Sri Lankan history

A monumental dolomite marble stone image of a seated Buddha of more than 3 metres height was first photographs by Captain Hogg between 1872 and 1875–76. That image is now embedded inside the renovated principal Buddha of the Śrī Mahā Bodhi Shrine at the Mahāvihāra in Anurādhapura.

Abstract: A subordinated Dravidian identity within an Aryan-dominated Indian national imaginary made Kamala Das (1934-2009) keenly aware of racial discrimination. Her presence in Sri Lanka during the bloody civil war of 1983 further aggravated her consciousness of this socio-cultural evil. As a poet with marked Egalitarian concerns, Das has registered her trenchant criticism of this inequity in many of her poems.

In this study, I discuss a few of Kamala Das's poems, namely: “Wood Ash”, “Fear”, “The Sea at Galle Face Green”, “Smoke in Colombo”, “After July”, “A Certain Defect in the Blood”, “Shopper at the Cornells”, Colombo”, “The New Sinhala Films”, etc in order to highlight her harsh representation of racism that never hesitates to damn one's fellow beings on account of an accidental difference of birth. An effort is made to focus on Das's use of graphic images to accentuate the atmosphere of violence and violation wrought by the racist mindset in the history (both ancient and recent) of the Indian subcontinent. Eventually, I explain how the poems in focus exemplify Das's Poetics of Resistance that gives a hearing to the marginal voice of the racialised ‘other'.



Keywords: Racism, Violence and Violation, Poetics of Resistance, Racialised other, National Imaginary

The lotus, a flower known for its beauty and serenity, has a deep cultural and spiritual significance that is very unique in the art and symbolism of India and Sri Lanka. This research explores the historical evolution and symbolic meanings of the lotus within these two cultures, where the flower is intricately tied to religious, artistic, and philosophical traditions. In Hinduism and Buddhism, the lotus flower is associated with divinity and spiritual purity, and is often depicted meaningfully in religious texts and iconography. Its influence extends to temple-related architecture, sculptures, and paintings, which not only have an aesthetic meaning but also represent deep spiritual beliefs. The lotus serves as a bridge connecting the material and spiritual worlds and symbolizes enlightenment and the journey to transcendence. By examining religious scriptures, temple structures, and artistic expressions, this paper traces the lotus's enduring presence in the cultural fabric of India and Sri Lanka. Through an analysis of its symbolic representation, the study underscores the lotus's central role in shaping the spiritual and aesthetic values of these civilizations. The research highlights the interconnectedness of art, religion, and philosophy in understanding the lotus's significance, offering new insights into how a simple flower became a potent symbol of spiritual and artistic expression in these regions.

Twenty-nine copper alloy statues representing religious figures
and stylistically attributed to Sri Lankan origin were investigated
using computed x-ray radiography in order to assess the evolution
of casting technology between the 5th and 19th centuries in Sri
Lanka and to determine whether the choice of technology was a
function of the specific figure represented. The study was based
on 25 objects in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York and 4 belonging to the Archaeological Department
of Sri Lanka. The study found some correlation between the
casting technique and period of production for figures of the
Buddha consistent with later codified restrictions, and the results
also suggest that the Buddha and Bodhisattva figures were cast
in a vertical orientation while figures of Lokapalas and other
lesser deities were cast in a horizontal position. Qualitative x-ray
fluorescence analysis of the surfaces of the figures showed them
all to be tin bronzes of varying composition. The visual and
radiographic evidence reported in this study have a bearing
not only on the understanding of technology but also provide a
complete and rational basis for future conservation treatments
of similar objects.

The story of Prince Vijaya in Sri Lankan Chronicles has brought diverse aspects of Sri Lanka's history and culture to the foreground. It has also evolved several arguments regarding the socio-cultural and economic divulgences of the two countries where the unique characteristics have sometimes been dissolved or diluted in order to maintain the influence and inspiration of the great tradition of the neighboring soils. However, emerges a background to analyze the existing data and evidence to revitalize the precision of the chronicler information in terms of identifying the socioeconomic and cultural background of the country during the period. A detailed survey typically highlights the nature of performing arts in the island at the time of Vijaya's arrival attenuating the established assumptions that there is an undeniable Indian influence on Sri Lanka's dance tradition. It is a proven fact that there is a transmigration of socioeconomic and cultural elements from one to another society with the migration of civilizations due to climatic, geographic, and socioeconomic reasons, one might not assume that it is an influence from the great tradition or a subculture of it. The same theory can be applied to the history and evolution of performing arts in the island from a broader perspective on par with the existing theories and the evidence. Thus, the present study engaged in a qualitative content analysis of the Vijaya-Kuveni story in Mahawamsa, Wansaththappakasini, Mahawamsa Tikawa, along with the report about the Vijayapura Research Excavation by Shiran Deraniyagala (2004) to establish facts and the basis of the history of performing arts in Sri Lanka to answer the question whether dance and music evolved with the arrival of Prince Vijaya to this island. Empirical evidence revealed from the Chronicle Mahavamsa informs that Princess Kuveni was the daughter of a regional leader of the island, and she was leading one territory in the country. She was spinning under a tree (more precisely using cotton yarn) and was looked after by a female watchdog that was by her side. When Prince Vijaya arrived in the country, there was a hermit who welcomed the prince to the island and informed him that this was a peaceful island where there were no humans: also mentioned that the land was fertile and that the prince could enjoy himself there. A proper examination and analysis of the particular scenario reveals that the economy, politics, culture, and the society of the island were not a sudden establishment, but a prolonged evolution of a standard government with a well-established operational mechanism. The settlement near the riverine basins, traditional clothing industry, agriculture as the main economic gain, the governance of city-states, the village customs, marriage traditions, and the festivities reveal that the island had been endowed with rich socio-cultural and economic systems that enriched the nation by considering its welfare and wellbeing at its best. To substantiate these particular assumptions, the Vijayapura Research Excavation in Anuradhapura by Shiran Deraniyagala reveals the remains of a civilization dating back to around 900-800 BCE. Thus, the present study aims at identifying the so-called Sri Lankan demographic identity allowing the readers to rethink and rewrite the nature of society, culture, and performing arts in the island, by blending the empirical evidence and existing archeological findings.

ථෙරවාද අභිධර්මයේ මූලික කරුණු පිළිබඳ පාඩම් මාලාවකි. එම පාඩම් මාලාවේ විසිතුන් වන පාඩම මෙය යි. මෙම පාඩමෙන් සිත්වලින් සිදුවන කෘත්‍ය පිලිබදව විස්තර කෙරේ
A series of lessons on the basics of Theravada Abhidhamma. This is the twenty-third lesson in that series of lessons. This lesson describes consciousness and its function(s).

ථෙරවාද අභිධර්මයේ මූලික කරුණු පිළිබඳ පාඩම් මාලාවකි. එම පාඩම් මාලාවේ විසිවන පාඩම මෙය යි. මෙම පාඩමෙන් සිත්වල යෙදෙන චෛතසික පිළිබදව විස්තර කෙරේ
A series of lessons on the basics of Theravada Abhidhamma. This is the twentieth lesson in that series of lessons. This lesson describes the mental factors that are in the consciousness

ථෙරවාද අභිධර්මයේ මූලික කරුණු පිළිබඳ පාඩම් මාලාවකි. එම පාඩම් මාලාවේ හත්වැනි පාඩම මෙය යි. මෙම පාඩම ථෙරවාද අභිධර්මයේ රූප සමුට්ඨානය පැහැදිලි කෙරේ
A series of lessons on the basics of Theravada Abhidhamma. This is the seventh lesson. This lesson explained the origin of material phenomena in Theravada Abhidhamma

Human capital in today's business world becomes an organization's most precious resource. In contrast to financial assets, human assets can be created, optimized and driven for achieving an organization's targets and objectives. In addition, happy workers would make the organization's priorities and goals smoothly achieved. Retaining workers satisfaction is therefore a requirement for every organization. The main emphasis of this research was on the relationship between the welfare facilities and labourers' job satisfaction. This analysis tests empirically five independent variables (health and safety facility, education facility, housing facility, transport facility, sanitary facility) and their relation to job satisfaction of labours in the tea plantation industry with reference to: Nuwara Eliya district. The sample consists with 100 of respondents selected from convenience sampling procedure. Research showed that there are strong positive relationships between health and safety, transport facilities and educational facilities, and that residential and sanitary facilities have moderate positive relationships.

Right from the very beginning, religion has been a major motivating force and thus, human history cannot be understood without taking religion into consideration. Buddhism is one of the world's great religions, and has deeply influenced the character and evolution of Asian civilizations over the past several hundred decades. Soon after the Mahaparinibhana of Buddha, the valley of Kashmir developed into a great seat of Buddhist learning which attracted aspirants from far and wide regions to acquire knowledge. The testimony to this fact is found in the form of different ruined stupas and viharas in valley. Majhantika, who was deputed by Ashoka to Kashmir, is known to have found twelve viharas in existence on his arrival in Kashmir. Kalhana has mentioned that the first Buddhist monastery was erected by the native King Surrendra. Huein Tsang who visited Kashmir in 631.C.E. found about one hundred Sangharamas and five thousand Buddhist priests. He visited many viharas like the Jaskavihara and Jayandra Vihara. In this manuscript the focus has been put on the study of the various Buddhist known and unknown sites of valley of Kashmir.

Higher Education Commission of Pākistān, Islamabad under the National Research The present series is dedicated to Prof. Farid Khan, a versatile personality and renowned scholar. He remained a popular teacher and an eminent researcher contributing new ideas, concepts, and theories in the eld of prehistory throughout his career. He served Pākistān Archaeology in various capacities; he was a p p o i n t e d l e c t u re r i n I s l a m i a C o l l e g e a n d subsequently in 1962 his services were transferred to the Department of Archaeology University of Peshawar. 1n 1970, he was appointed as Director, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar and later in 1992 he was appointed as the rst Director of the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (former NWFP). He also had the credit of excavating several sites in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pākistān. On 28th June 2020 he passed a way, his sudden death shocked many of his students, colleagues and family. Is invaluable contributions to Pākistān Archaeology will always be remembered. He couldn't see this work in his life time, but we present it as token of memory. May Allah Bless his Soul in Peace, Ameen! DEDICATION

Higher Education Commission of Pākistān, Islamabad under the National Research The present series is dedicated to Prof. Farid Khan, a versatile personality and renowned scholar. He remained a popular teacher and an eminent researcher contributing new ideas, concepts, and theories in the eld of prehistory throughout his career. He served Pākistān Archaeology in various capacities; he was a p p o i n t e d l e c t u re r i n I s l a m i a C o l l e g e a n d subsequently in 1962 his services were transferred to the Department of Archaeology University of Peshawar. 1n 1970, he was appointed as Director, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar and later in 1992 he was appointed as the rst Director of the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (former NWFP). He also had the credit of excavating several sites in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pākistān. On 28th June 2020 he passed a way, his sudden death shocked many of his students, colleagues and family. Is invaluable contributions to Pākistān Archaeology will always be remembered. He couldn't see this work in his life time, but we present it as token of memory. May Allah Bless his Soul in Peace, Ameen! DEDICATION

This book offers a fresh and provocative perspective on the migration of South Indians to Sri Lanka, challenging the conventional historical narratives.
Its central focus revolves around a group of South Indian Brāhmins who arrived in Sath Korale, within the Kurunegala District of Sri Lanka, during the 16th century, coinciding with the Mundukondapola regional kingdom. This group's enduring historical legacy is explored up to the present day. Furthermore, the book provides a concise account of these Brāhmin settlements in Sath Korale, with a comprehensive examination of Kambuwatawana Brāhmi village, where one particular Brāhmin contingent thrived.
The analysis draws from a range of sources, including historical palm-leaf manuscripts (Puskola Poth), sociological accounts, and recent genealogical records.
Notably, these South Indian Brāhmi immigrants were Hindus and Dravidian language speakers, ultimately assimilating into the Sinhala Buddhist society within Sath Korale and the wider Kandyan regions.
Additionally, the book briefly delves into the records of other South Indian migrants such as the Malala Bandaras (from Kerala) and Hettis, who arrived alongside or during the same period as the Brāhmin contingent. It also captures the historical facts of South Indian migrants who settled in various regions of Sri Lanka from the medieval times and became integrated into the local Sri Lankan society.
Remarkably, it becomes evident that none of the present-day descendants of these diverse migrant groups possess a comprehensive awareness of their South Indian origins, as these roots have faded from memory over the course of several centuries. This newfound information sheds considerable light on contemporary Sri Lankan racial and religious consciousness.

We are humble and grateful to acknowledge our depth to all those who have helped us to put these findings, well above the level of simplicity and into something concrete. We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to the District Disaster Relief Service Officer Mr. S. B. R. S. P Samarakoon and Divisional Disaster Relief Service Officer Mr. Aravinda Jayasinghe who gave us the opportunity to do this project and facilitated to reach out to the community, which helped us in doing the rapid need assessment. A special thank you to our mentor Dr. P. D. Rupasinghe for constantly guiding and extending his technical expertise to conduct this assessment. We would like to thank the community members who helped us a lot in gathering information and collecting data. This assessment is based on the Action Contre La Faim International Manual on Baby Friendly Spaces: Holistic Approach for Pregnant, Lactating Women and their very young children in Emergency Feasibility Assessment for Implementing the Manual on Baby Friendly Spaces in Emergency to the Development Context

The Portuguese, who entered Sri Lanka in 1505, initially had contact with the Kingdom
of Kotte, and later with the Kandyan kingdom. It can be seen that several battles have been added to the history of Sri Lanka during these two kingdoms due to the efforts of the Portuguese to gain political power in Sri Lanka. By the end of the Middle Ages, the Portuguese had one of the most advanced military and military technologies in the world. But the Portuguese were defeated almost every time they tried to conquer the Kandyan kingdom. By 1638 AD, several other Western nations were trying to conquer Sri Lanka with the intention of gaining power in the Indian Ocean. In this situation, the King Rajasingha II was also trying to expel the Portuguese with the help of the Dutch. So, the Battle of Gannoruwa began in a situation where the Portuguese had no other option but to conquer the whole of Sri Lanka by conquering the Kandyan kingdom. But as a result of this battle, the Portuguese suffered a severe defeat and the final result was paving the way for the end of Portuguese rule in Sri Lanka. The winning of this battle by the Kandyan army, which had less military strength and war technology than the Portuguese, was identified as a research problem to be studied. The OODA Loop concept was used to analyze this battle and the analysis revealed that the Kandyan army was ahead of the Portuguese at every step. Accordingly, this research has suggested that it is important to introduce the local military knowledge to the Sri Lanka Army and prepare the necessary background to gather the positive parts of the local military knowledge.

The article deals with the ethnic and religious diversity of Sri Lanka. It sheds light on the origins of particular religions on the island and the transformation of their influence over the centuries. It also explains the interconnectedness of religions and ethnicities.

This is a Powerpoint that Peter Jordaan and I Zoom-delivered in July 2023 to the SOAS/UGM conference in Yogyakarta.  It is an inventory of the instances of Brahma and Vishnu at the Shaiva temple of Prambanan; a study of their role and presence there; and a survey of corollary instances of their presence at such nearby sites at a now-vanished temple at Telogo, the putative kraton in the Gatak ward of modern Prambanan township, and at Candi Ijo.  There is peripheral material on the presence of the Lingapurana in Kayuwangi-era Java; the Lingapurana's instruction that a seeker of the Pashupata Yoga should consult Patanjali's mythic Cidambaram associate Vyaghrapada; and instances from South Indian temples where representations of the Shaiva Lingodbhava are associated episodes from the Vaishnava tales.

Even though the Portuguese, the foremost Western invaders, were able to conquer the coastal area with minimum endeavor, their attempts several times were futile when invading the local stronghold, the Kotte Kingdom, or the Kandyan Kingdom which was strongly based on the central mountains of the island. Towards the beginning of 1603, the Portuguese concentrated on attacking the Kandyan Kingdom after their devastating defeat in 1594 in the first attempt to invade the Kandyan Kingdom. Contrary to the popular belief as the Battle of Balana, it really did not take place in Balana. The invading Portuguese Army took over the control of Balana stronghold and subsequently they were attacked in return by the manoeuvrist approach of the Sinhalese Army. However, this decisive battle was not considered to be a direct battle even though the capture of Balana stronghold, manoeuvrist approach, retreat of the Portuguese Army and the chase of Kandyan Army could be elaborated. Further, this illustrates an extra special warring situation took place in the bygone era. That makes the Battle of Balana a focal point for war theoreticians. In this, the tactical function of the so called Battle of Balana is illustrated on par with Manoeuvrist Approach which is a modern war concept. Moreover, it is obvious that the researcher has made a successful attempt to conceptualize the traditional war tactics revealed to be prevailed in the time of Battle of Balana.

Key Words - Kandyan Kingdom" Portuguese" Balana Battle" Manoeuvrist Approach" OODA Loop Theory" AIPAR & AIPA Loop Concept'

From the 8th to the early 10th century the region around mounts Merapi and Sumbing in central Java was the centre of powerful Indianised kingdoms. One such site, Ratu Boko, was transformed into a Javanese replica of the Abhayagiri-vihāra, a well-known Buddhist monastery in Sri Lanka. Shortly afterwards, the Sinhalese influence showed elements of Hindu and Vajrayāna traditions revealing from the archaeological remains that it was not merely a copy of a Sri Lankan model but a testimony of Javanese civilisation and history. The archaeological remains of Ratu Boko: From Sri Lankan Buddhism to Hinduism,Véronique

Translation scholars have widely focused their attention on the translation of sacred texts and produced various studies on the translation of scriptures. Among them, studies on the Bible translations occupy a significant place. Hephzibah Israel (2017) is a notable scholar whose work largely deal with the translation of the Bible into Tamil in South India. However, a limited scholarship is available on Jaffna which can be called as the earliest port of Christian missionary activities and had produced Tamil translation of the Bible. Thus, I believe this paper is a timely analysis of the Tamil translation of the Bible in colonial Jaffna. This paper attempts to present a summary of the history of Tamil translation

A volume felicitating the achievements of Dr. Siran Deraniyagala was conceived in 2020 by Anura Manatunga and pitched to his friend and colleague Nimal Perera, who was the first mentee of Dr. Deraniyagala. Penning this guest editorial is bittersweet for us as the idea for a felicitation volume celebrating the life of late Dr. Siran Deraniyagala was put forward when he was still among us and well aware of it. It was initially planned as a publication of the National Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka, together with three other felicitation volumes honouring the legacies of other distinguished archaeologists. The "Siran Deraniyagala Felicitation Volume" sought to include original research papers of high academic standard from academics both local and international. Nimal Perera was tasked with inviting scholars who had worked closely with Dr. Deraniyagala to submit papers, while a "call for papers" was published by the Department of Archaeology, by Anura Manatunga in early February of 2020. When informed of this project by Nimal Perera, Dr. Deraniyagala humbly declined the honour, but came on board soon after with some gentle persuasion. The initial editorial team comprised Anura Manatunga and Nimal Perera, with Chryshane Mendis joining later. The team received dozens of papers from both local and international scholars on various themes, from the prehistoric to the early 20 th century. In Sri Lankan archaeological academia, Dr. Deraniyagala ushered in a period of high-grade academic research and therefore with the bar set high, selecting suitable papers to the standard of Dr. Deraniyagala was a major challenge to the initial editorial team. Nonetheless, the selection was narrowed down to about a dozen papers of high standard. It is still heartening to know that Dr. Deraniyagala himself read and affirmed these papers, albeit in pre-editorial stage, which now form the core of this volume. It was amidst the initial editing stages that we were woken to the sad news on October 5, 2021, of the passing of Dr. Siran Deraniyagala. While his passing was a terrible loss to the whole country, his demise was felt more profoundly by us as we were constantly in touch with him on this project. On the one hand it is mildly comforting, to say the least, that Dr. Deraniyagala knew of a publication that would honour his legacy. On the other hand, his death gave us more resolve, to complete this volume as a proper send-off to the person considered the father of modern Sri Lankan archaeology. With renewed vigour we set about transforming the 'Felicitation Volume' to that of a 'Commemoration Volume' where apart from the selected papers, we decided to add appreciations on the life of the late Dr. Deraniyagala. As such, we invited close colleagues of Dr. Deraniyagala to write short appreciations covering memories and experiences. We were especially sorrowful when Nimal Perera had to change the tense from present to past when finalising his biographical chapter on Dr. Deraniyagala. As for the other scholarly papers that refer to him, we have offered the flexibility to authors to use the present or the past tense.

In May 2009 Sri Lankan military recaptured all land held by the LTTE. The human cost of the war was staggering. It is quite fair to speculate that the number of deaths, by far, exceeds the official figures. Not to mention the disabled, widowed, abandoned, displaced and the traumatised who lingers on helpless after salvaging themselves from the brutal killings that went on for more than two decades. 

But the most important question remains, will the regaining of all land in the north and east provide an opening to formulate a lasting solution to this long-standing ethno-political problem? Or will the militarist triumphalism and Sinhala nationalism raging in full flow in the wake of the ‘End of the War’ spread the seeds for the breeding of the next?

This paper examines post-revolution crises, migration, and the quest for self-identity in Abdulrazak Gurnah’s Gravel Heart (2017). Gurnah is a postcolonial cosmopolitan Zanzibarian writer born and raised in Zanzibar, Tanzania, but who lives and writes in London. Gravel Heart reviews the 1964 post-independence revolution in Zanzibar with a focus on how it leads to the mass exodus of people of other ethnic backgrounds from Zanzibar. Among those forced to leave the island are the ruling Omani Arabs, the Yemenis, the Indians, and the Europeans. The paper adopts the Postcolonial theory in the analysis of the text with an emphasis on both remote and immediate causes of the revolution and the crises it generates. It is discovered that the 1964 revolution is an inevitable stage in the political development of Zanzibar going by the structure left behind by the British colonial government who fled the country in 1963. The text also reveals migration challenges faced by immigrants in the Diasp...

1. ‘I know mine is not the only story. I have heard screams coming from underground cells. But this is my story, such as it is’. This is the voice of narrator at the latter part of the prologue where author has converted narrator’s story to the words as her debut writing through this book. Author has tried to acquit the narrator from generalized allegations about the loss of Sri Lanka Naval Ship (SLNS) Sagarawardana from the attack of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) and same can be identified as main purpose of the writing. This book can be categorized as memoir book.

This is a very short essay on my life as a law student in the Faculty of Law of the University of Ceylon, Colombo, now known as the University of Colombo. It deals very briefly with the history of the Faculty of Law and its origins in the Department of Law in the Faculty of Arts of the University of Peradeniya, of which the first Vice Chancellor happened to be Sir Ivor Jennings, and goes on to describe student life in the Faculty of Law in the late sixties and early seventies. This essay was written specially for the website of the Alumni Association of the Faculty of Law (AAFL) of the University of Colombo

Under the Constitution of India, for a bill to be enacted into a law, it has to be approved by both Houses of the Parliament-the Lower House (Lok Sabha) and the Upper House (Rajya Sabha). There is one exception to this general rule. A bill certified as a 'money bill' by the speaker of the Lower House can be enacted into a law by the Lower House alone, without any approval from the Upper House. The scope of what could constitute a 'money bill' is defined in the Constitution of India. Yet, it is possible that a bill which does not fall within the scope of this definition could be incorrectly certified as a 'money bill' by the speaker and enacted into a law without the approval of the Upper House. The Constitution of India categorically states that 'if any question arises whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the House of the People thereon shall be final '. Does this provision imply that the Indian Supreme Court cannot review whether the speaker's certification of a bill as a 'money bill' is correct or not? And if it is actually incorrect, can the Supreme Court not strike down such a law for being unconstitutional? These questions are of immense contemporary relevance in India and form the central research theme of this article.

Psychoanalytic criticism probes deeply into human behavior, uncovering unconscious anxieties, desires, and problems. This study examines Abdulrazak Gurnah's Gravel Heart (2017) from a psychanalytic perspective, highlighting Salim's different stages of life and tracing the troubles he encounters. Psychoanalytic theory is applied to the concepts of family and early childhood experiences, as well as defense mechanisms: fear of abandonment, social shame and inferiority, low self-esteem, avoidance, fear of intimacy, and death and loss. The theme of death and loss becomes a hallmark of Salim's mysterious family, which is full of secrets. Despite Salim's accomplishments as a teenager, he finds himself occupied by his family conflicts. Later, he accepts his uncle Amir's invitation to move to the United Kingdom (UK) to attend college. This study found that Salim's traumatic experiences at an early age influenced his future choices and behaviors, particularly when he moved to the UK and met friends of different races from all over the world, each with their own story, which was definitely varied from his own.

Zar Dheri, a well-known Buddhist complex is located in Tambah, a small village on the right side of Shinkiari-Dadar road in District Mansehra. This important Buddhist complex was for the first time recorded and published by Mr. Harold Hargraves, the then Superintendent, Archaeological Survey of India in 1922-23. The site had remained at the mercy of the plunderers till it was revisited by a joint team of archaeologists from the Department of Archaeology, Government of Pakistan and Tokyo National Museum Japan during their collaborative field research carried out in Hazara region in 1990s. Excavation at Zar Dheri carried during the said joint project revealed many important architectural remains and artefacts. But despite these remarkable discoveries the site was once again left exposed to the natural deterioration and human encroachment. The current research was thus a salvage operation carried out by the Department of Archaeology Hazara University Mansehra with the financial support of the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC). The present field investigation at Zar Dheri was though limited to a smaller area but it has revealed important material remains including ceramics, bones, inscriptions, and fragments of stone sculptures as well as structural remains. The newly excavated remains will not only help to throw light on the archaeological significance of the site but will also help to reconfirm the chronology of the site. A preliminary report of the current excavation is presented in this paper.

Zar Dheri, a well-known Buddhist complex is located in Tambah, a small village on the right side of Shinkiari-Dadar road in District Mansehra. This important Buddhist complex was for the first time recorded and published by Mr. Harold Hargraves, the then Superintendent, Archaeological Survey of India in 1922-23. The site had remained at the mercy of the plunderers till it was revisited by a joint team of archaeologists from the Department of Archaeology, Government of Pakistan and Tokyo National Museum Japan during their collaborative field research carried out in Hazara region in 1990s. Excavation at Zar Dheri carried during the said joint project revealed many important architectural remains and artefacts. But despite these remarkable discoveries the site was once again left exposed to the natural deterioration and human encroachment. The current research was thus a salvage operation carried out by the Department of Archaeology Hazara University Mansehra with the financial support of the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC). The present field investigation at Zar Dheri was though limited to a smaller area but it has revealed important material remains including ceramics, bones, inscriptions and fragments of stone sculptures as well as structural remains. The newly excavated remains will not only help to throw light on the archaeological significance of the site but will also help to reconfirm the chronology of the site. A preliminary report of the current excavation is presented in this paper.