國名

德意志最初是單指脫離加洛林王朝獨立，並於10世紀初建立德意志王國的四個日耳曼民族施瓦本人、巴伐利亞人、撒克遜人和法蘭克尼亞人，源自一本約1080年寫成、關於科隆總主教的德語傳記作品。

中文「德意志」一詞是德語的音譯，而越南也參照中文「德意志」，稱德國為「德（）」。 日韓對德國的稱呼漢字寫法則都是「獨逸（，Doitsu）」，日文寫作「（，Doitsu）」，韓文寫作「（，Dogil）」，而朝鮮的文化語則依照德文音譯成「」。而日耳曼一詞是來自于拉丁語日耳曼尼亞，尤利烏斯·凱撒以日耳曼尼亞稱呼萊茵河東岸的各個部落，日耳曼尼亞紀載于西元100年的《日耳曼尼亞志》，後來英語單詞的德國（）由此演變而來。而德語中的德國（，德意志人的土地，起初為diutisciu land）來自deutsch，由古高地德語的diutisc（大眾的，指屬于diot或diota人的）一詞而來，該詞最初用以區別源自拉丁語及羅曼語族的地方話。 diutisc一詞依序來自原始日耳曼語的þiudiskaz（大眾的），þiudiskaz又來自于þeudō，þeudō又承繼自原始印歐語的tewtéh（人）。

德國的名詞變遷為Theodiscus（8世紀開始，意指加洛林王朝領土內的日耳曼民族）和Teutonicus（10世紀開始德意志王國成立後的德意志名稱，又可稱「條頓」）演變成Teutsch（16世紀開始的德意志名稱），最後變成Deutsch（19世紀開始至今的德國名稱）。

歐洲人對德國的稱謂甚多，詞源分別代表過去不同的日耳曼部落，如法語、西班牙語的「阿勒芒」（Allemagne）、「阿拉曼尼亞」（Alemania）源自阿勒曼尼部（Alemanni）；芬蘭語、愛沙尼亞語中的「薩沙」（Saksa）、「薩沙瑪」（Saksamaa）源自撒克遜部（Saxons）；匈牙利語中的「涅米多薩」（Németország）則源自涅米特部（Nemetes）。

歷史

下頜骨化石的發掘表明至少600,000年前在德國即有古人類活動。自舍寧根的煤礦中亦出土三支380,000年前的標槍，為世界上最古老的完整狩獵武器。在尼安德河谷發現史上第一枚非現代人類化石，這一物種被稱為尼安德特人。化石具有近40,000年的歷史。烏爾姆附近施瓦本汝拉山洞穴中亦有同一時期的現代人類生存跡象，包括42,000年前的鳥骨和猛馬象牙笛，為至今出土的最早樂器；40,000年前大冰期的獅子人為世界已知無爭議的最古老雕塑品；距今35,000年前的則為無爭議的最古老人類雕塑。內布拉星象盤于薩克森-安哈爾特的內布拉附近出土，為一歐洲青銅時代銅製文物，被列入聯合國教科文組織世界記憶項目名錄。

日耳曼部落及法蘭克王國

日耳曼部落最早可追溯至（前17至前5世紀）或者最晚是（前5-4世紀至前1世紀）。公元前1世紀，部落開始從斯堪的納維亞半島南部和德國北部逐漸向南、向東和向西擴散，與伊朗人、波羅的人、凱爾特人的高盧部落以及東歐的斯拉夫人發生接觸。在奧古斯都的統治時代，羅馬帝國軍隊開始入侵日耳曼地區，該地區約為萊茵河至zh-hans:乌拉尔山脉; zh-hant:烏拉山脈之間，公元9年時，部落主阿爾米尼烏斯擊敗由瓦盧斯領導的三個羅馬軍團，使奧古斯都放棄將羅馬帝國邊界擴張至易北河的意圖。塔西佗於西元100年完成日耳曼尼亞志時，日耳曼部落已在萊茵河、多瑙河沿岸定居，佔據現今德國的大部分地區，而奧地利、巴伐利亞南部及萊茵蘭西部則為羅馬帝國所管轄。

3世紀時出現許多較大的西日耳曼部落，包括阿拉曼人、法蘭克人、、撒克遜人、、和圖林根人等。日耳曼人約於公元260年進入羅馬帝國控制地區。匈人於375年西移至羅馬帝國統治地區後，羅馬帝國勢力自395年起衰弱，日耳曼部落因而得以進一步向西南方遷移，同時，今日德國境內出現較大的部落取代或吸收先前的小型部落。日耳曼地區大片土地（即墨洛溫王朝時所稱的奧斯特拉西亞、紐斯特利亞和阿基坦一帶）為法蘭克人所佔領，建立起法蘭克王國，並向東征服薩克森和巴伐利亞；今德國東部地區則由西斯拉夫民族（包括索布人、和奧博特人）定居。

東法蘭克王國與神聖羅馬帝國

查理大帝於800年聖誕節於羅馬接受教宗利奧三世加冕，並建立卡洛林帝國，後於843年根據凡爾登條約分裂，分裂後出現的東法蘭克王國為神聖羅馬帝國的雛型，領土西至萊茵河，東至易北河，北至北海，南至阿爾卑斯山。

在奧托王朝（919-1024年）統治期間，由各公國推舉間推舉共主，王位雖非世襲，但仍多為父死子繼的情形，而形成王室家族。德意志國王奧托一世於962年經加冕成為神聖羅馬帝國皇帝。在薩利安王朝（1024年-1125年）統治期間，義大利北部及勃艮第併入神聖羅馬帝國，但由於敘任權鬥爭，皇帝權力遭到削弱。

12世紀霍亨斯陶芬王朝（1138-1254年）統治期間，德意志諸侯的影響力向南方和東方擴張至斯拉夫人定居地區；他們鼓勵德意志人向這些區域移居，稱東向移民運動。多數由北部德意志城鎮組成的漢薩同盟由于貿易的擴張而繁榮。南部的大拉芬斯堡貿易組織（Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft）起到類似的作用。1356年查理四世頒布金璽詔書，確立帝國的基礎政治結構，規定七個最具勢力的公國統治者或大主教為選帝侯，通過多數制選舉皇帝。

14世紀上半葉，德意志人口大幅減少。1315年發生大饑荒，黑死病則于1348年至1350年流行。即便如此，德意志的藝術家、工程師和科學家仍在這一時期發展一系列的技術，與同一時期在意大利諸城邦使用的科技類似。德意志諸國的藝術和文化中心培養、其子小漢斯·霍爾拜因以及阿爾布雷希特·丟勒。約翰內斯·谷登堡將活字印刷術引入歐洲，為日後知識的大眾化創造條件。

1517年，維滕貝格教士馬丁·路德撰寫九十五條論綱，挑戰天主教會（羅馬公教會）並引發宗教改革。1555年的《奧格斯堡和約》宣告路德宗為可接受的天主教替代信仰，但還規定諸侯的信仰應為其子民的信仰，這一原則稱「教隨君定」（Cuius regio, eius religio）。和約未涉及其他信仰，由此歸正宗仍為異端，而其原則亦未涉及神權領袖改信的狀況（如1583年科隆選侯國的情形）。自科隆戰爭至三十年戰爭（1618–1648年）的一系列宗教戰事對德意志地區造成嚴重的破壞，其中後者導致諸邦國總人口減少近百分之三十，而在一些地區人口減少高達百分之八十。《威斯特伐利亞和約》的簽訂終結德意志諸國的宗教戰事。1648年後，德意志諸侯可選擇天主教、路德宗及歸正宗為其國教。

18世紀，神聖羅馬帝國由近1,800個領地所組成。由帝國改革（1450–1555年）推動的法律體系建立帝國政治體，並在其神權、世俗及世襲邦國中確定一定程度的地方自治權，由帝國議會代表。哈布斯堡王朝自1438年起保有帝國皇權。1740年查理六世過世；其生前無嗣，由此說服各選帝侯接受《國事遺詔》以確保王朝統治。這一問題通過奧地利王位繼承戰爭最終得到解決：《亞琛和約》規定瑪麗亞·特蕾西亞的丈夫將繼承神聖羅馬帝國皇位，而特蕾西亞將以皇后之名統治帝國。自1740年起，奧地利哈布斯堡君主國同普魯士王國的二元之爭主導德意志地區的局勢。法國大革命戰爭及帝國議會最終會議之後，多數世俗的帝國自由城市均為各王朝吞併，而神權領土則被世俗化並吞併。1806年帝國終結，多數德意志邦國（尤其是萊茵河畔諸國）為法國所統治。在拿破崙戰爭期間，法國、俄羅斯、普魯士及哈布斯堡對德意志地區的霸權展開爭奪。

德意志邦聯及德意志帝國

拿破崙一世失敗後，歐洲各國於1814年召開維也納會議，並建立由39個主權邦組成的鬆散聯盟－德意志邦聯。對歐洲協調政治的不滿在一定程度上促成自由主義運動，但隨後遭奧地利政治家克萊門斯·梅特涅所鎮壓。於1834年成立的德意志關稅同盟則促成日耳曼邦國的經濟整合。受法國大革命影響，民族主義及自由主義廣泛傳播，建立中央集權民族國家的觀點在德意志人，尤其是年輕知識分子中日漸流行。受1848年歐洲革命和法國建立共和國影響，德意志知識份子和平民也發動革命，國民議會決議由普魯士王腓特烈·威廉四世擔任德意志帝國皇帝，但威廉四世認為其權力將受限而拒絕，使革命運動暫時遭遇挫敗。

威廉四世的繼任者——威廉一世，與以自由派為主的議會漸生衝突，就軍事預算有相當歧異，於1862年任命奧托·馮·俾斯麥為普魯士首相，主導普魯士改革及建軍政策。普魯士於1864年普丹戰爭及1866年普奧戰爭獲得勝利後，並成立北德意志邦聯，排除過去曾主導日耳曼地區事務的奧地利勢力。俾斯麥欲將巴伐利亞、巴登、符騰堡及達姆施塔特等地併入北德意志邦聯，與法國衝突漸增，遂於1870年爆發普法戰爭，德國取勝，威廉一世在凡爾賽宮加冕德意志皇帝，德意志帝國宣布成立，統合奧地利以外的日耳曼國家，即採「小德意志」路線。普魯士約佔帝國三分之二的土地及人口，主導帝國事務，德意志帝國由霍亨索倫王朝統治，首都柏林。

德意志統一後，作為威廉一世治下德國總理的俾斯麥在外交上試圖鞏固德國的大國地位，與外國結盟，孤立法國，避免戰爭。但在威廉二世治下，德國同其他歐洲列強一樣逐漸朝帝國主義方向發展，同周邊國家時有衝突。先前的同盟關係多數終止，由此德國同奧匈帝國結盟，保証一定程度中立並獲得軍事支持。1882年的三國同盟將意大利攬入，這也反映德、奧、意三國對法國、俄國的擔憂。同時，英國、法國、俄國亦各自結盟，以防奧地利對巴爾幹半島（俄羅斯利益）、德國對法國的幹預。

1884年的柏林會議中，德國對東非、西南非、多哥和喀麥隆等殖民地提出宣稱。此後德國進一步擴張，將新幾內亞、密克羅尼西亞和薩摩亞納入其殖民地範圍。德國殖民政府在西南非（今納米比亞）對當地的赫雷羅人和納馬人展開滅絕行動，以報複其反抗運動，日後被稱為「20世紀首次種族滅絕」。近10萬人（80%的赫雷羅人和50%的）死于集中營內，多數死于疾病、虐待、積勞、脫水和饑荒。

1914年6月28日，奧匈帝國王儲遇刺，奧地利藉此對塞爾維亞開戰，第一次世界大戰爆發。在四年的戰事中，德意志帝國損失嚴重，超過200萬名軍人死亡。1918年11月11日停戰協定簽署，德軍士兵返回國內。同年11月德國革命爆發，威廉二世及各邦國統治者被迫遜位。1919年6月28日新政府簽署《凡爾賽條約》。作為同盟國成員，德國接受其為協約國所敗。德國民眾認為條約不公且使德國蒙羞，史學家日後稱這一態度最終導致阿道夫·希特勒的崛起。

魏瑪共和國

1918年11月德國革命初期，德國宣布改行共和制。1919年8月11日，總統弗里德里希·艾伯特簽署《魏瑪憲法》。在此後的權力鬥爭中，左翼激進共產主義者在巴伐利亞奪權，而德國其他地區的保守派則試圖通過卡普政變推翻共和國。後者一定程度上得到國家防衛軍、保守主義、民族主義、保皇主義的支持。此後的德國經歷工業中心的血腥街道戰、比利時和法國軍隊對魯爾區的占領、1922年至1923年的惡性通貨膨脹、債務重組計劃及1924年新貨幣的引入。此後黃金二十年代到來，德國進入一段文化及藝術的自由繁榮期。即便如此，對《凡爾賽條約》的恨意仍舊存在，刀刺在背傳說廣泛流傳，為此後二十年的反猶潮提供基礎。經濟仍然持續動蕩，史學家僅稱1924年至1929年間為「局部穩定期」。1929年大蕭條對德國造成衝擊。1930年聯邦選舉後，總統保羅·馮·興登堡授權海因里希·布呂寧領導的政府不經議會批准採取舉措。布呂寧政府採取財政緊縮和通貨緊縮政策，導致大幅度的失業；1932年失業率高達30%。

1932年特別聯邦選舉中納粹黨獲勝。在一系列失敗內閣後，1933年興登堡任命阿道夫·希特勒為德國總理。

納粹德國

國會縱火案後，《國會縱火法令》取消民眾的基本權利。在數周之內首個納粹集中營于達豪開始運作。《1933年授權法》授予希特勒無限立法權，由此其政府建立起中央集權的極權主義國家，通過全民投票，並開始重新武裝化。

通過赤字財政政策，由政府支持的經濟複興計劃開始實施，主要著重于公共工程領域。1934年的公共工程項目中，170萬德國民眾投入工作，由此獲得收入和社會福利。最為著名的工程項目為全國高速公路。其他重要建設項目包括水力發電項目、供水項目如及交通樞紐如。此後五年內，失業率大幅度下跌，時均和周均薪酬上升。

1935年，當局宣布不再履行《凡爾賽條約》，並頒布紐倫堡法案，針對猶太人及其他少數族群。德國亦于1935年收回薩爾，于1938年吞併奧地利，並于1939年初占領捷克斯洛伐克。

1939年8月，希特勒政府同蘇聯簽署《蘇德互不侵犯條約》，劃分雙方在東歐的勢力範圍。條約簽署後，1939年9月1日德國對波蘭展開入侵，第二次世界大戰就此展開。作為回應，英、法亦對德國宣戰。1940年春，德國攻克丹麥及挪威、荷蘭、比利時、盧森堡和法國。同年，英國抵禦德國的空中攻勢。1941年，德國入侵南斯拉夫、希臘及蘇聯。至1942年，德國及其他軸心國占領歐洲和北非大部分地區，但1943年斯大林格勒戰役蘇聯獲勝，盟軍奪回北非並入侵意大利，德國連續遭遇失敗。1944年6月，西方盟軍在法國登陸，法國複國，並且加入反擊德國的行動。蘇聯向東歐推進；年末，西方盟軍已進入德國境內，德軍最後一次反攻未果。在希特勒于柏林戰役中自殺身亡後，1945年5月8日，美、英、法、蘇攻入柏林，德國投降，第二次世界大戰歐洲戰場終結。

在日後稱猶太人大屠殺中，納粹對少數族裔進行迫害，並通過集中營和滅絕營對其所稱劣等種族進行種族滅絕。超過1,000萬平民被系統性殺害，包括600萬猶太人、220,000至1,500,000羅姆人、275,000身心障礙者、數千耶和華見証人、數千同性戀者及成千上萬政治和宗教異見者。在占領區內的政策導致270萬波蘭人死亡、130萬烏克蘭人、及近280萬蘇聯戰俘。德國約有320萬至530萬士兵陣亡，近200萬平民死亡。前東部領土的損失導致近1,200萬德意志裔人被由東歐驅逐。其戰前領土損失近四分之一。戰略轟炸及地面戰事導致許多城市及文化遺產被摧毀。第二次世界大戰後，前納粹政權參與者于紐倫堡審判中接受戰爭罪審判。

東西德分裂時期

於德國投降後，德國領土及柏林由同盟國中的四強美、英、法、蘇分區佔領，這些地區接受650萬名來自東部領土的德意志人。1949年5月23日，法國、英國及美國占領區合併，成立德意志聯邦共和國，1949年10月7日，蘇聯佔領區成立德意志民主共和國，一般也以西德及東德稱之。東德首都設於柏林，西德將波恩設為臨時首都，以強調兩國分治僅為暫時性的現狀。

西德為議會民主制共和國，採行「社會市場經濟」。自1948年起，西德成為馬歇爾計劃的主要受援國之一，通過援助重建其工業基礎。1949年康拉德·阿登納當選為首任聯邦總理，並任至1963年。在他和路德維希·艾哈德領導之下，西德自1950年代起經歷長期的經濟增長，被稱為經濟奇蹟。1955年西德加入北大西洋公約組織，並為1957年歐洲經濟共同體創始國。

東德為一東方集團國家，蘇聯通過其軍力和華沙條約組織在政治和軍事上對其進行控制。雖然其名義上為民主國家，政治權力僅由德國統一社會黨高官（政治局成員）行使，並由控制社會諸多領域的秘密機構斯塔西支持。民主德國採行蘇聯式統治經濟，後成為經濟互助委員會成員國。雖然東德官方對其社會政策進行大規模宣傳，並鼓吹西德入侵威脅，諸多東德公民仍然嚮往西德的政治自由及經濟繁榮。1961年建成的柏林牆旨在阻止東德人逃亡西德，成為冷戰的象徵之一。在此羅納德·里根于1987年6月12日發表《推倒這堵牆！》演說，與約翰·肯尼迪于1963年6月26日的《我是柏林人》演講相應合。1989年柏林牆倒塌成為共產主義垮台、兩德統一和東德轉型的象徵

東、西德間的緊張關係在西德總理維利·勃蘭特於1970年代初期通過東方政策稍獲緩解。1989年夏，匈牙利放棄鐵幕並開放邊界，數千名東德國民經匈牙利成功進入西德，事件也對東德造成衝擊，大型抗議活動獲得更多支持。東德當局放鬆邊境限制，使東德居民能自由前往西德旅遊，以維持東德的國家地位，而實際上此舉加速了轉向改革的進程。1990年9月12日，四個占領國簽署《最終解決德國問題條約》，放棄其在投降書中獲得的權力，德國重獲完整主權。由此1990年10月3日兩德統一，前東德五個zh-hans:联邦州; zh-hant:邦重新建立並加入德國。

兩德統一與歐盟

兩德統一以來的德國被認為是西德的擴大延續而非改朝換代，由此其獲得西德在所有國際組織中的成員資格。根據1994年《柏林-波恩法案》，柏林重新成為統一德國首都，而波恩則獲得「聯邦城市」（Bundesstadt）這一獨有地位，保有一些聯邦機關。政府遷移于1999年全部完成。後德國社會民主黨政治家格哈特·施羅德當選首位紅綠聯盟德國總理，與聯盟90/綠黨共同組建政府。

東德經濟的現代化及集合為一長期過程，計劃至少持續至2019年，每年由西部向東部轉移金額近800億歐元。

自統一後，德國在歐洲聯盟中日漸扮演重要角色。1992年德國與其歐洲夥伴共同簽署《馬斯特里赫特條約》，1999年建立歐元區，2007年簽署《里斯本條約》。德國派出維和部隊以穩定巴爾幹地區局勢，並在塔利班政權被推翻後，以北約成員身份派出軍隊維護阿富汗安全局勢。由于國內法律規定德國只能部署軍隊進行國防行動，這些舉措產生一定的爭議。

2005年選舉後，基督教民主聯盟領袖安格拉·梅克爾成為首位女性德國總理。2009年德國政府批准一項總額達500億歐元的經濟刺激計劃以保護其產業免受經濟危機衝擊。

2009年，的自由-保守聯盟當政。2013年，組建大聯合政府。21世紀的德國主要政治目標包括推進歐洲統合、向可持續能源進行轉移（Energiewende）、平衡預算、提升生育率及高科技主導的德國經濟未來轉型（「工業4.0」）。

2015年德國受到歐洲移民危機的影響，其為多數進入歐盟移民的最終目的地。其接受超過一百萬難民，並通過配額機制將移民根據稅收及人口密度分配至各zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦。

2021年德國聯邦議院選舉後社民黨取得多數席次。同年12月8日，社民黨政治家奧拉夫·朔爾茨於宣誓就任德國總理，並與綠黨及自由民主黨共組中間偏左的。

2022年2月13日，弗蘭克-瓦爾特·施泰因邁爾再次當選德國聯邦總統，成為首位連任的社民黨總統。

地理

在地區分類上德國屬于西歐或中歐，北與丹麥相連，東面與波蘭和捷克接壤，東南臨奧地利，西南偏南為瑞士，西同法國、盧森堡和比利時相界，西北毗荷蘭。其領土大部分位于北緯47至55度，東經5至16度間。德國北瀕北海，東北偏北臨波羅的海，于奧地利及瑞士邊界同中歐第三大湖博登湖相鄰。德國國土面積為，包括陸地及水域，為歐洲面積第7大國家及世界面積第62大國家。

德國地勢總體南高北低，高度由位于南部的阿爾卑斯山向位于西北的北海海岸及東北的波羅的海海岸遞減。其最高點為楚格峰（阿爾卑斯山），海拔，最低點為（北德低地），海拔為海平面以下。萊茵河、多瑙河及易北河等大河穿流而過德國中部的森林高地及北部低地。阿爾卑斯山地區的冰川正逐漸經歷消退。德國重要自然資源包括鐵礦、煤礦、草木灰、木材、褐煤、鈾、銅、天然氣、鹽、鎳、耕地及水。

氣候

德國大多數地區受西風帶影響，屬溫帶海洋性氣候。此地區氣候因墨西哥灣暖流向北延伸的北大西洋漂流而較為溫和，而該暖流較溫暖的海水影響北海周邊區域。

德國年均降水量為，無穩定的乾燥期。冬季溫和，夏季溫暖，氣溫可超。

德國東部偏向大陸性氣候，冬季寒冷，夏季溫暖，較常出現長時間的乾燥。德國中部及南部地區為海洋性氣候及大陸性氣候的過渡帶，最南部的阿爾卑斯山區氣溫較低，德國中部的高地屬山地氣候，氣溫較低且降雨較多。

生態

德國國土可分為兩個生態區域，分別為及生態系。於2008年，德國土地利用以耕地（34%）、林地（30.1%）為主，其次為永久放牧區（13.4%）及居住區、街道（10.8%）。

動植物為中歐地區常見的物種，山毛櫸、橡樹及其他落葉林構成森林的三分之一，松柏則因重新造林而增加，雲杉及冷杉為高山地區主要林相，松及落葉松多生長於砂質土壤。另存在多種蕨類、花、真菌、苔蘚類。主要野生動物包括鹿、野豬、、狐、獾、野兔、河狸。

德國國家公園包括石勒蘇益格-荷爾斯泰因瓦登海國家公園、亞斯蒙德國家公園、西波美拉尼亞潟湖地區國家公園、米利茨國家公園、下奧得河河谷國家公園、哈爾茨國家公園、薩克森小瑞士國家公園、巴伐利亞森林國家公園等。德國境內共有超過400家動物園及動物公園，數量居世界之冠。柏林動物園為德國歷史最悠久的動物園，展示物種超過1,500種，為世界上展示物種最多的動物園。

城市

德國有諸多大型城市，共有11個官方認定的德國大都會區。其中最大的為萊茵-魯爾都會區，2008年人口達1,170萬，包括杜塞爾多夫（北萊茵－威斯特法倫首府）、科隆、波恩、多特蒙德、埃森、杜伊斯堡、波鴻。

政治

德國為採行議會制、代議民主制的聯邦共和國，其政治體制於1949年的《基本法》架構下運行，修改基本法通常須聯邦議院及聯邦參議院以三分之二多數通過。基本法的核心原則包括人性尊嚴、權力分立、聯邦組織架構及依循法治。

聯邦總統（弗蘭克-瓦爾特·施泰因邁爾，2017年3月19日就任）為國家元首，僅具象徵性，權利及責任由聯邦大會選舉產生；聯邦大會由聯邦議院全體議員及各邦議會選出與聯邦議院同等數量的代表組成，其中各邦代表數量依人口比例分配。地位僅次於聯邦總統，由聯邦議院選舉產生，負責議院日常事務。總理為政府首腦及位階第三高者，由聯邦議院選任後經聯邦總統任命。

聯邦總理（奧拉夫·朔爾茨，2021年12月8日就任）為政府首腦並行使行政權，其職責類似於其他採行議會民主制國家的首相。聯邦立法權則由聯邦議院及聯邦參議院行使，兩院共同組成國家立法機關。聯邦議院代表由比例代表制（聯立制）直接選舉產生；聯邦參議院代表則由各邦政府成員代表出任，代表各邦利益。

自1949年起，基督教民主聯盟及德國社會民主黨為主導政黨，至今總理皆由這兩黨黨員出任，但規模較小的自由民主黨（1949年至2013年在議會中擁有席位）及聯盟90/綠黨（自1983年在議會中擁有席位）亦為議院中重要力量。

德國在2010年達到最高（80.3%），在此後逐漸下降。根據歐洲統計局數據，2015年德國政府淨債規模達到2.152兆歐元，占其GDP的71.9%。2015年聯邦政府預算盈餘達121億歐元（131億美元）。標準普爾、穆迪和惠譽等信用評級機構對德國評級為最高的AAA級，2016年展望為穩定。

法律

德國為歐陸法系國家，其法律體系以羅馬法為基礎，具有一定成分。聯邦憲法法院為德國最高法院，負責憲政事宜，擁有司法覆核權。德國的最高法院系統（Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes）分工明確，其中聯邦最高法院為民事與刑事案件終審法院，而聯邦最高勞工法院、聯邦最高社會法院、和聯邦最高行政法院則為其他類型案件的終審法院。

在國家層面，刑法及私法分別編著為《德國刑法典》及《德國民法典》。德國刑罰制度以矯正罪犯及保護公眾為目標。除輕微犯罪（由單一職業法官審判）及嚴重政治犯罪外，所有案件均採用混合審判制，由公民陪審團同職業法官一同審案。行政法的許多部分由各zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦自行負責。

德國現行的憲法《德意志聯邦共和國基本法》最初是聯邦德國的憲法，在東、西德統一後成為德國的正式憲法；而德國基本法是少數不以「憲法」命名的國家根本大法。

德國沒有死刑，基本法第102條中明文規定廢除死刑；而有證據顯示，聯邦德國的廢死，最早來自右翼政黨的提案，原先目的並非是一般罪行的兇手，而是企圖阻礙盟軍對戰犯執行死刑；但實際上廢死並無影響戰犯的處決，也被認為無法對其法院有拘束力，所以相關處決則持續到1951年。詳情可見德國死刑制度一文。

行政區劃

德國由16個zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦組成，16個zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦共同組成國家（德語：）整體。各zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦擁有其zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦憲法，並對其內部事務有相當大的自治權限。由於各zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦在領土面積及人口數量上具有差異，尤其是城邦（Stadtstaaten）與具較大領土的zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦（Flächenländer）間的差異，而於巴登－符騰堡、巴伐利亞、黑森、北萊茵－威斯特法倫及薩克森設有22個一級行政區，管理地方事務。截至2013年，德國共分為402個縣市級行政區，包括295個縣行政區及107個市行政區。

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國際關係

德國於全球設有229個駐外代表機構並與196個國家維持邦交關係。2011年，德國為歐盟第一大預算出資國（佔20%）及聯合國第三大預算出資國（佔8%）。德國為北大西洋公約組織、經濟合作與發展組織、八大工業國組織、二十國集團、世界銀行及國際貨幣基金組織成員國。德國自第二次世界大戰後與法國保持緊密結盟，並為歐盟重要成員，德國亦致力於促進歐洲各國政治、防禦及安全機構整合。

德國的援助發展政策獨立於外交政策，由德國聯邦經濟合作及發展部規劃，並由執行機構執行，德國政府將援助發展政策視為國際社會的共同責任，德國的援助總額僅次於美國及法國。

冷戰期間，德國被鐵幕分割，象徵東、西勢力於緊張關係並成為歐洲的政治戰場。維利·勃蘭特的東方政策在1970年代的緩和政策中相當重要。1999年，由總理格哈特·施羅德領導的政府對德國的國際政策重新定義，並派遣德國軍隊參與北約組織於科索沃的行動，為德國軍隊於第二次世界大戰後首次進行作戰。德國政府與美國緊密政治結盟，1948年的馬歇爾計劃及文化聯繫促成德、美兩國緊密關係，但施羅德口頭反對伊拉克戰爭暗示著大西洋主義的結束，德美關係也較為低盪；而德國與美國間互為重要經濟夥伴，德國出口品中8.8%輸往美國，進口品中來自美國者佔6.6%。梅克爾就任總理後提出強調自由、民主、人權等理念的「價值觀外交」。

2021年，駐德美軍人數為33,900人，美軍在德國境內有119個軍事基地。

軍事

德國的武裝部隊為「聯邦國防軍」，由陸軍（包括特種部隊）、海軍、空軍三大軍種及、基礎軍（含後勤、防諜及憲兵等部隊）兩大跨軍種部隊組成。德國軍費總支出為世界第9高，2015年這一數額為329億歐元，約占其GDP的1.2%，遠低于北約要求的2.0%。

截至2015年12月，聯邦國防軍現役人數約為178,000人，其中包括9,500名志願者。預備役軍人可參加國防演習和海外部署。自2001年起，女性可參與國防軍，不限部門。近19,000名女性正在服役。根據斯德哥爾摩國際和平研究所數據，2014年德國為世界第四大主要軍備出口國。

和平時期，聯邦國防軍由國防部長指揮；戰爭時期，聯邦總理則成為其最高指揮官。

根據德國憲法，聯邦國防軍僅具國防職責，但1994年聯邦憲法法院裁定「國防」一詞不僅包括保衛德國國境，還包括危機應對及衝突預防，廣至保衛世界範圍內德國的安全。截至2015年1月，德國軍隊約有2,370人在海外進行國際維和任務，包括北約主導的駐阿富汗國際維和部隊，850人部署于阿富汗和烏茲別克斯坦，670人部署于科索沃，120人同聯合國駐黎巴嫩臨時部隊部署于黎巴嫩

2011年以前，年滿18歲男性須服6個月義務役，基於宗教或道德因素不願服兵役者得參加與役期等長的公共服務，或志願參與志願消防局或紅十字會等急救機構6年。2011年後，義務兵役停止，改為志願兵役制。

經濟

德國採行社會市場經濟，工業基礎堅固，擁有高技術的勞工、龐大股本，較低的腐敗程度，及高創新能力。德國為世界第三大出口國及歐洲第一大經濟體；按國際匯率計算，為世界第4大經濟體，以購買力平價計算則為世界第5大經濟體。

服務業（包括通訊產業）對德國國內生產總值的貢獻達到71%，工業和農業則分別貢獻28%和1%。根據歐洲統計局2015年1月數據，德國失業率為4.7%，為28個歐盟成員國中最低；其青年失業率為7.1%，亦為歐盟最低。根據經濟合作與發展組織報告，德國為世界上勞動生產率最高的國家之一。

德國為歐洲單一市場（消費者數量超過5.08億）的組成部分。多項國內商業政策通過歐盟成員國協定及歐盟立法協調製訂。2002年德國推行歐洲共同貨幣歐元。作為歐元區成員國（總人口近3.38億），德國的貨幣政策由總部設于歐洲大陸金融中心法蘭克福的歐洲中央銀行制訂。

德國是近代汽車的發源國，擁有全球最具競爭力和創新力的汽車產業之一，汽車產量位居全球第四。出口量最大的十種貨品為汽車、機械、化學品、電子產品、機電設備、醫藥品、運輸設備、基礎金屬、食品、橡膠及塑膠。

企業

2014年，以上市公司營業額排名的《財富世界500強》排行榜中，有28家企業的總部設在德國。德國DAX指數則由30家市值最大的德國公司組成。著名國際品牌包括梅賽德斯-賓士、BMW、PUMA、SAP、福斯汽車、奧迪、西門子、安聯、愛迪達、保時捷和DHL。

德國亦有大量具備專業技術的中小型企業（其模式稱Mittelstand）。約有1,000家此類企業在各領域居世界領先地位，被稱為隱形冠軍企業。柏林為創業公司的重要樞紐，亦為歐盟諸多風險投資支持公司的所在地。

如下為2014年最大的德國企業：

交通

德國位于歐洲中心位置，為歐洲大陸重要的交通樞紐，擁有稠密的道路交通網。德國是世界上最早擁有高速公路的國家，已有80多年的歷史，總里程約1.3萬公里，居世界第六，而且有約70%高速路段無速度限制。德國的普通公路分為聯邦級、zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦級和鄉鎮級三等，一般規定的最高車速為100公里／小時，市區內為50公里／小時，住宅區內一般只允許30公里／小時。德國獲准行駛的機動車約4,000多萬輛，人均0.63輛（2008年）。近年來，德國政府大力推行一系列優惠措施，公眾巴士越來越為人們所喜愛和接受。此後自行車也悄悄進入城市交通，許多城市有自行車路線，並修建自行車高速公路。

德國的鐵路總長度近5萬公里，居世界前十位。德國亦建立起多中心的高速鐵路網，聯通德國主要城市及周邊國家，其營運速度最高達300公里每小時。1994年，德國聯邦鐵路和德國國營鐵路合併，實現私有化，成為德國鐵路股份公司(DB)。2014年，德國政府對德國鐵路公司補貼170億歐元。

漢莎航空是德國最大的航空企業。法蘭克福機場和慕尼黑機場為德國最大機場，二者均為漢莎航空的樞紐機場，其中法蘭克福國際機場是歐洲第三、世界第八大機場，也是歐洲貨運量和起降量第二大機場；柏林-泰格爾機場和杜塞爾多夫機場則為柏林航空樞紐機場。

目前德國的內河年貨運量在2億噸以上，約占全國貨運總量的1/4。其中萊茵河承擔約2/3的水路運量，被稱為「歐洲黃金水道」。基爾運河它是世界上運量最大的人工水道之一，方便波羅的海與北海間的航運。德國的主要港口有漢堡、不來梅哈芬、威廉港、呂貝克和羅斯托克。其中漢堡港，是歐洲第三大、世界第九大港口，有「德國通向世界的門戶」之稱。2012年落成的威廉港集裝箱港區是德國唯一的天然深水良港，水深達18米，與漢堡港作為傳統的通商口岸形成良好的互補。

能源

於2008年，德國能源消耗居世界第6位，其中六成的主要能源依賴進口。2014年，德國的能源來源為石油（35.0%）、煤及褐煤（24.6%）、天然氣（20.5%）、核能（8.1%）、水力及可再生能源（11.1%）。德國政府及德國核能產業同意在2021年前逐步除役全部核電站。政府亦推動能源節約、綠色能源和減排活動，並計劃在2020年前使全國發電使用可再生能源比例達到40%。德國履行《京都議定書》及其他條約以促進生物多樣性、減少排放、管理水資源及可再生能源商業化。德國的家庭回收率為近65%，為世界最高之一。即便如此，2010年德國的溫室氣體排放量仍舊為歐盟最高。德國能源轉型（Energiewende）計劃通過提升能源效率和使用可再生能源，推動德國經濟向可持續化發展。

科技

20世紀初至今德國共有104位諾貝爾獎獲得者，在科學領域（物理、化學、生理學或醫學）優勢明顯。

德國擁有一整套結構完善、分工明確、協調一致的科研體系。高等院校、獨立研究機構、企業科研機構是德國科研體系的三大支柱。德國共有300餘所大學及專科學院和眾多獨立科研機構，如馬普學會擁有79個研究所、弗勞恩霍夫協會擁有48個研究所，此外還有亥姆霍茲聯合會、16個國家研究中心以及84個「藍名單」科研機構。德國研究開發的資金來源除了政府之外還有企業、非盈利機構、高校、國外投資等，2013年共計797億歐元，占德國國內生產毛額的2.84%。戈特弗里德·威廉·萊布尼茨獎每年頒予10名科學家或學術研究者，獎金最高為250萬歐元，為世界上資助研究獎金最高者之一。德國目前重點科技領域包括基礎研究、應用研究、信息及通信技術、生物技術、衛生、環保、新材料、能源、交通、航空航天、海洋、地球科學、國防等。不過，經濟諮詢公司BDO及漢堡世界經濟研究所聯合進行的一項調研顯示，德國在高科技研究領域開始落伍，2012年至2014年，德國每百萬人口申請專利數量為916個，在百萬人口專利數量方面世界排名第五。

愛因斯坦和普朗克為近代物理學的重要奠基者，維爾納·海森堡及馬克斯·玻恩並進一步發展。威廉·倫琴發現X射線，並於1901年獲得首屆諾貝爾物理學獎。奧托·哈恩為放射及放射化學領域的先驅，並發現核裂變。費迪南德·科恩及zh-hans:罗伯特·科赫; zh-hant:羅伯·柯霍建立微生物學。德國還有高斯、萊布尼茨等數學家。德國也有許多著名發明家及工程師，如漢斯·蓋革發明蓋革計數器；康拉德·楚澤建造首部全自動數位電腦。斐迪南·馮·齊柏林、奧托·李林塔爾、戈特利布·戴姆勒、魯道夫·狄塞爾、胡戈·容克斯及卡爾·本茨等人形塑現代汽車及航空運輸科技。航空航天工程家沃納·馮·布勞恩開發第一枚太空火箭，而後於美國國家航空航天局開發土星5號運載火箭，使阿波羅計劃得以實現。海因里希·赫茲證實電磁波存在，對現代電信發展相當重要。位于格賴夫斯瓦爾德的文德爾施泰因7-X具有一研究聚變能的設施。

旅遊

德國是世界入境遊客數量第7多的國家，2012年到訪過夜遊客數量達到4.07億人次，其中包括6,883萬外國遊客。2012年，超過3,040萬國際遊客到訪德國。柏林為歐洲訪客數量第三高的城市。此外，超過30%的德國國民在本國度假，國內訪客最多的zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦為梅克倫堡-前波美拉尼亞。德國11,116個鄉鎮中在旅遊局登記的約有4000個，其中310個獲得療養地或海水浴場的認証。德國國內及國際旅遊對GDP的直接貢獻數額達到432億歐元；將間接因素包括在內後，旅遊業貢獻4.5%的GDP，並提供兩百萬個就業崗位（占總就業的4.8%）。

德國以其多元的旅遊線路聞名，包括南部從維爾茨堡到菲森的浪漫之路；西部穿越普法爾茨葡萄酒產區葡萄酒之路；從曼海姆經海爾布隆、紐倫堡一直延伸到捷克首都布拉格的城堡之路；從波羅的海到博登湖縱貫德國南北長達2900公里的；還有從德國北部的易北河到瑞士邊境博登湖的，將桁架這一建築形式的重要代表串聯起來。另外德國還有6,135個博物館、366劇院、34主題公園、4萬5千個網球場、648個高爾夫球場、122個自然公園，徒步旅行的線路達19萬公里，自行車線路4萬公里。

德國有聯合國教科文組織批准的世界遺產數量達41個，包括雷根斯堡、班貝格、呂貝克、奎德林堡、魏瑪、施特拉爾松德和維斯馬的歷史城區等38項文化遺產和麥塞爾化石坑、瓦登海、古山毛櫸森林等3項自然遺產。德國最受歡迎的旅遊景點包括新天鵝堡、科隆主教座堂、德國國會大廈、皇家宮廷啤酒屋、海德堡城堡、茨溫格宮、柏林電視塔及亞琛主教座堂。位于弗萊堡的是歐洲第二受歡迎的主題公園。

社會

人口

根據2011年人口普查數據，德國人口約為8,020萬，而至2015年6月30日這一數字上升至8,150萬，到2015年12月31日至少達到8,190萬。德國為歐盟人口最多的國家，在歐洲則為第2位（居俄羅斯之後），世界第16位。其人口密度為227人/平方千米（588人/平方英里）。總預期壽命為80.19歲（男性77.93歲；女性82.58歲）。總和生育率為每名婦女生育1.41名子女（2011年估計），即年增長率約千分之8.33，為世界最低之一。自1970年代起，德國的死亡率持續高于其生育率，但自2010年代以來其生育率和移民率有一定提升，受優良教育的移民數量尤有提升。

四個頗具規模的族群因其祖先在相應區域長期定居，被稱為「國家少數民族」。在北端的石勒蘇益格-荷爾斯泰因zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦有近50,000名丹麥裔；在薩克森和勃蘭登堡的盧薩蒂亞地區有近60,000名斯拉夫裔索布人；羅姆人和辛提人生活于聯邦全境；弗里斯蘭人則生活于石勒蘇益格-荷爾斯泰因西岸及下薩克森西北部。近500萬德國人生活在海外。

移民

2014年，德國8,100萬居民中有近700萬無德國國籍，其中96%生活在德國西部，大多數居于城市區域內。

1960年代和1970年代，德國政府邀請「」移居德國。許多企業在這些工人完成培訓後將其留在德國國內繼續工作，由此德國的移民人口穩固提升。截至2011年，近600萬外國公民（占總人口7.7%）在德國註冊登記。

德國聯邦統計局將其公民根據移民背景分類。2009年，全國20%居民（超過1,600萬人）具有移民或部分移民背景（包括被遣返的德意志裔）。2010年，在擁有18歲以下子女的家庭中，29%至少父母有一方具有移民背景。

2015年，聯合國經濟和社會事務部人口分部統計德國共有1,200萬國際移民，約占全球2.44億移民的5%，居世界第二位。在移民占總人口數量百分比方面，德國位居歐盟第7位，世界第37位。截至2014年，最大的移民族群來自土耳其（2,859,000），其次為波蘭（1,617,000）、俄羅斯（1,188,000）和意大利（764,000）。自1987年來，近300萬德意志人（多數來自前東方集團國家領土）行使其回歸權移居德國。

宗教

自1871年德意志帝國建國以來，德國大部分為基督徒，2023年的調查中，其中24%為天主教信徒及21.9%為新教信徒，並有為數顯著的少數猶太裔。其他宗教信仰者亦存在，但數量非常有限。在1945年後，德國分為東德與西德，宗教局勢逐漸變化，西德由于移民逐漸多元化，而東德則由于公家的馬列主義而整體趨于無神論。在兩德統一後，多元化趨勢得到延續。

截至2023年，基督宗教為德國第一大宗教，信徒占總人口48.4%，德國總人口中24%則信仰天主教，21.9%的人口信仰為新教的德國的福音派教會（由德國信義會與歸正宗聯合），而東正教信徒占1.5%，其他基督教教派或獨立教會佔1%。2023年，天主教會成員人數達2,034萬（總人口的24%），福音派教會人數為1,856萬（總人口的21.9%），兩大教會近年信徒流失數量均頗為顯著。

地理上，新教主要集中于德國北部、中部和東部，信徒多屬福音會，囊括路德宗、改革宗及二者的聯合（可追溯至1817年的普魯士聯合教會）。天主教主要集中于南部和西部。

2011年，33%的德國民眾不屬于任何官方認可的特別宗教組織。無宗教狀況在前東德地區及大都市區域相對普遍。

伊斯蘭教為德國第二大宗教。根據2011年人口普查數據，1.9%的德國人稱其為穆斯林。近年估計有210萬至400萬穆斯林生活于德國。多數穆斯林為來自土耳其的遜尼派和阿列維派，但亦有一定數量的什葉派、阿赫邁底亞派及其他宗派

其他宗教信仰者占德國總人口比率低于1.0%，信仰佛教（250,000人，0.3%）、印度教（約100,000人，0.1%）、猶太教信徒占0.1%，其他宗教信徒占2.7%，其他宗教社群人數均少于50,000人。

語言

德語為德國的官方語言及主要通行語言，為24個歐盟官方語言之一，並為3個歐洲聯盟委員會的工作語言之一。德語是歐洲聯盟中第一語言使用者最多的語言，母語者數量約達1億。

德國所承認的少數語言包括丹麥語、低地德語、索布語、羅姆語及弗里西語，並受歐洲區域或少數民族語言憲章保護。最受廣泛使用的移民語言為土耳其語、庫爾德語、波蘭語、巴爾幹地區語言及俄語。調查顯示67%的德國公民能以1種外語溝通，而27%能運用2種或以上外語。

標準德語與英語、低地德語、荷蘭語及弗里西語較為相近，同屬西日耳曼語支，該語支與東日耳曼語支（絕滅）與北日耳曼語支同屬印歐語系的日耳曼語族，該語族也是多數德語詞彙的來源；部分詞彙來自拉丁語及希臘語，另有一小部分來自法語，近來多來自英語。德文以拉丁字母書寫。德語方言差異可追溯至日耳曼部落時期，並能從與標準德語在詞彙、音韻、語法等語言變體而分辨。

教育

德國教育的監管主要由各zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦政府負責。非強制性的幼兒園教育向所有三至六歲的兒童開放，而此後的義務教育必須持續至少九年。基礎教育一般持續四至六年。中等教育根據不同教育級別分為三類傳統學校：文理中學，為具有天賦的兒童提供教育並為其準備大學教育；為中等程度學生就讀，為期六年；則提供職業教育。綜合中學（Gesamtschule）整合中等教育。

雙軌教育（Duale Ausbildung）系統之下的技術資格証明與學術學歷幾乎相當。在此機制下，參加職業教育的學生可在公司或國營的學校中學習。這一模式受到好評，並在世界其他地方得到使用

德國大學多為公共機構，傳統上學生可免學費學習。進入大學一般需要經過中學會考（Abitur），但根據zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦、學校及學生亦有其他方式。免費教育亦對國際學生開放，這一狀況日漸普遍。根據2014年OECD報告，德國為國際學習的第三大目的國。

德國具有相當長的高等教育歷史，反映其作為現代經濟體的全球地位。一些德國大學歷史十分悠久，最古老的為海德堡大學（1386年建立），其後為萊比錫大學（1409年）、羅斯托克大學（1419年）和格賴夫斯瓦爾德大學（1456年）。1810年自由教育改革家威廉·馮·洪堡創建柏林大學，其辦學模式為諸多歐洲及西方大學借鑑。當代德國產生十一所卓越大學，包括柏林洪堡大學、不來梅大學、卡爾斯魯厄理工學院、德累斯頓工業大學、蒂賓根大學、亞琛工業大學、柏林自由大學、海德堡大學、康斯坦茨大學、慕尼黑大學及慕尼黑工業大學。

醫療衛生

德國的護理所系統可追溯至中世紀。現今的德國擁有世界上歷史最悠久的全民醫療保健體系，其始于1880年代奧托·馮·俾斯麥的社會立法。自1880年代起，改革與立法保証醫保體系的平衡。現今德國人口的健康保險由法定的醫保方案覆蓋，而其特別條款使一些群體可選擇使用私人醫保方案。根據世界衛生組織數據，截至2013年，德國的醫保系統77%由政府負擔，23%由個人出資。2015年，醫療支出占德國國民生產總值的11%。德國男性與女性的預期壽命分別為77歲及82歲，居世界第20位；其嬰兒死亡率較低，約為千分之四。

2010年，德國人的主要死亡原因為心血管疾病，占41%，其次為惡性腫瘤，占26%。2008年，約有82,000感染艾滋病，自1982年起共有26,000人因此死亡。2013年調查表明15歲以上的德國人吸煙率為24.5%。肥胖問題在德國逐漸嚴重。2007年研究表明德國肥胖率為歐洲最高。

文化

德國文化在宗教和世俗層面均受歐洲主要思潮及群眾運動的塑造。由于其文學家及哲學家對西方文化思想貢獻巨大，德國在歷史上也被稱作「詩人與思想家之國」（Das Land der Dichter und Denker）。

德國民間節日傳統頗具名望，如慕尼黑啤酒節和，包括將臨花圈、聖誕劇、聖誕樹、聖誕蛋糕及其他習俗。截至2016年，聯合國教科文組織已將德國40項遺產列入其世界遺產名錄。每個zh-hans:州; zh-hant:邦自行指定其公共節日，而自1990年以來，10月3日即為德國國慶日，稱德國統一日。

21世紀的柏林發展成為世界主要文化中心之一。根據安霍爾特-捷孚凱國家品牌指數，2014年德國列50個全球最受尊重國家之首（位于美國、英國及法國之前）。英國廣播公司于2013年及2014年的全球民意調查均顯示德國為正面影響力最高的國家。

音樂

諸多世界著名古典音樂作曲家來自德國。迪特里克·布克斯特胡德創作管風琴清唱劇，影響日後包括約翰·塞巴斯蒂安·巴赫和格奧爾格·弗里德里希·亨德爾在內的巴洛克時期重要作曲家。生于奧格斯堡的利奧波德·莫扎特在其于薩爾茨堡擔任小提琴手和教師期間培養世界最偉大的音樂家之一——沃爾夫岡·阿馬德烏斯·莫扎特。路德維希·范·貝多芬是古典主義和浪漫主義音樂過渡期間的重要人物。卡爾·馬利亞·馮·韋伯和費利克斯·門德爾松在浪漫主義早期扮演重要的角色。羅伯特·舒曼和約翰內斯·勃拉姆斯則將浪漫主義音樂發揚光大。理查德·瓦格納的歌劇頗具名望。理查德·施特勞斯是浪漫主義晚期和現代早期的領銜人物之一。卡爾海因茨·施托克豪森和漢斯·季默則為20世紀和21世紀的重要作曲家

德國是全歐洲第二大及世界第四大音樂市場。20世紀及21世紀德國流行音樂形式與運動包括、流行、東方搖滾、重金屬/搖滾里最有影響力的樂隊是德國戰車(Rammstein)、朋克、流行搖滾、獨立及等。德國電子音樂在發電廠樂團和橘夢樂團引領之下產生國際範圍內的影響力。德國鐵克諾和浩室領域的DJ和音樂家亦獲得廣泛的聲望（如羅賓·舒爾茨、保羅·范迪克、和等）。

美術

德國畫家對西方美術史的發展產生重要的影響。阿爾布雷希特·丟勒、小漢斯·霍爾拜因、馬蒂亞斯·格呂內瓦爾德和老盧卡斯·克拉納赫是文藝複興期間重要的德國藝術家。彼得·保羅·魯本斯和約翰·巴普蒂斯特·齊默爾曼（巴洛克）、卡斯帕·大衛·弗里德里希和卡爾·施皮茨韋格（浪漫主義）、馬克斯·利伯曼（印象派）及馬克斯·恩斯特（超現實主義）亦在其各自時期具有重要地位。、和等雕塑家亦在19世紀末20世紀初對德國藝術史作出重要貢獻

20世紀多個藝術集團在德國建立起來，包括、橋社及瓦西里·康定斯基領銜的藍騎士。這些團體影響慕尼黑和柏林表現主義的發展。作為對應藝術形式，新即物主義在魏瑪共和國時期發展起來。戰後的德國藝術趨勢可大致分為新表現主義、行為藝術及觀念藝術。知名新表現主義藝術家包括格奧爾格·巴澤利茨、安塞爾姆·基弗、、、馬庫斯·呂佩爾茨、和。其他傳統媒體或人像領域的藝術家還包括、格哈德·里希特、西格瑪爾·波爾克和。德國著名概念藝術家有、、、、約瑟夫·博伊斯、、阿里斯·卡萊澤、內奧·勞赫和安德烈亞斯·古爾斯基。卡塞爾文獻展、、和為德國的主要藝術展和藝術節。

建築

德國在建築方面作出的貢獻包括和風格，這二者為羅曼式建築的先導。中世紀風格亦發源于德國。在文藝複興和巴洛克時期，德國亦發展出相應的地方性風格（如和德累斯頓巴洛克）。巴洛克時期的著名建築師包括、巴爾塔薩·諾伊曼、和。主導18世紀南德的灰泥建築風格。途中，雕塑家、灰泥匠兄弟約翰·巴普蒂斯特·齊默爾曼和多米尼庫斯·齊默爾曼的貢獻一覽無遺。德國民居建築以其木骨架（Fachwerk）傳統聞名，不同地區風格各有不同。

歐洲工業化時期，古典主義和歷史主義風格在德國發展起來，因19世紀的經濟繁榮而時被稱作奠基時代風格。區域性歷史主義風格包括、紐倫堡風格及德累斯頓森佩爾-派。新天鵝堡為最著名的德國建築之一和羅曼複興式建築的代表。18世紀一些亞風格在德國的礦泉療養地及海水浴場中發展起來。德國藝術家、作家和畫廊家如、和亦為20世紀初新藝術運動的發展作出貢獻

在1910年代的德國發展起來，並影響裝飾風藝術等其他現代風格，、埃里希·門德爾松、和為其代表人物。德國在現代主義運動早期地位十分重要，在此創立德意志工藝聯盟（新即物主義），而瓦爾特·格羅佩斯則創立包豪斯運動。由此德國也時常被認為是現代藝術和設計的搖籃。20世紀下半葉路德維希·密斯·凡德羅成為世界最著名的建築師之一，提出玻璃摩天大樓這一概念。其他知名當代德國建築師和建築商還包括、、、赫爾穆特·揚、、GMP、奧雷·舍人、J·邁爾·H、O·M·翁格爾斯、戈特弗里德·伯姆和弗萊·奧托（後兩人為普利茲克獎得主）。

文學及哲學

德國文學歷史可追溯至中世紀，是時作家包括瓦爾特·馮·德·福格爾魏德和沃爾夫拉姆·馮·埃申巴赫。知名德國作家有約翰·沃爾夫岡·馮·歌德、弗里德里希·席勒、戈特霍爾德·埃夫萊姆·萊辛及台奧多爾·馮塔納。格林兄弟收集並出版各路民間故事，也將德國民間傳說推向世界。兩人同時還以歷史為基礎收集和編纂各地不同形式的德語，其《德語詞典》（Deutsches Wörterbuch；亦稱《格林詞典》）始于1833年，第一版于1854年出版。

20世紀具影響力的德國作家包括格哈特·霍普特曼、托馬斯·曼、赫爾曼·黑塞、海因里希·伯爾和君特·格拉斯。德語出版商年均出版量約達7億冊，書目近80,000種，其中新出版書目近60,000種。在書籍出版總數上，德語書目位居世界第三，僅次于英語和漢語。法蘭克福書展是世界上最重要的國際圖書貿易展之一，具有長達500年的歷史。

德國哲學在歷史上相當重要：戈特弗里德·萊布尼茨主張理性主義；伊曼努爾·康德宣揚啟蒙哲學；約翰·戈特利布·費希特、格奧爾格·威廉·弗里德里希·黑格爾和弗里德里希·謝林創立古典德國唯心主義；阿圖爾·叔本華開創形而上悲觀主義；卡爾·馬克思及弗里德里希·恩格斯創立共產主義理論；弗里德里希·尼採提出觀點主義；戈特洛布·弗雷格推動了分析哲學的發展；馬丁·海德格爾研究存在主義；麥克斯·霍克海默、狄奧多·阿多諾、赫伯特·馬爾庫塞和尤爾根·哈貝馬斯發展的法蘭克福學派亦頗具影響力；奧斯瓦爾德·斯賓格勒則推行歷史哲學。

媒體

德國最大的國際媒體企業為貝塔斯曼、阿克塞爾·斯普林格集團和。德新社亦為重要的媒體機構。德國的電視市場為歐洲最大約3,800萬家庭擁有電視，近90%的德國家庭擁有有線電視或衛星電視，可接收公共免費電視及商業電視頻道。德國有超過500個公共和私人廣播電台，德國之聲為最主要的德國外語電視和廣播商。德國國家廣播為德國廣播，德國公共廣播聯盟則負責地方服務。

諸多歐洲銷量最高的報紙和雜誌在德國出版。發行量最大的報紙（或網絡媒體）為《圖片報》《時代周報》《南德意志報》《法蘭克福匯報》和《世界報》，雜誌則為《明鏡》《亮點》和《焦點》。

德國的遊戲市場亦為世界最大之一。于科隆舉行的Gamescom為世界規模最大的遊戲展之一。來自德國的流行遊戲包括《Turrican》、《紀元》系列、《工人物語》系列、《》系列、《》系列、《孤島驚魂》系列及《孤島危機》系列。重要遊戲製作商和發行商包括Blue Byte、Crytek、Deep Silver、、Piranha Bytes和，社交網絡遊戲商則包括、、和。

電影

德國電影對其領域在技術和藝術上都作出巨大的貢獻。的作品在1895年首映。位于柏林市郊波茨坦著名的巴貝爾堡攝影棚于1912年建立，為世界首個大型電影製作室，現今為歐洲最大製作室。早年德國電影受到德國表現主義的顯著影響，其代表包括羅伯特·威恩和弗里德里希·威廉·穆爾瑙。弗里茨·朗的《大都會》（1927年）被認為是第一部重要科幻電影。1930年約瑟夫·馮·斯坦伯格執導首部德語有聲電影《藍天使》，由瑪琳·黛德麗出任主演。萊尼·里芬斯塔爾的電影開創電影美學的新層面，其代表作為《意志的勝利》。

1945年後，許多戰後時期的電影被稱作「廢墟電影」（Trümmerfilm），如的《》（1946年）。知名東德電影包括施陶特的《》（1951年）、的《》（1964年）及的《》（1975年）。1950年代西德電影的主導類型為「鄉土電影」（Heimatfilm），描繪美麗的河山以及其正直的居民。

1970年代和1980年代，德國新浪潮導演如沃克·施隆多夫、維爾納·赫爾佐格、維姆·文德斯和寧那·華納·法斯賓德提高西德作者電影的國際地位。包括《從海底出擊》（1981年）、《大魔域》（1984年）、《再見列寧！》（2003年）、《愛無止盡》（2004年）、《白絲帶》（2009年）、《動物總動員》（2010年）和《雲圖》（2012年）等德國電影亦在國際上獲得成功。1979年奧斯卡最佳外語片獎授予德國電影《鐵皮鼓》，同一獎項在2002年授予《何處是我家》，2007年授予《竊聽風暴》。

年度歐洲電影獎每隔一年在所在地柏林舉行。柏林國際電影節頒發金熊獎，自1951年起每年舉行，為世界最重要的電影節之一。德國電影獎頒發羅拉獎，自1951年起每年于柏林舉行。

飲食

德國飲食根據地區不同而各有差異，但相鄰的區域時常有共同之處（如南部的巴伐利亞和施瓦本飲食文化同瑞士和奧地利相近）。國際食品如披薩、壽司、中國菜、希臘菜、印度菜和土耳其烤肉亦因不同民族社群的存在而可以獲得，頗受大眾歡迎。

麵包是德國飲食的重要組成部分。德國出產近600種麵包和1,200種糕點和圓麵包。德國奶酪的生產數量占到全歐洲的近三分之一。2012年，超過99%在德國生產的肉類為豬肉、雞肉和牛肉。香腸在德國極為普遍，生產種類近1,500種，包括油煎香腸、白香腸和咖喱香腸等。2012年，有機食品銷量占到食品總銷量的3.9%。

葡萄酒在德國許多地方逐漸開始流行，但最受歡迎的國家酒精飲品仍舊為啤酒。2012年德國啤酒飲用量為每人，在世界位居前列。德國對于啤酒純度的規定可追溯至15世紀。

2015年《米其林指南》指定11家德國餐廳為最高的三星級，38家餐廳則獲得二星評價，233家餐廳獲得一星評價，總數量位居第二，僅次于法國。

體育

近二千七百萬德國人為體育俱樂部成員，此外亦有一千二百萬人獨立參與體育活動。

足球是最受歡迎的體育運動。德國足球協會會員人數達650萬人，在同類組織中為世界最大，其頂級賽事德國足球甲級聯賽平均到場觀眾人數在全球職業體育聯賽中位居第二。德國國家足球隊于1954年、1974年、1990年和2014年奪得世界盃足球賽冠軍，1972年、1980年和1996年奪得歐洲足球錦標賽冠軍。德國于1974年和2006年舉辦世界盃，于1988年、2024年舉辦歐錦賽。

其他熱門運動包括冬季體育、拳擊、籃球、手球、排球、冰球、網球、馬術和高爾夫球。水類運動諸如帆船、賽艇和游泳亦頗受歡迎。

德國為世界賽車大國。寶馬和梅賽德斯為重要的賽車製造商。截至2015年，保時捷曾17次在勒芒24小時耐力賽中奪魁，奧迪亦13次取勝。邁克爾·舒馬赫在其賽車生涯中創造一系列記錄，並七次奪得一級方程式世界車手冠軍，為史上最多，並同時為史上收入最高的運動員之一。塞巴斯蒂安·維特爾亦為史上最為成功的三名一級方程式車手之一。

德國運動員在奧林匹克運動會中有優異表現，總獎牌數居世界第三（包括東西德）。德國是最後一個在同年舉辦夏季和冬季奧運會的國家——1936年于柏林舉辦夏季奧運會，在加爾米施-帕滕基興舉辦冬季奧運會。此外慕尼黑亦舉辦1972年的夏季奧運會。

時尚和設計

德國設計師在現代產品設計領域聲名顯赫，其中包豪斯設計師路德維希·密斯·凡德羅和博朗設計師迪特·拉姆斯為傑出代表。

德國亦為時尚產業領先國家之一。2010年德國紡織業共有近1,300家企業，僱傭超過130,000人，營收達280億歐元。其產品的44%用于出口。柏林時裝周和每年舉辦兩次。

慕尼黑、漢堡和杜塞爾多夫及其他一些城鎮亦為德國國內時尚產業的設計、生產和貿易中心。來自德國的著名設計師包括卡爾·拉格斐、、、菲利浦·普萊因和邁克爾·米夏爾斯基。主要時尚品牌包括雨果博斯、、愛迪達、PUMA和黛安芬。德國的超級名模諸如歌地亞·雪花、海蒂·克魯姆、和娜嘉·奧爾曼亦獲得國際名望。

註解

Etymology

The English word Germany derives from the Latin , which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. The German term , originally ('the German lands'), is derived from (cf. Dutch), which descended from Old High German 'of the people' (from or 'people'), originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic 'of the people' (see also the Latinised form ), derived from , descended from Proto-Indo-European * 'people', from which the word Teutons also originates.

History

Prehistory

Pre-human ancestors, the Danuvius guggenmosi, who were present in Germany over 11 million years ago, are theorised to be among the earliest ones to walk on two legs. Ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The first non-modern human fossil (the Neanderthal) was discovered in the Neander Valley. Similarly dated evidence of modern humans has been found in the Swabian Jura, including 42,000-year-old flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found, the 40,000-year-old Lion Man, and the 41,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels. The Nebra sky disk, created during the European Bronze Age, has been attributed to a German site.

Germanic tribes, Roman frontier and the Frankish Empire

The Germanic peoples are thought to have emerged from the Jastorf culture during the Nordic Bronze Age or early Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, they expanded south, east, and west, coming into contact with the Celtic, Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes. Southern Germany was inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, who belonged to the wider La Tène culture. They were later assimilated by the Germanic conquerors.

Under Augustus, the Roman Empire began to invade lands inhabited by the Germanic tribes, creating a short-lived Roman province of Germania between the Rhine and Elbe rivers. In 9 AD, three Roman legions were defeated by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. By 100 AD, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of modern Germany. However, Baden-Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hesse and the western Rhineland had been incorporated into Roman provinces.

Around 260, Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands. After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved farther southwest: the Franks established the Frankish Kingdom and pushed east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria. Areas of modern eastern Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes.

East Francia and the Holy Roman Empire

Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire in 800; it was divided in 843. The eastern successor kingdom of East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe river in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps. Subsequently, the Holy Roman Empire emerged from it. The Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies. In 996, Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.

Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes encouraged German settlement to the south and east. Members of the Hanseatic League, mostly north German towns, prospered in the expansion of trade. The population declined starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–1350. The Golden Bull issued in 1356 provided the constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors.

Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable-type printing to Europe, laying the basis for the democratisation of knowledge. In 1517, Martin Luther incited the Protestant Reformation and his translation of the Bible began the standardisation of the language; the 1555 Peace of Augsburg tolerated the "Evangelical" faith (Lutheranism), but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects. From the Cologne War through the Thirty Years' Wars (1618–1648), religious conflict devastated German lands and significantly reduced the population.

The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the Imperial Estates. The legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms (approximately 1495–1555) provided for considerable local autonomy and a stronger Imperial Diet. The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740. Following the War of the Austrian Succession and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Charles VI's daughter Maria Theresa ruled as empress consort when her husband, Francis I, became emperor.

From 1740, dualism between the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated German history. In 1772, 1793, and 1795, Prussia and Austria, along with the Russian Empire, agreed to the Partitions of Poland. During the period of the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic era and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet, most of the Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories; the ecclesiastical territories were secularised and annexed. In 1806 the was dissolved; France, Russia, Prussia, and the Habsburgs (Austria) competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars.

German Confederation and Empire

Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna founded the German Confederation, a loose league of 39 sovereign states. The appointment of the emperor of Austria as the permanent president reflected the Congress's rejection of Prussia's rising influence. Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich. The , a tariff union, furthered economic unity. In light of revolutionary movements in Europe, intellectuals and commoners started the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, raising the German question. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, a temporary setback for the movement.

King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the Minister President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck successfully concluded the war with Denmark in 1864; the subsequent decisive Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation which excluded Austria. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871. Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire; the King of Prussia ruled as its Kaiser, and Berlin became its capital.

In the period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as chancellor of Germany secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances and avoiding war. However, under Wilhelm II, Germany took an imperialistic course, leading to friction with neighbouring countries. A dual alliance was created with the multinational realm of Austria-Hungary; the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy. Britain, France and Russia also concluded alliances to protect against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France. At the Berlin Conference in 1884, Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South West Africa, Togoland, and Kamerun. Later, Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include holdings in the Pacific and China. The colonial government in South West Africa (present-day Namibia), from 1904 to 1908, carried out the annihilation of the local Herero and Nama peoples as punishment for an uprising; this was the 20th century's first genocide.

The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed, a general armistice ended the fighting. In the German Revolution (November 1918), Wilhelm II and the ruling princes abdicated their positions, and Germany was declared a federal republic. Germany's new leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, accepting defeat by the Allies. Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating, which was seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler. Germany lost around 13% of its European territory and ceded all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the Pacific.

Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany

On 11 August 1919, President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution. Communists briefly seized power in Bavaria and a few larger cities, while conservative elements failed to overthrow the central government in the 1920 Kapp Putsch. The occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops and a period of hyperinflation followed. A plan to restructure Germany's war reparations and the creation of a new currency in 1924 helped stabilise the government and ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of artistic innovation and liberal cultural life.

The worldwide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929, and by 1932 the unemployment rate had risen to 24%. The Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the largest party in the Reichstag after the election of July 1932, and President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor on 30 January 1933. After the Reichstag fire, a decree abrogated basic civil rights, and the first Nazi concentration camp opened. On 23 March 1933, the Enabling Act gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power, overriding the constitution, and marked the beginning of Nazi Germany. His government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations, and dramatically increased the country's rearmament. A government-sponsored programme for economic renewal focused on public works, the most famous of which was the .

In 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities. Germany also reacquired control of the Saarland in 1935, remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, annexed Austria in 1938, annexed the Sudetenland in 1938 with the Munich Agreement, and in violation of the agreement occupied Czechoslovakia in March 1939. (Night of Broken Glass) saw the burning of synagogues, the destruction of Jewish businesses, and mass arrests of Jewish people.

In August 1939, Hitler's government negotiated the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, beginning World War II in Europe; Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. In the spring of 1940, Germany conquered Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France, forcing the French government to sign an armistice. The British repelled German air attacks in the Battle of Britain in the same year. In 1941, German troops invaded Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union. By 1942, Germany and its allies controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa, but following the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the Allied reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943, German forces suffered repeated military defeats. In 1944, the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe; the Western allies landed in France and entered Germany despite a final German counteroffensive. Following Hitler's suicide during the Battle of Berlin, Germany signed the surrender document on 8 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe and Nazi Germany. Following the end of the war, surviving Nazi officials were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials.

In what later became known as the Holocaust, the German government persecuted minorities, including interning them in concentration and death camps across Europe. The regime systematically murdered 6 million Jews, at least 130,000 Romani, 275,000 disabled, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses, thousands of homosexuals, and hundreds of thousands of political and religious opponents. Nazi policies in German-occupied countries resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2.7 million Poles, 1.3 million Ukrainians, 1 million Belarusians and 3.5 million Soviet prisoners of war. German military casualties have been estimated at 5.3 million, and around 900,000 German civilians died. Around 12 million ethnic Germans were expelled from across Eastern Europe, and Germany lost roughly one-quarter of its pre-war territory.

East and West Germany

After the surrender of Nazi Germany, the Allies de jure abolished the German state and partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany; on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR) (; DDR). They were informally known as West Germany and East Germany. East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was temporary.

West Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a social market economy. In 1948, West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the American Marshall Plan. Konrad Adenauer was elected the first federal chancellor of Germany in 1949. The country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s. West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community. On 1 January 1957, the Saarland joined West Germany.

East Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the Soviet Union via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the , an immense secret service. While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, prevented East German citizens from escaping to West Germany, becoming a symbol of the Cold War.

Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the late 1960s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's . In 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open its border with Austria, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary and Austria. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. In an effort to help retain East Germany as a state, the East German authorities eased border restrictions, but this actually led to an acceleration of the reform process culminating in the Two Plus Four Treaty under which Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, German reunification and ("the turning point").

Reunified Germany and the European Union

United Germany was considered the enlarged continuation of West Germany, so it retained its memberships in international organisations. Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act (1994), Berlin again became the capital of Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a (federal city), retaining some federal ministries. The relocation of the government was completed in 1999, and modernisation of the East German economy was scheduled to last until 2019.

Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union, signing the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and the Lisbon Treaty in 2007, and co-founding the eurozone. Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.

In the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female chancellor. In 2009, the German government approved a €50 billion stimulus plan. Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition for a sustainable energy supply, the debt brake for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the transition of the German economy, summarised as Industry 4.0. During the 2015 European migrant crisis, the country took in over a million refugees and migrants.

Geography

Germany is the seventh-largest country in Europe. It borders Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, and France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea. German territory covers . Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at ) in the south to the shores of the North Sea in the northwest and the Baltic Sea in the northeast. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: in the municipality Neuendorf-Sachsenbande, Wilstermarsch at below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, and nickel.

Climate

Most of Germany has a temperate climate, ranging from oceanic in the north and west to continental in the east and southeast. Winters range from the cold in the Southern Alps to cool and are generally overcast with limited precipitation, while summers can vary from hot and dry to cool and rainy. The northern regions have prevailing westerly winds that bring in moist air from the North Sea, moderating the temperature and increasing precipitation. Conversely, the southeast regions have more extreme temperatures.

From February 2019–February 2020, average monthly temperatures in Germany ranged from a low of in January 2020 to a high of in June 2019. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 30 litres per square metre in February and April 2019 to 125 litres per square metre in February 2020. Average monthly hours of sunshine ranged from 45 in November 2019 to 300 in June 2019.

Climate change in Germany is leading to long-term impacts on agriculture, more intense heatwaves and coldwaves, flash and coastal flooding, and reduced water availability. Climate change could cost Germany up to €900 billion by 2050.

Biodiversity

The territory of Germany can be divided into five terrestrial ecoregions: Atlantic mixed forests, Baltic mixed forests, Central European mixed forests, Western European broadleaf forests, and Alps conifer and mixed forests. , 51% of Germany's land area is devoted to agriculture, while 30% is forested and 14% is covered by settlements or infrastructure.

Plants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe. According to the National Forest Inventory, beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute just over 40% of the forests; roughly 60% are conifers, particularly spruce and pine. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include roe deer, wild boar, mouflon (a subspecies of wild sheep), fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver. The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol.

The 16 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Harz National Park, the Hainich National Park, the Black Forest National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park, the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park. In addition, there are 17 Biosphere Reserves, and 105 nature parks. More than 400 zoos and animal parks operate in Germany. The Berlin Zoo, which opened in 1844, is the oldest in Germany, and claims the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.

Politics

Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the (Federal Diet) and (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The is elected through direct elections using the mixed-member proportional representation system. The members of the represent and are appointed by the governments of the sixteen federated states. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitution known as the (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both the and the ; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law, are valid in perpetuity.

The president, who has been Frank-Walter Steinmeier since 2017, is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the (president of the Bundestag), who is elected by the and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the chancellor, who is appointed by the after being elected by the party or coalition with the most seats in the . The chancellor, who has been Olaf Scholz since 2021, is the head of government and exercises executive power through his Cabinet.

Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party and the Alliance 90/The Greens have also been junior partners in coalition governments. Since 2007, the democratic socialist party The Left has been a staple in the German , though they have never been part of the federal government. In the 2017 German federal election, the right-wing populist Alternative for Germany gained enough votes to attain representation in the parliament for the first time.

Constituent states

Germany is a federation and comprises sixteen constituent states which are collectively referred to as . Each state has its own constitution, and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. , Germany is divided into 401 districts at a municipal level; these consist of 294 rural districts and 107 urban districts.

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Law

Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review. Germany's specialised supreme court system includes the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice for civil and criminal cases, along with the Federal Labour Court, Federal Social Court, Federal Fiscal Court, and Federal Administrative Court for other matters.

Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the and the respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public. With the exceptions of petty crimes, tried by a single professional judge, and of serious political crimes, all charges are adjudicated by mixed tribunals where lay judges and professional judges preside together.

In 2016, Germany's murder rate stood at a low of 1.18 murders per 100,000. In 2018, the overall crime rate fell to its lowest since 1992.

Same-sex marriage has been legal in Germany since 2017, and LGBT rights are generally protected in the country.

Foreign relations

Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries. Germany is a member of the Council of Europe, NATO, the OECD, the G7, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighbouring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus. The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies. Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.

After 1990, Germany and Russia worked together to establish a "strategic partnership" in which energy development became one of the most important factors. As a result of the cooperation, Germany imported most of its natural gas and crude oil from Russia.

Germany's development policy functions as a distinct sector within its foreign policy framework. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community. It was the world's second-biggest aid donor in 2019 after the United States.

Military

Germany's military, the (Federal Defence), is organised into the (Army and special forces ), (Navy), (Air Force) and (Cyber and Information Domain Service) branches. In absolute terms, German military spending in 2023 was the seventh-highest in the world. In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Chancellor Olaf Scholz announced that German military expenditure would be increased past the NATO target of 2%, along with a one-time 2022 infusion of 100 billion euros, representing almost double the 53 billion euro military budget for 2021. In 2023, military spending according to NATO criteria amounted to $73.1 billion, or 1.64% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%. In 2024, Germany reported $97.7 billion to NATO, exceeding the NATO target of 2% at 2.12% of GDP.

, the has a strength of 180,215 active soldiers and 80,761 civilians. Reservists are available to the armed forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad. Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, but this has been officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service. Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Germany was the fifth-largest exporter of major arms in the world from 2019 to 2023.

In peacetime, the is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In a state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the . The role of the is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994, the term "defence" has been defined not only to include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. the German military has about 3,600 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 1,200 supporting operations against Daesh, 980 in the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan, and 800 in Kosovo.

Economy

Germany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation. It has the largest economy in Europe by nominal GDP, which is also the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP and sixth-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP. Its PPP-adjusted GDP per capita amounts to 121% of the EU27 average. The country's service sector contributes approximately 72% of the total GDP, industry 27%—with Germany having the largest manufacturing sector in Europe—and agriculture 1% . The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 3.2% , which is the fourth-lowest in the EU.

Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 450 million consumers. In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the eurozone economy according to the International Monetary Fund. Germany introduced the common European currency, the euro, in 2002. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is based in Frankfurt. Germany is the world's third-largest exporter and third-largest importer, and it has the second-largest trade surplus after China. Its largest trading partners in 2024 were the United States, China, and the Netherlands. Germany's main exports are vehicles, machinery, and chemical goods.

The German automotive industry is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world. It was the sixth-largest by production and largest by export value in 2023. Germany is home to Volkswagen Group, the world's second-largest automotive manufacturer by vehicle production.

Of the world's 500 largest stock market-listed companies by revenue in 2023, the Fortune Global 500, 32 are based in Germany. The DAX, Germany's stock market index operated by the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, includes 30 major Germany-based companies. Well-known international German brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Porsche, Opel, Siemens, Bayer, Allianz, Adidas, Puma, Hugo Boss, SAP, Bosch and Deutsche Telekom. Berlin is a hub for startup companies and has become the leading ___location for venture capital-funded firms in the European Union. Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the . These companies represent around 48% of the global market leaders in their segments, labelled hidden champions.

Research and development efforts form an integral part of the German economy, with the country ranking fourth in research and development expenditure since 2005. In 2018, Germany ranked fourth globally in terms of number of science and engineering research papers published and third in the quality-adjusted Nature Index in 2023. Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association, the Fraunhofer Society, and the Leibniz Association. Germany is the largest contributor to the European Space Agency. The country was ranked 9th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Infrastructure

With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent. Its road network is among the densest in Europe. The motorway (Autobahn) is widely known for having no general federally mandated speed limit for some classes of vehicles. The Intercity Express or ICE train network serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to . The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport, Munich Airport and Berlin Brandenburg Airport. The Port of Hamburg is the third-busiest port in Europe and one of the twenty largest container ports in the world.

, Germany was the world's seventh-largest consumer of energy. All nuclear power plants were phased out in 2023. Germany meets its power demands using 40% renewable sources (2018), and has been called an "early leader" in solar panels and offshore wind. The country is committed to the Paris Agreement and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, and water management. As of 2017, Germany's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world—at around 65%. In 2023, Germany was the 14th highest emitting nation of greenhouse gases. The German energy transition is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy, with the country being called "the world's first major renewable energy economy". Germany has reduced its primary energy consumption by 11% between 1990 and 2015 and set itself goals of reducing it by 30% by 2030 and by 50% by 2050.

Tourism

Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contributed over €105.3 billion to German GDP in 2015. Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry supported nearly 4.2 million jobs in 2015. As of 2022, Germany is the eighth-most-visited country. Its most popular landmarks include Cologne Cathedral, the Brandenburg Gate, the Reichstag, the Dresden Frauenkirche, Neuschwanstein Castle, Heidelberg Castle, the Wartburg, and Sanssouci Palace. The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second-most popular theme park resort.

Demographics

With a population of 84.7 million according to the 2023 German census, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union, the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the nineteenth-most populous country in the world. Its population density stands at . The fertility rate of 1.57 children born per woman (2022 estimates) is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and is one of the lowest in the world. Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has exceeded its birth rate. However, Germany is witnessing increased birth rates and migration rates since the beginning of the 2010s. Germany has the third oldest population in the world, with an average age of 47.4 years.

Four sizeable groups of people are referred to as national minorities because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries: There is a Danish minority in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein; the Sorbs, a Slavic population, are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg; the Roma and Sinti live throughout the country; and the Frisians are concentrated in Schleswig-Holstein's western coast and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.

Germany is a major destination for immigrants, ranking second in the world after the United States. In 2015, following the 2015 refugee crisis, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 12 million of all 244 million migrants. Refugee crises have resulted in substantial population increases; for example, the major influx of Ukrainian immigrants following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, whereby over 1.06 million refugees from Ukraine were recorded in Germany as of April 2023. , Germany ranks seventh among EU countries in terms of the percentage of migrants in the country's population, at 13.1%. In 2022, there were 23.8 million people—28.7 percent of the total population—who had a migration background.

Germany has a number of large cities. There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions. The country's largest city is Berlin, while its largest urban area is the Ruhr.

Religion

According to the 2022 census, Christianity is the largest religion at 49.7% of the population; 23.1% identified as Protestant and 25.1% as Catholic.

Islam is the second-largest religion in the country. In the 2011 census, 1.9% of respondents (1.52 million people) gave their religion as Islam, but this figure is deemed unreliable because a disproportionate number of adherents of this faith (and other religions, such as Judaism) are likely to have made use of their right not to answer the question. In 2019, there were an estimated 5.3–5.6 million Muslims with a migrant background (6.4–6.7% of the population), in addition to an unknown number of Muslims without a migrant background. Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevis from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites, Ahmadiyyas and other denominations. Other religions each comprise less than one percent of Germany's population.

In 2011, formal members of the Jewish community represented no more than 0.2% of the total German population, and 60% of them resided in Berlin. An estimated 80 to 90 percent of these Jews in Germany are Russian-speaking immigrants from the former Soviet Union, who came to Germany from the 1980s onwards.

A study in 2023 estimated that 46.2% of the population are not members of any religious organisation or denomination. Irreligion in Germany is strongest in major metropolitan areas and throughout the former East Germany, which used to be predominantly Protestant before the imposition of state atheism under communism.

Languages

German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany. It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union, and one of the three procedural languages of the European Commission, alongside English and French. German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union, with around 100 million native speakers.

Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Low Rhenish, Sorbian, Romani, North Frisian and Saterland Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, Polish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian and other Balkan languages, as well as Russian. Germans are typically multilingual: 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27% in at least two.

Education

Responsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual states. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years depending on the state. Primary education usually lasts for four to six years. Secondary schooling is divided into tracks based on whether students pursue academic or vocational education. A system of apprenticeship called leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree. It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run trade school. This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world.

Most of the German universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment. The general requirement for attending university is the . According to an OECD report in 2014, Germany is the world's third leading destination for international study. The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world, with Heidelberg University (established in 1386), Leipzig University (established in 1409) and the University of Rostock (established in 1419) being the oldest in the country. The Humboldt University of Berlin, founded in 1810 by the liberal educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, became the academic model for many Western universities. In the contemporary era, Germany has developed eleven Universities of Excellence.

Health

Germany's system of hospitals, called , dates from medieval times, and the country has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating from Bismarck's social legislation of the 1880s. Since the 1880s, reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system. The population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute, with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded in 2013. In 2014, Germany spent 11.3% of its GDP on health care.

Germany ranked 21st in the world in 2019 in life expectancy with 78.7 years for men and 84.8 years for women according to the WHO, and it had a very low infant mortality rate of 4 deaths per 1,000 live births. , the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 37%. Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue: a 2014 study showed that 52 percent of the adult German population was overweight or obese.

Culture

Culture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular, and their scientists, writers and philosophers have played a significant role in the development of Western thought. Global opinion polls from the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014.

Germany is well known for such folk festivals as the Oktoberfest and Christmas customs, which include Advent wreaths, Christmas pageants, Christmas trees, Stollen cakes, and other practices. , UNESCO inscribed 54 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List. There are a number of public holidays in Germany determined by each state; 3 October has been a national day of Germany since 1990, celebrated as the (German Unity Day).

Music

German classical music includes works by some of the world's most well-known composers. Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel were influential composers of the Baroque period. Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras. Carl Maria von Weber, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms were significant Romantic composers. Richard Wagner was known for his operas. Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras. Karlheinz Stockhausen and Wolfgang Rihm are important composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries.

In 2013, Germany was the second-largest music market in Europe, and fourth-largest in the world. German popular music of the 20th and 21st centuries includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle, pop, Ostrock, heavy metal/rock, punk, pop rock, indie, Volksmusik (folk music), schlager pop and German hip hop. German electronic music gained global influence, with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream pioneering in this genre. DJs and artists of the techno and house music scenes of Germany have become well known (e.g. Paul van Dyk, Felix Jaehn, Paul Kalkbrenner, Robin Schulz and Scooter).

Art, design and architecture

German painters have influenced Western art. Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder were important German artists of the Renaissance, Johann Baptist Zimmermann of the Baroque, Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Spitzweg of Romanticism, Max Liebermann of Impressionism and Max Ernst of Surrealism. Several German art groups formed in the 20th century; (The Bridge) and (The Blue Rider) influenced the development of expressionism in Munich and Berlin. The New Objectivity arose in response to expressionism during the Weimar Republic. After World War II, broad trends in German art include neo-expressionism and the New Leipzig School.

German designers became early leaders of modern product design. The Berlin Fashion Week and the fashion trade fair Bread & Butter are held twice a year.

Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of Romanesque. Brick Gothic is a distinctive medieval style that evolved in Germany. Also in Renaissance and Baroque art, regional and typically German elements evolved (e.g. Weser Renaissance). Vernacular architecture in Germany is often identified by its timber framing traditions and varies across regions, and among carpentry styles. When industrialisation spread across Europe, classicism and a distinctive style of historicism developed in Germany, sometimes referred to as style. Expressionist architecture developed in the 1910s in Germany and influenced Art Deco and other modern styles. Germany was particularly important in the early modernist movement: it is the home of Werkbund initiated by Hermann Muthesius (New Objectivity), and of the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century; he conceived of the glass façade skyscraper. Renowned contemporary architects and offices include Pritzker Prize winners Gottfried Böhm and Frei Otto.

Literature and philosophy

German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level. The Grimms also gathered and codified regional variants of the German language, grounding their work in historical principles; their , or German Dictionary, sometimes called the Grimm dictionary, was begun in 1838 and the first volumes published in 1854.

Influential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll, and Günter Grass. The German book market is the third-largest in the world, after the United States and China. The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500 years. The Leipzig Book Fair also retains a major position in Europe.

German philosophy is historically significant: Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the enlightenment philosophy by Immanuel Kant; the establishment of classical German idealism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; Oswald Spengler's historical philosophy; and the development of the Frankfurt School have all been very influential.

Media

The largest internationally operating media companies in Germany are Bertelsmann, Axel Springer SE and ProSiebenSat.1 Media. Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with over 38 million TV households as of 2012. Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels. There are more than 300 public and private radio stations in Germany; Germany's national radio network is the Deutschlandradio and the public Deutsche Welle is the main German radio and television broadcaster in foreign languages. Germany's print market of newspapers and magazines is the largest in Europe. The papers with the highest circulation are , , and . The largest magazines include and . Germany has a large video gaming market, with over 34 million players nationwide. The annual Gamescom held in Cologne is the world's largest gaming convention.

German cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film. The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895. The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Potsdam was established in 1912, thus being the first large-scale film studio in the world. Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Director Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first major science-fiction film. After 1945, many of the films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as (rubble film). East German film was dominated by the state-owned film studio DEFA, while the dominant genre in West Germany was the ("homeland film"). During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim.

The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film ("Oscar") went to the German production The Tin Drum in 1979, to Nowhere in Africa in 2002, and to The Lives of Others in 2007. Various Germans won an Oscar for their performances in other films. The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film Academy. The Berlin International Film Festival, known as "Berlinale", awarding the "Golden Bear" and held annually since 1951, is one of the world's leading film festivals. The "Lolas" are annually awarded in Berlin, at the German Film Awards.

Cuisine

German cuisine varies from region to region and neighbouring regions often share culinary similarities, including with the southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia, Switzerland, and Austria. International varieties such as pizza, sushi, Chinese food, Greek food, Indian cuisine, and doner kebab are popular as well.

Bread is a significant part of German cuisine, with German bakeries producing about 600 main types of bread and 1,200 types of pastries and rolls. German cheeses account for about 22% of all cheese produced in Europe. In 2012 over 99% of all meat produced in Germany was either pork, chicken or beef. Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1,500 varieties, including Bratwursts and Weisswursts.

The national alcoholic drink is beer. German beer consumption per capita stands at in 2013 and remains among the highest in the world. German beer purity regulations date back to the 16th century. Wine has become popular in many parts of the country, especially near the German wine regions. In 2019, Germany was the ninth-largest wine producer in the world.

The 2018 Michelin Guide awarded eleven restaurants in Germany three stars, giving the country a cumulative total of 300 stars.

Sports

Football is the most popular sport in Germany. With more than 7 million official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest single-sport organisation worldwide, and the German top league, the Bundesliga, attracts the second-highest average attendance of all professional sports leagues in the world. The German men's national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990, and 2014, the UEFA European Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996, and the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2017.

Germany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world. Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport. Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race 19 times, and Audi 13 times. The driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won seven Formula One World Drivers' Championships. Sebastian Vettel is also among the most successful Formula One drivers of all time.

German athletes historically have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count when combining East and West German medals prior to German reunification. In 1936, Berlin hosted the Summer Games and the Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Munich hosted the Summer Games of 1972.