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch a swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan (蕲南; northwest of present-day Qichun in Hubei) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat.

The next year, in 223 BC, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King Fuchu was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led the Qin army against Wuyue around the mouth of the Yangtze, capturing the descendants of the royal family of Yue. These conquered territories became the Kuaiji Prefecture of the Qin Empire.

At their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu (黑夫) and Jing (惊), tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.

Qin and Han dynasties

The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the excavated bamboo slips of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu aspired to overthrow the painful yoke of Qin rule and re-establish a separate state. The attitude was captured in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: "Though Chu has but three clans, Qin shall fall by Chu's hand" (楚雖三戶, 亡秦必楚).

After Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor (Shi Huangdi) and reigned briefly, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of the Qin corvée; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China.

The Dazexiang Uprising occurred in 209 BC under the leadership of a Chu peasant, Chen Sheng, who proclaimed himself "King of Rising Chu" (Zhangchu). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of the leaders, Jing Ju of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under Xiang Liang. Xiang installed Xiong Xin, a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BC, after the fall of the Qin Empire, Xiang Yu, Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and promoted King Huai II to "Emperor Yi". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with Liu Bang, another prominent anti-Qin rebel, in a long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the Chu–Han Contention. The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the Han dynasty and was later honored with the temple name Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat.

Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with the Xiongnu through heqin intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. The core Chu territories centered in Pengcheng was granted first to general Han Xin and then to Liu Bang's brother Liu Jiao as the Kingdom of Chu. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, the southern folk culture and aesthetics were mixed with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create a distinct "Chinese" culture.

Culture

Based on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the Yellow River basin. However, subsequently, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the Baiyue lands that it conquered to the south and east, developing a blended culture compared to the northern plains.

During the Western Zhou period, the difference between the culture of Chu and the Central Plains states to the north was negligible. Only in the late Spring and Autumn period does Chu culture begin to diverge, preserving some older aspects of the culture and developing new phenomena. It also absorbed some elements from annexed areas. The culture of Chu had significant internal diversity from locality to locality. Chu, like Qin and Yan, was often described as being not as cultured by people in the Central plains. However, this image originated with the later development of Chu relative to the Central plains, and the stereotype was retrospectively cultivated by Confucian scholars in the Qin dynasty, to indirectly criticise the ruling regime, and the Han dynasty as a means of curbing their ideological opponents who were associated with such cultural practices. As the founder of the Han dynasty was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty, along with that of the Qin dynasty's and other preceding states' from the Warring States period.

Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of bronze vessels in the Zhou style. The bronze wares of the state of Chu also have their own characteristics. For example, the bronze Jin (altar table) unearthed from the Chu tomb in Xichuan, Henan Province are complex in shape. Dated to the mid sixth century BC, it was one of the early confirmed lost-wax cast artifacts discovered in China proper. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct burial objects, such as colorful lacquerware, iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in bronze vessel offerings.

A common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as snakes, dragons, phoenixes, tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the previous Shang dynasty, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods.

Another common Chu idea was the worship of gibbons and other animals perceived to have auspicious amounts of qi.

Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for shamans. The Chu culture and government supported Taoism and native shamanism supplemented with some Confucian glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire Zhurong in Chinese mythology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people.

The naturalistic and flowing art, the Songs of Chu, historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the Guodian slips, and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless Legalist state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister Shang Yang, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might.

Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu, the se was preferred over the zither, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states.

Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba, Yue, and the Baiyue. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects.

Some archaeological records of the Chu appear at Mawangdui. After the Han dynasty, some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the "lewd" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture.

Chu artisanship includes color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where the lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay.

Chu used the calligraphic script called "Birds and Worms" style, which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has a design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords but not as intricate.

Chu created a riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying.

Linguistic influences

Although bronze inscriptions from the ancient state of Chu show little linguistic differences from the "Elegant Speech" (yǎyán 雅言) during the Eastern Zhou period, the variety of Old Chinese spoken in Chu has long been assumed to reflect lexical borrowings and syntactical interferences from non-Sinitic substrates, which the Chu may have acquired as a result of its southern migration into what Tian Jizhou believed to be a Kra–Dai or (para-) Hmong–Mien area in southern China. Recent excavated texts, corroborated by dialect words recorded in the Fangyan, further demonstrated substrate influences, but there are competing hypotheses on their genealogical affiliation.

• Aberrant early Chinese dialect, originally from the North

• Austroasiatic (Norman & Mei 1976, Boltz 1999)

• Hmong–Mien (Erkes 1930, Long & Ma 1983, Brooks 2001, Sagart et al. 2005)

• Kra–Dai (Liu Xingge 1988, Zhengzhang Shangfang 2005)

• Tibeto-Burman (Zhang Yongyan 1992, Zhou Jixu 2001)

• Mixture of Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien and Tibeto-Burman (Pullyblank 1983, Schuessler 2004 & 2007)

• Unknown

Noticing that both 荆 Jīng and 楚 Chǔ refer to the thorny chaste tree (genus Vitex), Schuessler (2007) proposes two Austroasiatic comparanda:

• 楚 Chǔ < Old Chinese *tshraʔ is comparable to Proto-Monic *jrlaaʔ "thorn, thorny bamboo (added to names of thorny plants)", Khmu /cǝrlaʔ/, Semai /jǝrlaaʔ/, all descending from Proto-Austroasiatic *ɟrla(:)ʔ "thorn";

• 荆 Jīng < Old Chinese *kreŋ is comparable to Khmer ជ្រាំង crĕəng 「to bristle」 and ប្រែង praeng 「bristle」, with Chinese initial *k- possibly being a noun-forming prefix.

Bureaucracy

The Mo'ao (莫敖) and the Lingyin (令尹) were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong (三公) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin (左尹) and Youyin (右尹) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima (司馬) was assisted by Zuosima (左司馬) and Yousima (右司馬) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court.

Ministers whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin (尹). For example: Lingyin (Prime minister), Gongyin (Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word "Yin". Shenyin (沈尹) was the minister of religious duties or the high priest of Chu, multiple entries in Zuo Zhuan indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Lingyin, Huanlie Zhi Yin (Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin (Minister of Music). In counties and commanderies, Gong (公), also known as Xianyin (minister of county) was the chief administrator.

In many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of a cadet branch of Chu's royal house of Mi. Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu (屈) clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the Ruo'ao rebellion, Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou (鬭) and Cheng (成).

Geography

Progenitors of Chu such as viscount Xiong Yi were said to originate from the Jing Mountains; a chain of mountains located in today's Hubei province. Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to the Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountains are the Tu (塗) mountains. In the north-east part of Chu are the Dabie mountains; the drainage divide of Huai river and Yangtse river. The first capital of Chu, Danyang (丹陽) was located in today's Zhijiang, Hubei province. Ying (郢), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name Jingzhou. In Chu's northern border lies the Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal defense against states of central plain. Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain.

Yunmeng Ze in Jianghan Plain was an immense freshwater lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng (夢), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun (雲). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, Jianli, Shishou, Macheng, Huanggang, and Anlu.

Shaoxi Pass was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of Danfeng County, Shaanxi. Any forces that marched from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi.

List of states annexed by Chu

• 863 BC E

• 704 BC Quan

• 690 BC Luo

• 688–680 BC Shen

• 684–680 BC Xi

• 678 BC Deng

• 648 BC Huang

• after 643 BC Dao

• 623 BC Jiang (江)

• 622 BC Liao

• 622 BC Lù (六).

• after 622 BC Ruo

• 617 BC Jiang (蔣)

• 611 BC Yong

• 601 BC Shuliao

• Sometime in the 6th century BC Zhongli

• after 506 BC Sui

• 574 BC Shuyong

• 538 BC Lai (賴國)

• 512 BC Xu

• 479 BC Chen

• 445 BC Qi

• 447 BC Cai

• 431 BC Ju

• after 418 BC Pi

• About 348 BC Zou

• 334 BC Yue

• 249 BC Lu

Rulers

;Early rulers

• Jilian (季連), married Bi Zhui (妣隹), granddaughter of Shang dynasty king Pangeng; adopted Mi (芈) as ancestral name

• Yingbo (𦀚伯) or Fuju (附沮), son of Jilian

• Yuxiong (鬻熊), ruled 11th century BC: also called Xuexiong (穴熊), teacher of King Wen of Zhou

• Xiong Li (熊麗), ruled 11th century BC: son of Yuxiong, first use of clan name Yan (酓), later written as Xiong (熊)

• Xiong Kuang (熊狂), ruled 11th century BC: son of Xiong Li

;Viscounts

• Xiong Yi (熊繹), ruled 11th century BC: son of Xiong Kuang, enfeoffed by King Cheng of Zhou

• Xiong Ai (熊艾), ruled BC: son of Xiong Yi, defeated and killed King Zhao of Zhou

• Xiong Dan (熊䵣), ruled BC: son of Xiong Ai, defeated King Mu of Zhou

• Xiong Sheng (熊勝), son of Xiong Dan

• Xiong Yang (熊楊), younger brother of Xiong Sheng

• Xiong Qu (熊渠), son of Xiong Yang, gave the title king to his three sons

• Xiong Kang (熊康), son of Xiong Qu. Shiji says Xiong Kang died early without ascending the throne, but the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips recorded him as the successor of Xiong Qu.

• Xiong Zhi (熊摯), son of Xiong Kang, abdicated due to illness

• Xiong Yan (elder) (熊延), ruled ?–848 BC: younger brother of Xiong Zhi

• Xiong Yong (熊勇), ruled 847–838 BC: son of Xiong Yan

• Xiong Yan (younger) (熊嚴), ruled 837–828 BC: brother of Xiong Yong

• Xiong Shuang (熊霜), ruled 827–822 BC: son of Xiong Yan

• Xiong Xun (熊徇), ruled 821–800 BC: youngest brother of Xiong Shuang

• Xiong E (熊咢), ruled 799–791 BC: son of Xiong Xun

• Ruo'ao (若敖) (Xiong Yi 熊儀), ruled 790–764 BC: son of Xiong E

• Xiao'ao (霄敖) (Xiong Kan 熊坎), ruled 763–758 BC: son of Ruo'ao

• Fenmao (蚡冒) (Xiong Xuan 熊眴) ruled 757–741 BC: son of Xiao'ao

;Kings

• King Wu of Chu (楚武王) (Xiong Da 熊達), ruled 740–690 BC: either younger brother or younger son of Fenmao, murdered son of Fenmao and usurped the throne. Declared himself first king of Chu.

• King Wen of Chu (楚文王) (Xiong Zi 熊貲), ruled 689–677 BC: son of King Wu, moved the capital to Ying

• Du'ao (堵敖) or Zhuang'ao (莊敖) (Xiong Jian 熊艱), ruled 676–672 BC: son of King Wen, killed by younger brother, the future King Cheng

• King Cheng of Chu (楚成王) (Xiong Yun 熊惲), ruled 671–626 BC: brother of Du'ao, defeated by the state of Jin at the Battle of Chengpu. Husband to Zheng Mao. He was murdered by his son, the future King Mu

• King Mu of Chu (楚穆王) (Xiong Shangchen 熊商臣) ruled 625–614 BC: son of King Cheng

• King Zhuang of Chu (楚莊王) (Xiong Lü 熊侶) ruled 613–591 BC: son of King Mu. Defeated the State of Jin at the Battle of Bi, and was recognized as a Hegemon.

• King Gong of Chu (楚共王) (Xiong Shen 熊審) ruled 590–560 BC: son of King Zhuang. Defeated by Jin at the Battle of Yanling.

• King Kang of Chu (楚康王) (Xiong Zhao 熊招) ruled 559–545 BC: son of King Gong

• Jia'ao (郟敖) (Xiong Yuan 熊員) ruled 544–541 BC: son of King Kang, murdered by his uncle, the future King Ling.

• King Ling of Chu (楚靈王) (Xiong Wei 熊圍, changed to Xiong Qian 熊虔) ruled 540–529 BC: uncle of Jia'ao and younger brother of King Kang, overthrown by his younger brothers and committed suicide.

• Zi'ao (訾敖) (Xiong Bi 熊比) ruled 529 BC (less than 20 days): younger brother of King Ling, committed suicide.

• King Ping of Chu (楚平王) (Xiong Qiji 熊弃疾, changed to Xiong Ju 熊居) ruled 528–516 BC: younger brother of Zi'ao, tricked Zi'ao into committing suicide.

• King Zhao of Chu (楚昭王) (Xiong Zhen 熊珍) ruled 515–489 BC: son of King Ping. The State of Wu captured the capital Ying and he fled to the State of Sui.

• King Hui of Chu (楚惠王) (Xiong Zhang 熊章) ruled 488–432 BC: son of King Zhao. He conquered the states of Cai and Chen. The year before he died, Marquis Yi of Zeng died, so he made a commemorative bell and attended the Marquis's funeral at Suizhou.

• King Jian of Chu (楚簡王) (Xiong Zhong 熊中) ruled 431–408 BC: son of King Hui

• King Sheng of Chu (楚聲王) (Xiong Dang 熊當) ruled 407–402 BC: son of King Jian

• King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) (Xiong Yi 熊疑) ruled 401–381 BC: son of King Sheng. He made Wu Qi chancellor and reformed the Chu government and army.

• King Su of Chu (楚肅王) (Xiong Zang 熊臧) ruled 380–370 BC: son of King Dao

• King Xuan of Chu (楚宣王) (Xiong Liangfu 熊良夫) ruled 369–340 BC: brother of King Su. Defeated and annexed the Zuo state around 348 BC.

• King Wei of Chu (楚威王) (Xiong Shang 熊商) ruled 339–329 BC: son of King Xuan. Defeated and partitioned the Yue state with Qi state.

• King Huai of Chu (楚懷王) (Xiong Huai 熊槐) ruled 328–299 BC: son of King Wei, was tricked and held hostage by the State of Qin until death in 296 BC

• King Qingxiang of Chu (楚頃襄王) (Xiong Heng 熊橫) ruled 298–263 BC: son of King Huai. As a prince, one of his elderly tutors was buried at the site of the Guodian Chu Slips in Hubei. The Chu capital of Ying was captured and sacked by Qin.

• King Kaolie of Chu (楚考烈王) (Xiong Yuan 熊元) ruled 262–238 BC: son of King Qingxiang. Moved capital to Shouchun.

• King You of Chu (楚幽王) (Xiong Han 熊悍) ruled 237–228 BC: son of King Kaolie.

• King Ai of Chu (楚哀王) (Xiong You 熊猶 or Xiong Hao 熊郝) ruled 228 BC: brother of King You, killed by Fuchu

• Fuchu (楚王負芻) (熊負芻 Xiong Fuchu) ruled 227–223 BC: brother of King Ai. Captured by Qin troops and deposed

• Lord Changping (昌平君) ruled 223 BC (Chu conquered by Qin): brother of Fuchu, killed in battle against Qin

;Others

• Chen Sheng (陳勝) as King Yin of Chu (楚隱王) ruled 210–209 BC

• Jing Ju (景駒) as King Jia of Chu 楚假王 (Jia for fake) ruled 209–208 BC

• Xiong Xin (熊心) as Emperor Yi of Chu (楚義帝) (originally King Huai II 楚後懷王) ruled 208–206 BC: grandson or great-grandson of King Huai

• Xiang Yu (項羽) as Hegemon-King of Western Chu (西楚霸王) ruled 206–202 BC

People

• Qu Yuan, poet who committed suicide

• Lord Chunshen, one of the Four Lords of the Warring States

• Xiang Yu, the Hegemon-King of Western Chu who defeated the Qin at Julu and vied with Liu Bang in the Chu–Han Contention

• Liu Bang, later citizen of the Qin dynasty and then founder of the Han dynasty

Astronomy

In traditional Chinese astronomy, Chu is represented by a star in the "Twelve States" asterism, part of the "Girl" lunar mansion in the "Black Turtle" symbol. Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star is Phi or 24 Capricorni. It is also represented by the star Epsilon Ophiuchi in the "Right Wall" asterism in the "Heavenly Market" enclosure.

Biology

The virus taxa Chuviridae and Jingchuvirales are named after Chǔ.