RAPID PROTOTYPING (13A03808)-MOOC III

UNIT-1

Introduction: Need for the compression in product development, History of RP system, Survey of
applications, Growth of RP industry and classification of RP system

Stereo lithography system: Principle, process parameters, Process details, Data preparation and
machine details, Applications.

Introduction:

Need for Rapid prototyping:

Physical models and prototypes are vital to superior product development and production. Global
competition, customer-driven product customization, accelerated product obsolescence and
continued demands for cost savings are forcing companies to look for new technologies to
improve their business processes and speed up the product development cycle. Rapid
Prototyping (RP) has emerged as a key enabling technology with its ability to shorten product
design and development time. RP technologies can be virtual and physical.

Virtual Prototyping (VP) is a means of carrying out the analysis and simulation of products
employing digital mock-ups (3D product representations). This allows product performance to be
investigated before any physical parts are built. VP is usually tightly integrated with CAD/CAM
and sometimes referred to as Computer Aided Engineering (CAE).

Physical RP builds tangible objects from computer data without the need of jigs or fixtures or
NC programming. This technology has also been referred to as layer manufacturing, solid free-
form fabrication, material addition manufacturing, three-dimensional printing and Additive
manufacturing.
History of RP system
The roots of RP can be traced to two technical areas
1. Topography and
2. Photo sculpture.
Topography: A layered method was proposed by Blanther as early as 1890 [Blanther, 1892] for
making moulds for topographical relief maps. Both positive and negative 3D surfaces were to be
assembled from a series of wax plates cut along the topographical contour lines (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 A method for making moulds for topographical relief maps [Blanther,1892]

Photosculpture. This is a technique proposed in the 19th century for creating replicas of 3D
objects. The technique involves photographing the object simultaneously with 24 cameras
equally spaced around a circular room and then using the silhouette of each photograph to carve
1/ 24th of a cylindrical portion of the object.
Other developments :
In 1976, Matsubara described a layer manufacturing process to form casting moulds. The layers
of the moulds are produced from refractory particles coated with a photopolymer resin. The resin
is selectively cured using light.

In 1976, DiMatteo proposed a process for layer manufacturing 3D objects from contoured
metallic sheets that are formed using a milling cutter.

In 1979, Nakagawa reported the use of lamination techniques for fabrication of blanking tools ,
press forming tools and injection moulding tools.

A method for fabricating objects from powdered materials by heating particles locally and fusing
them together employing a laser, electron beam, or plasma beam was patented out by Ciraud, in
1972.
A process for producing plastic patterns by selective 3D polymerisation of a photosensitive
polymer at the intersection of two laser beams was patented by Swainson in 1977.
A photopolymer RP system for building objects in layers [Kodama, 1981]. A mask is used to
control the exposure of the UV source when producing a cross section of the model.

Growth of RP industry
Rapid prototyping is becoming popular manufacturing technology in developed countries. North
America leads the world in the adoption of AM technology. Europe is second followed by
Asia/Pacific region.
USA has the largest installations of RP systems in the world followed by Japan, Germany and
China. Wohlers Associates tracking the 3D printing industry for a quarter of a century have
reported that the AM industry has a annual growth of 34.9 % over the course of 2013 .
At the beginning and in the middle of the 1990s, the annual growth in sales of RP systems was
approaching 40-50%. In the last few years, the same rapid growth has not continued but
developments in this area still attract significant interest and in the last two years 208 new
patents were filed. In 1999, sales growth was 22% and it was estimated that 3.4 million parts
were built world-wide using RP technologies [Wohlers, 2000]. Another important aspect is that
the application of RP has spread to other sectors of the economy (Figure 1.4). This strong and
consistent growth in sales and the widespread use of the technology present very optimistic
prospects for the RP industry and its future.
Applications of RP:

Fig. 3 The use of RP systems in different sectors [Wohlers, 2000]

Process Principle -Rapid Prototyping

The term Rapid Prototyping (RP) refers to a class of technologies that can automatically
construct physical models directly from Computer Aided Design (CAD) data. Rapid prototyping
is also as layer manufacturing or solid free-form fabrication. Fig. 1 shows the steps involved in
RP Process. The first step in the layer manufacturing process is the creation of 3D Computer
Aided Design (CAD) model using CAD/CAM software such as Unigraphics, Pro-E and Catia,
followed by conversion to Stereo lithography (STL) format. Further, the CAD model is
electronically sliced in to thin layers using dedicated software such as RP tools. The layer
information of the component is transferred to RP machine, where the part is built layer-by-layer.
Fig. 2 Principle of Rapid prototyping
 Slicing

3D CAD Data (STL File)

Physical part
Building of part

Process steps

Although several Rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same basic five-step
process. The steps are:

1. Create a CAD model of the design

2. Convert the CAD model to STL format
3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
4. Construct the physical part one layer atop another
5. Clean and finish the model

Classification of Rapid Prototyping Processes

RP processes may be divided broadly into those involving the addition of material and those
involving its removal. According to Kruth [Kruth, 1991], material accretion processes may be
divided by the state of the prototype material before part formation, namely, liquid, powder or
solid sheets. Liquid-based processes may entail the solidification of a resin on contact with a
laser, the solidification of an electro setting fluid, or the melting and subsequent solidification of
the prototype material. Processes using powders aggregate them either with a laser or by the
selective application of binding agents. Those processes which use solid sheets may be classified
according to whether the sheets are bonded with a laser or with an adhesive. Figure 2.1 shows
Kruth's classification which has been adapted to include new processes. In the following, RP
processes are presented according to the arrangement shown in this figure.

Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)

1.6.1.1 Working Principle

SLA process is based on photopolymerization or crosslinking, inwhich a photosensitive liquid

resin is cured by ultraviolet (UV) light to form a solid polymer. Due to the absorption and
scattering of the beam, this reaction only takes place near the surface.

1.6.1.2 Construction and Process

SLA machine consists of a UV Helium-Cadmium or Argon ion laser and a building platform
which is mounted in a vat (tank) containing a photosensitive liquid resin as shown in Fig. 2. The
laser beam will scan the surface of the resin as per the cross-sectional information of the sliced
CAD file. When exposed to the ultra-violet laser the resin, which is a photopolymer floating on
the platform, solidifies or cures. After scanning one layer, the platform is lowered to the base of
the vat to coat the part thoroughly. The platform is then raised and a re-coater blade wipes the
resin so that the liquid resin level is exactly one layer thickness above the previously cured layer.
Liquid resin is left to settle to ensure a flat and even surface and to inhibit bubble formation.
Further, the next layer can be scanned. Ssubsequent layers are produced in similar way. Finally,
the part is removed from the vat and the excess resin is drained. The green part is post-cured in
an UV oven so as to ensure that so that no liquid or partially cured resin remains.

Fig. 2 Stereolithography (SLA)

Process Parameters:

1.6.1.3 Materials

Epoxy-based photopolymers
Vinylether-based photopolymers
Acrylate-based photopolymers

1.6.1.4 Salient Features

Accuracy : 0.1 mm
Maximum build size : 508 x 508 x 600 mm3
Layer thickness : 0.0254 to 0.127 mm

1.6.1.5 Applications
The parts made using SL process are used in the following applications:
As a prototype for concept design, form/fit/function testing.
Silicon Rubber moulding.
Patterns for sand casting and investment casting.
As the SLA parts are transparent, they are used in photo-elastic stress analysis
applications.

The curing (solidification) reaction of stereolithographic resins is an exothermic polymerisation

process characterized by chemical cross-linking reactions that create an infusible, insoluble, and
highly cross-linked 3D network aas shown in the following figure1.10. This reaction is initiated
by supplying an appropriate form of energy that depends on the adopted stereolithographic
strategy.
 Fig. 1.10 The cure mechanism

The entire process of conceiving a model using stereolithography (the different phases of the
building process are shown in Fig. 2.8) comprises the following steps

1. Create a solid or surface model on a CAD system

2. Export the CAD model
3. Add support structures
4. Specify the build style variables and parameters necessary for slicing
5. Slice the computer model to generate the information that controls the SL Apparatus
6. Build the model using the slice file
7. Post-process and clean the part
8. Post-curing to complete the cure process.
 UNIT-II

Fusion decomposition modeling: Principle, Process Parameters, Path generation , Applications

Solid ground curing: Principle of operation, Machine details, Applications
Laminated object Manufacturing: Principle of operation, LOM material, Process details,
Applications
FUSION DECOMPOSITION MODELING:

Principle: Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an additive manufacturing technology commonly

used for modeling, prototyping, and production applications. It is one of the techniques used
for 3D printing.

FDM works on an "additive" principle by laying down material in layers; a plastic filament or
metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to produce a part.

FDM process create component by extruding material (normally a thermoplastic material)

through a nozzle that traverses in X and Y to create each two-dimensional layer.

Heaters which surround two separated nozzles keep the plastic at a temperature just above its
melting point so that it flows through the nozzle and forms the layer according to the tool path.
In each layer separate nozzles extrude and deposit material that forms the parts and the support
structure. The plastic hardens immediately after flowing from the nozzle and bonds to the layer
below. Once a layer is built, the platform lowers, and the extrusion nozzle deposits another layer
and the process is repeated until the object is completed. In more recent FDM technology, water-
soluble support structure material is used. Support structure can be deposited with lesser density
as compared to part density by providing air gaps between two consecutive roads.
Figure 3: Fused Deposition Modeling Process

The build material is usually supplied in filament form with 1.8mm diameter, but the layer
thickness and vertical dimensional accuracy is determined by the extrusion nozzle diameter and
the rate of feeding of the building material, which ranges from 0.018 to 0.008 inches. In the X-Y
plane, 0.001 inch resolution is achievable. Thermoplastic material is most often used which
including Acrylonitrate Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polycarbonate (PC), polysulphone (PPSF),
and investment casting wax is designed for investment cast.

Applications:

FDM, a prominent form of rapid prototyping, is used for prototyping and rapid
manufacturing. Rapid prototyping facilitates iterative testing, and for very short runs, rapid
manufacturing can be a relatively inexpensive alternative.

FDM uses the thermoplastics ABS, ABSi, polyphenylsulfone (PPSF), polycarbonate (PC),
and Ultem 9085, among others. These materials are used for their heat resistance properties.
Ultem 9085 also exhibits fire retardancy making it suitable for aerospace and aviation
applications.
FDM is also used in prototyping scaffolds for medical tissue engineering applications.

Solid ground curing:

SGC systems were developed by Cubital Ltd. Cubital was founded in 1987 as an internal R&D
unit at Scitex Corporation Ltd. and the first SGC system was installed in 1991. The company
produces two types of systems based on the SGC modelmaking technology, Solider 4600 - an
entry level RP machine, and Solider 5600 for users with high-capacity requirements. The
Cubital's Solider 4600 system is shown in figure 3.7. Figure 3.8 summarises the technical
characteristics of both systems.
An advantage of SGC systems is that the entire layer is solidified at once, reducing the part
creation time. All the resin within a layer is completely cured by this method, so parts may be
more durable than the hatched prototypes created using other processes and no postcuring is
required. Supports are unnecessary because wax is used to fill the gaps in the resin and also to
brace the part [Cubital, 2000].
The disadvantages of SGC are that the machine is noisy and large and needs to be constantly
manned. It wastes a large amount of wax since the used wax cannot be recycled after being
removed in a hot water or citric acid bath. SGC systems are also prone to breakdowns [Jacobs,
1996; Waternam and Dickens, 1994; Kai, 1994]. The resin models produced using SGC are solid
and so are not suitable for later investment casting. This is because the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the resin is an order of magnitude greater than that of the ceramic system so the
ceramic moulds will crack when the sacrificial part is burnt out.

The resolution (minimum feature size) of this system is 400 J.Un in the X-Y plane and
100 J.Un in the Z direction. The least expensive sac machine costs around $275,000 and weighs
about 5000 kg. The largest build chamber available is 500 x 350 x 500 mm. Typically, a layer can
be built in 70-120 s, depending on the machine used. Of this building time, 3 s are for exposing
the layer to a 2000W UV lamp, the remaining time being needed to clear the part of resin and to
add, chill and mill the wax [Cubital, 2000].
Laminated Object Manufacturing:

Principle of operation:

Typical system of Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) has

been shown in figure 9. It can be seen form the figure that the slices are cut in required contour
from roll of material by using a 25-50 watt CO2 laser beam. A new slice is bonded to previously
deposited slice by using a hot roller, which activates a heat sensitive adhesive. Apart from the
slice unwanted material is also hatched in rectangles to facilitate its later removal but remains in
place during the build to act as supports. Once one slice is completed platform can be lowered
and roll of material can be advanced by winding this excess onto a second roller until a fresh area
of the sheet lies over the part. After completion of the part they are sealed with a urethane
lacquer, silicone fluid or epoxy resin to prevent later distortion of the paper prototype through

water obsorption.
In this process, materials that are relatively cheaper like paper, plastic roll etc. can be used. Parts
of fiber-reinforced glass ceramics can be produced. Large models can be produced and the
building speed is 5-10 times as compared to other RP processes. The limitation of the process
included fabrication of hollow models with undercuts and reentrant features. Large amount of
scrap is formed. There remains danger of fire hazards and drops of the molten materials formed
during the cutting also need to be removed (Pham and Demov, 2001
The minimum layer thickness that LOM machines can handle is 25 - 127 ~ and their maximum
accuracy is 127 /-lm. The maximum cutting speed achievable is 380 mm per second [Waterman
and Dickens, 1994; Anon 1993].
UNIT-III

CONCEPT MODELERS: Principle, Thermal jet Printer, Sanders model market, 3-D
printer, GenysisXs printer HP system 5, Object Quadra system

Principle: These are a new range of RP systems addressing the specific needs of CAD offices.
Although CAD systems have empowered designers with a number of tools to minimize errors
and maximize design quality offering facilities such as photorealistic visualization, interactive
product simulation, assembly analysis, and kinematic and stress analysis, the design remains
intangible until a physical model is built. Concept Modellers fill this gap by offering relatively
quick and cost effective methods for building physical models at any design stage. They are
marketed as new CAD peripheral solutions which enable designers to verify and iterate their
designs without leaving the office. Typically, Concept Modellers build models more quickly but
not so accurately as other RP systems and usually cost less than $50,000. The following RP
systems are classed as Concept Modellers:
3D Systems ThermoJet printer (Multi-Jet Modeller);
Sanders ModelMaker II (Inkjet Modelling Technology);
Z-Corporation Z402 (3D printer);
Stratasys Genisys XS printer;
JP System 5;
Objet Quadra system.

Thermal jet printer:

The Multi-Jet Modelling (MJM) process was developed by 3D Systems in
1995. This technology complements 3D Systems's established line of Stereo lithography
products. Initially, the MJM machine was marketed as the Actua 2100 but since 1998 it has been
known as the ThermoJet printer.
MJM parts are constructed from a thermoplastic material. The parts have a layer
thickness of 40 /-lm, an X-Y resolution of 85 /-lm and a droplet placement accuracy of 100
/-lm [3D Systems, 1996].
As a result of the MJM raster-based building style, complex models can be built as quickly as
simple models of similar overall dimensions. The model envelope is the determining factor for
part build time [3D Systems, 2000]. Another advantage of the ThermoJet printer is that it is
equipped with a cartridge system for easy loading of the thermopolymer material. Examples of
models built using the printer are shown in Figure

Sanders Model Maker:

The inkjet modelling process was developed by Sanders Prototype Inc (SPI) in
1994. This technology combines a proprietary thermoplastic ink jetting technology with high-
precision milling to build models or patterns that have a dimensional accuracy of 13 11m over
229 mm in the Z axis and up to 0.025 mm over 76 mm in the X-Y plane [Sanders, 2000]. The
latest system developed by SPI is called PatternMaster. In terms of achievable accuracy, this
system is superior to other Concept Modellers. The PattemMaster system is shown in Figures 4.4
and 4.5, and its specifications in Figure 4.6.
 The PatternMaster systems use a proprietary construction thermoplastic material called
ProtoBuild. This material is compatible with investment casting and other mould making
processes [Sanders, 2000]. For building support structures, the systems also employ SPI's
proprietary wax material, ProtoSupport, designed to be removed with a solvent without
damage to the model.
This RP technology is ideal for building small models with intricate features, for example, in
jewellery manufacture (Figure 4.7). Another important application area for this technology is the
fabrication of precision investment cast components for aerospace, electronics and medical
applications.
3-D Printer:
The Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP) process was invented and patented by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and licensed to Z Corporation in 1994. The first system,
the Z402 (Figure 4.8), was commercialised in 1996. The Z402 system is the fastest RP machine
on the market with a building speed of 25 to 50 mm per hour. The system specifications are
given in Figure 4.9. The price of the Z402 system is around $50,000.

Specifications of the Z402 system [Z Corporation, 2000].

Build envelope 203 x 254 x 203 mm
Layer thickness 0.076 to 0.256 mm
Build speed 25 - 51 mm per hour
Dimensions 740 x 910 x 1070 mm
Weight 136 kg
Z Corporation offers two powder-binder systems, ZPll and ZPI00, for use with the Z402 3D
Printer [Z Corporation, 2000]. ZPll powder, the original material for the system, is composed of
starch and cellulose. For additional strength, parts built from ZP 11 are infiltrated with wax or a
range of resins to enhance their physical properties. ZPI00 is a powder material released in
September 1999, which is composed primarily of plaster and delivers higher strength and detail.
ZPI00 is 4-5 times stronger than ZPll but, like its predecessor, if additional strength is required
parts produced from ZP 1 00 can be infiltrated to achieve better physical properties and make the
parts suitable for sanding and painting. Examples of parts produced using the Z402 system are
shown in Figure 4.10.

The resolution ofthis process is dependent on the sizes ofthe binder droplets and the powder
grains, the placement accuracy of the nozzle and the way that the binder diffuses through the
powder due to capillary action. The layer thickness is affected by the compression of the powder
due to the weight of subsequent layers. This compression is most noticeable in the centre of the
part. At the base, there is no room to compact the powder. At the top of the part, there are fewer
layers to cause the compaction. However, this effect is mitigated when using more densely
packed powders [Soligen, 1996].
Parts do not require supports to brace overhanging features. They do however need to include a
hole so that excess powder can be removed. Disadvantages of this technique are that the final
parts may be fragile and porous, and it can be difficult to remove the unbound powder from any
cavities. A further drawback is that the layers are raster-scanned by the printhead which leads to a
stair-stepping effect in the X-Y plane as well as the build direction [So ligen, 1996].
GenysisXs Printer HP system 5:
The process was developed by IBM and is similar to Fused Deposition Modelling. In
January 1995, Stratasys purchased this RP technology from IBM and from it developed a
Concept Modeller called the Genisys 3D Printer principally for use by design offices. The latest
version of the Genisys 3D printer is shown in Figure 4.11 and a summary of its specifications
given in Figure

The Genisys 3D Printer builds models by extruding a bead of polyester compound through a
computer-controlled pump. Material is loaded in a series of cassettes. Each cassette holds 50
rectangular wafers. A stapling mechanism feeds the wafers into a pressurised, heated channel that
supplies the material to a viscosity pump [Stratasys, 2000b]. To ensure accuracy, the material is
extruded through a 0.3302 mm diameter orifice at a controlled rate. Parts are built on a thermally
controlled metallic substrate that rests on a table. As each layer is extruded, it bonds to the
previous layer and solidifies. The pump head, table and gantry move in the X, Y and Z axes,
respectively. The gantry is employed to reposition the printing nozzle in the Z direction to build
subsequent layers. Supports for the models are built from the same polyester material. The
system creates perforations where supports adjoin the model, making it easy to snap them off.
The Genisys models often require fewer supports than those of other systems thanks to precise
pump control. A technique called "bridging" allows the material to be extruded across a distance
without supports [Stratasys, 2000b]. Thin perimeter walls are created, and the pump head fills in
the area, creating a flat surface between the walls. This technique reduces build time and
maintains a good surface finish.
The JP System 5 is patented by Schroff Development Corporation. It is an inexpensive RP
system that requires only a personal computer and a cutting device. The system produces
prototypes using paper sheets and so the material cost is very low. Two versions of the system are
available: the Standard System, and the Premier System. The Standard System uses a Roland
cutter with 216 x 279 mm adhesive paper. The Premier System employs a Graphtec cutter with
432 x 559 mm paper. This RP system is ideally suited for education but also can be used in other
applications.
The fabrication of models employing the IP System 5 includes the following steps (Figure 4.13)
[Schroff, 2000]:
1. A proprietary software package is used to slice the model into a series of cross sections.
2. The software then converts the slices to a HPGL plot file format which is sent to a plotter.
3. The sheets are layered by aligning specially cut orientation holes.
4. The sheets are positioned on a registration board.
5. An adhesive is sprayed on the first sheet.
6. The support backing is removed exposing the adhesive layer. Each subsequent sheet adheres to
the exposed adhesive surfaces of the previous sheet.
7. Sections formed by the nesting operation are cut.
8. The final model is assembled.
Examples of parts built using IP System 5 are shown in Figure 4.14.
Objet Quadra System:
Objet Geometries Ltd. was founded in 1998 to develop a RP system that employs state-of-the-art
ink-jet technology and a proprietary photopolymer. The company will ship its first system called
the Objet Quadra in 2001. The pre-production version of the system is shown in Figure 4.15 and
its technical specifications given in Figure 4.16. The price of Objet Quadra is around $39,000
[Objet, 2000].
The Objet Quadra process employs 1536 nozzles to build parts by depositing layers of photo
sensitive resin that are then fully cured, layer-by-layer, using two UV lights. As previously
mentioned, models produced by the system do not require postcuring. The Objet system prints
with a resolution of 600 dpi and a layer thickness of 20 /lm. Only one photopolymer is currently
available for building models but other materials are under development. To support overhanging
areas and undercuts Objet deposits a second material which can be separated easily from the
model without leaving any blemishes [Objet, 2000].

The material delivery sub-system is cartridge-based for easy installation and replacement. The
UV lamps are standard off-the-shelf items, costing less than $75 and lasting up to 1000 hours.
Examples of models produced using the Objet Quadra are shown in Figure
UNIT- IV LASER ENGINEERING NET SHAPING (LENS)
RAPID TOOLING: Indirect rapid tooling-Silicon rubber tooling-Aluminum filled epoxy
tooling
Spray metal tooling, Cast kriksite, 3Q keltool, etc, Direct rapid tooling, Direct AIM, Quick cast
process, Copper polyamide, Rapid Tool, DMILS, Prometal, Sand casting tooling, Laminate
tooling, Soft tooling vs Hard tooling.
SOFTWARE FOR RP: STL files, Overview of solid view, Magics, Imics, Magic
communications etc. Internet based software, Collaboration tools.

Rapid tooling:
The term tooling refers in this case to the use of AM to create production tools.
The tool is therefore an impression, pattern, or mold from which a nal part can be taken.

Indirect Rapid tooling:

In recent years, RP technologies have emerged to reduce the delays

inherent in the re-iterations and fine-tuning necessary to create a high quality product. These
technologies offer the capability of rapid production of three-dimensional solid objects directly
from designs generated on CAD systems. Instead of several weeks, a prototype can be completed
in a few days or even a few hours. Unfortunately, with RP techniques, there is only a relatively
limited range of materials from which prototypes can be made. Consequently, although
visualisation and dimensional/geometric verification are possible, functional testing of
prototypes often is not, due to the different mechanical and thermal properties of the prototype
compared to the production part [Jacobs, 1996a].
All this leads to the next step, which is for the RP industry to target tooling as a natural way to
capitalise on 3D CAD modelling and RP technology. With increases in the accuracy of RP
techniques, numerous processes have been developed for producing tooling from RP masters
[Childs and Juster, 1994]. The most widely employed indirect RT methods are to use RP masters
to make silicone room temperature-vulcanising (RTV) moulds for plastic parts and as sacrificial
models for investment casting of metal parts [Dickens et aI., 1995]. These processes, which are
suitable for batches of 1 to 20 parts, are usually known as "soft tooling" techniques. In spite of
the widening of the range of materials allowed by soft tooling, the choice is still limited and not
all needs can be satisfied. Therefore, other indirect methods for tool fabrication have been
developed. These new methods allow prototypes to be built using the same material and
manufacturing process as the production part.
The indirect methods to be described in this chapter are a good alternative to traditional mould
making techniques. These less expensive methods with shorter lead-times allow tool validation
to be conducted before changes become very costly. The aim of these RT methods is to fill the
gap between RP and hard tooling by enabling the production of tools capable of short prototype
runs.
The broad range of indirect RT solutions makes it difficult to determine the most appropriate
method for a particular project. Companies need to know all of the available processes and have
a clear understanding of their strengths and weaknesses together with the comparative merits of
the various materials they employ.

Silicon Rubber tooling:

One of the most popular tooling applications for RP is the production of
room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) silicone rubber tooling. The purpose of RTV tools is to
create urethane or epoxy prototypes, often under vacuum (hence the term vacuum casting). The
process of making a rubber mold consists of making a master pattern, usually on an RP machine,
finishing the pattern to the desired appearance, casting RTV silicone rubber around the pattern to
form the mold, and then injecting the mold with two-part thermoset materials to create molded
plastic parts. Although urethane and epoxy materials are typically not used for high-volume
manufacturing, they are available with a range of material properties, many of which simulate
the thermoplastic materials used in production. Silicone rubber tooling provides fast, inexpensive
molds, excellent part cosmetics, and the option of using multiple materials. The process is
suitable for small or medium-sized parts. Another benefit of silicone rubber tooling is the
negative draft (undercuts) that can be achieved due to the flexibility of the mold material. The
primary weakness of the process is that the properties of the urethane materials are different from
those of the thermoplastic materials used in production. Tool life limitations also restrict
production numbers to a relatively small quantity of typically less than 50 parts per tool. Due to
material cost and labor demands, individual part prices are relatively high. Bastech, Inc. (Dayton,
Ohio) is using silicone rubber tooling to make an instrument case that has high cosmetic
requirements, including texture, but very little strength requirements. In this project, the
customer required only 100 parts per year. Measuring 350 x 300 x 20 mm (14 x 12 x 2 inches),
the case would have required a significant investment in metal tooling. Consider silicone rubber
tooling and vacuum casting when the material properties of the prototypes can differ somewhat
from thermoplastic parts, when lead times are critical, part geometry is complex (including
negative draft), and required quantities are relatively small.

Aluminum filled epoxy tooling:

Like silicone rubber tooling, epoxy-based composite tooling
requires a master pattern. Typically, this pattern is created using an RP process. The pattern is
finished and then embedded in a parting line block to create the parting line of the mold. Metal
inserts are placed in areas where the epoxy is unlikely to withstand the pressures of the injection-
molding process. Epoxy is then cast against the pattern and parting line block combination to
create the first side of the tool. Once the epoxy has cured, the assembly is inverted, and the
parting line is removed, leaving the pattern embedded in the first side of the tool. The second
side of the tool is then cast against the first. Tools are frequently created as inserts to be mounted
in a mold base. The following procedure highlights the key steps in producing aluminum-filled
epoxy tools. The creation of the run-off (also called the parting block) is similar to other pattern-
based tooling processes, such as spray metal tooling.
1. Produce the master pattern, usually with an RP process.
2. Identify the parting line.
3. Produce a nesting fixture to hold the pattern in place. The nesting fixture, which is usually
made of wood, must be substantial enough to hold the pattern securely.
4. Cut and attach pieces of wood to follow the parting line. Depending on the complexity of the
parting line, this might require 10 to 15 pieces.
5. Use wax to fill the gaps and cracks between the pattern and the pieces of wood.
6. After the run-off is complete, apply mold release to the pattern and run-off.
Note: Just prior to prepping and casting the first half, copper water lines should be in place.
Depending on the part and the side of the tool being cast, sprue bushings and ejector pins
(sleeves) must be in place. Also, the steel frame that contains the mass cast must be constructed
prior to casting. The frame provides strength to hold the tool together to prevent cracking.
7. Apply surface coats of epoxy to the pattern and run-off.
8. Fill with 35% epoxy and 65% aluminum composite material to complete the first side of the
mold. Note: Timing is critical between Steps 7 and 8. If the composite material is poured
prematurely, the aluminum chips (13 mm in size) will penetrate the surface coats of epoxy. If
too much time expires, the surface coats will not adhere well to the composite material.
9. Remove the pattern and run-off. The first side of the mold is complete.
10. Position the pattern back into the finished side of the mold.
11. Produce the opposite side of the mold. There is no need to produce a runoff, because the
completed side of the mold serves this purpose.

Spray metal tooling:

Spray metal tooling is constructed very much like epoxy-based composite
tooling, except that a thin layer of metal is deposited using a spray process to create the surface
of the mold. The metal is often kirksite, a zinc-based alloy, although new techniques can
successfully spray other metals, including steel. The metal surface is usually backed with epoxy
or a low-melt alloy. Proper selection of the backfill material can improve the cooling rate of the
tool. Spray metal tooling is good for large parts. The mold-making process introduces little or no
additional shrink, so the process is relatively accurate. Because the mold has a metal surface,
injection cycle times are better than those of epoxy-based composite tooling. The disadvantages
are that the mold has a limited life, and complex shapes and features may require adding metal
inserts, increasing cost and production time. Spray metal tooling is a candidate for applications
with parts of significant size and low-to-medium complexity.
A unique form of spray metal tooling currently under development is Cold Gas Dynamic
Manufacturing (CGDM). Dr. Chris Sutcliffe and colleagues at the University of Liverpools Department
of Engineering are developing the technology. CGDM is a high-rate, direct deposition process capable of
combining many dissimilar materials in the production of a single component. The process is based on
Cold Gas Dynamic Spraying CGDSa surface coating technology in which small, unheated particles
are accelerated to high velocities, typically above 500 meters per second (1,640 feet per second), in a
supersonic gas jet and directed towards a substrate material. The process does not use a heat source, as
with plasma and High Velocity OxyFuel (HVOF) spray technologies, but instead exploits the high kinetic
energy of the particles to effect bonding through plastic deformation upon impact with the substrate or
previously deposited layer. As a consequence, it lends itself to the processing of temperature-sensitive
material systems such as oxidizing, phase-sensitive, or nano-structured materials. To achieve metallic
bonding, incident particles require velocities greater than a certain material-specific threshold value, such
that thin surface films are ruptured, generating a direct interface. This bonding mechanism has been
compared to explosive welding.

Cast kriksite:
Kirksite is a zinc-aluminum alloy with excellent wear resistance. Although
kirksite has been cast for decades, it regained some popularity more than a decade ago with the
growth of rapid prototyping. Due to other competing rapid tooling processes that have emerged
in recent years, cast kirksite has again lost some of its appeal. However, for some applications,
the process can still yield cost-effective results. DaimlerChrysler is one user of the process. The
process for making cast kirksite tooling begins much like the process for epoxy-based composite
tooling, except that two additional reversals are required to permit the creation of tooling in a
more durable material. First, a shrink-compensated master pattern of the part is produced,
typically using an RP process. A rubber or urethane material is then cast against the part master
to create patterns for the core and cavity set, which will be cast in kirksite. Plaster is then cast
against the core and cavity patterns to create molds into which the kirksite is cast. Once the
kirksite is cast into the plaster molds, the plaster is broken away, and the kirksite core and cavity
are fit into a mold base. Armstrong Mold Corp. (East Syracuse, New York) is using a prototype
injection-molding process that employs cast kirksite cavities. The company is using the process
to produce thermoplastic parts in a period of two to three weeks. According to Armstrong, tool
life is dependent on many factors, particularly the material used. Typical runs are 50 to 1,000
pieces, although some kirksite molds have produced up to 200,000 pieces.
Complex shapes can be molded with kirksite tooling. Also, it offers a more
durable mold than epoxy or spray metal tooling. Its disadvantage is that the mold is not as
accurate as an epoxy or spray-metal mold because of the reversals and the material shrink in the
metal-casting process. To accommodate for this loss of accuracy, it is possible to machine
surfaces to tolerance. Cast kirksite tooling would be typically chosen for medium-sized
production quantities of larger parts without tight dimensional requirements.

3D keltool:
 3D Keltool is a powder metal process used to make injection-mold inserts and
other durable tooling from master patterns. Keltool was originally developed by 3M in 1976 and
was sold and further developed by Keltool Inc. In 1996, 3D Systems purchased the technology
from Keltool Inc. and renamed it 3D Keltool. 3D Systems continued to develop and improve the
process. It is proprietary, so many of the details of 3D Keltool are not publicly known. After 3D
Systems acquired DTM in 2001, it began to favor SLS tooling at the expense of 3D Keltool.
Consequently, activity associated with 3D Keltool was very quiet from 2001 to 2003 and non-
existent since then. 3D Systems has licensed the process to several companies. In March 2003,
the sole licensee of 3D Keltool in the U.S. was General Pattern Company (Minneapolis,
Minnesota). It acquired the license from Rapid Tooling Technologies, LLC of St. Paul,
Minnesota. General Pattern continues to practice the 3D Keltool process, but at a reduced level.
The company targets the applications that are a natural fit. It is best to apply it to tooling inserts
that are smaller than 75 x 75 x 73 mm (3 x 3 x 3 inches). Master preparation is also a key to
success, said Brad Fox of General Pattern. Other licensees remain active at some level, although
3D Systems makes little mention of the technology on its website. The 3D Keltool process
typically starts with a CAD design of the core and cavity inserts, followed by the creation of the
core and cavity patterns with stereolithography or some other RP process. Once these core and
cavity patterns have been finished to the desired surface, silicone rubber is cast against them to
create molds into which a mixture of metal powder and binder is poured, packed, and cured. The
metal mixture consists of finely powdered A6 tool steel and even finer particles of tungsten
carbide. At this point, the cast core and cavity inserts exist in a green state. These green inserts
are fired in a hydrogen-reduction furnace to burn away the binder, sinter the metal particles, and
infiltrate copper into the inserts. This produces solid metal inserts that are approximately 70%
steel and 30% copper, with physical properties similar to that of P20 tool steel. The inserts are
finish machined, drilled for ejector pins, and fitted into mold bases.

Direct tooling:
DirectTool is a commercial rapid tooling process introduced by EOS GmbH in
1995. Ongoing material and process developments have increased the process productivity and
the quality of the built parts. The most common application of this process is the production of
inserts for plastic injection moulding and rubber vulcanisation. This direct tooling process uses
special proprietary metal powders which are selectively sintered in a specially developed
machine, the EOSINT M 250. The sintered parts are porous and usually undergo infiltration with
an epoxy resin to increase their strength [Fritz, 1998]. After infiltration, further polishing of the
part surfaces is possible to achieve the quality required for injection moulding inserts.
The DirectTool process is mainly utilised for rapid tooling of complex inserts the
surfaces of which cannot be machined directly. The process is considered a viable alternative for
prototype and pre-production tooling applications requiring the manufacture of up to a few
thousands parts from common engineering plastics.
The new powders, DirectSteelTM 50-VI and DirectMetalTM 50-V2, allows inserts with
layer thickness of 50 Ilm to be built enabling reproduction of intricate structures and details
[Fritz, 1998]. EOS has introduced another powder, DirectMetalTM 100-V3, with a maximum
particle size of 100 Jlffi, for use at higher building speeds. Examples of inserts produced using
the DirectToolTM process are shown in Figure 7.16. The inserts were built from the
DirectSteel 50-VI material and a series of plastic parts were successfully injection moulded in
a highly abrasive 50% glass-fibre reinforced polyamide [EOS, 1997].

Quick cast process:

QuickCast is a process that allows for the creation of direct shell investment
castings using "QuickCast" stereolithography (SLA) patterns. The QuickCast method allows you
to rapidly build highly accurate resin patterns in stereolithography, bypassing the expensive and
time-consuming step of tooling. QuickCast facilitates rapid production of small quantities of
metal parts in much less time than traditional methods.

Instead of the SLA part being completely solid, QuickCast eliminates 95% of the internal mass
of the part. This is achieved by curing only external surfaces and an internal lattice structure.
Holes in the bottom of the part allow uncured resin to drain from the part. The result is a 65-80%
hollow part with an internal beehive type lattice structure, which gives the part tremendous
structural integrity.
QuickCast replaces traditional wax patterns for investment casting with patterns created in a
robust, durable material, without tooling and without delay. During burnout, the QuickCast
pattern collapses before the ceramic shell can crack. The QuickCast pattern will burn out in the
investment casting process with very little residue. Less mass yields less ash. The small amount
of ash that remains in the cavity can easily be evacuated.
The net result is QuickCast patterns in one week or less and quality metal castings in 1 to 6
weeks (per investment casters schedule), compared to 18 to 20 weeks by conventional methods.
And best of all, QuickCast works with all castable metal and alloys.
In short, the SLA QuickCast\ pattern is incapsulated in a ceramic shell and is fired before the
actual casting. Molten metal is then poured into the shell mold. The removal of the ceramic mold
is the end of the process.

Copper polyamide:
Copper PA (announced in May 1998) [DTM, 1998d, DTM, 1998e] is a new metalplastic
composite designed for short-run tooling applications involving several hundred parts (100-400
parts) from common plastics. Tooling inserts are produced directly in the SLS machine with a
layer thickness of 75f.lm and only subsequent finishing is necessary before their integration in
the tool base. No furnace cycle is required and unfinished tool inserts can be produced in a day.
During the CAD stage, Copper PA inserts are shelled and cooling lines, ejector pin guides, gates,
and runners are included in the design and built directly during the SLS process (Figures 7.11
and 7.12). Then, the insert surfaces are sealed with epoxy and finished with sandpaper, and
finally the shell inserts are backed up with a metal alloy. Examples of parts moulded using
Copper PA inserts are shown in Figure 7.13.
Inserts produced from Copper P A are easy to machine and finish. Their heat resistance and
thermal conductivity are better than most plastic tooling materials [DTM, 1998d and 1998e]. The
cycle times of moulds employing Copper PA inserts are similar to those for metal tooling.

Laminated tooling:

Laminated tooling is an alternative to building cavities directly on an RP machine.

Using the similar principles to the Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) process,

Layers of sheet metal are cut to replicate slices through a CAD model. Laser cutting or water jet
technologies generally produce the profiles.
To produce a mold tool, the CAD model must take the form of the required cavity. By cutting all
of the slices of the cavity in sheet metal, a stack of laminates can be made to replicate the
original CAD model. Using either clamping or diffusion bonding, it is possible to create a
pseudo-solid cavity in hardened tool steel without the need for complex post process cutter path
planning. Due to the use of relatively thick laminates typically 0.040 inch (1 mm) the surface
finish of the tools is generally poor; therefore, some form of finish machining is generally
required.
Laminated tools have been used successfully for a variety of techniques including press tools,
blow molding, injection molding and thermal forming. Research also is being performed into the
use of laminate tools in pressure die-casting. Tool life is a function of the initial sheet material,
which can be hardened after cutting and lamination. However, part complexity is bounded by
layer thickness.
One significant advantage of laminated tooling is the ability to change the design of parts quickly
by the replacement of laminates (if un-bonded). Conformal cooling channels also are easily
incorporated within the tool design and laminated tooling is good for large tools as well. The
need for finish machining to remove the stair steps is the main disadvantage of this process.

Soft tooling vs hard tooling:

Different molding processes require different types of tooling. It is

important to utilize the correct process so that you receive properly functioning parts. The two
most commonly used molding processes are urethane molding, and injection molding. A major
difference between the two processes is the type of tooling used to produce parts.

The difference is that urethane molding produces parts from silicone (soft tooling),
whereas injection molding produce parts from steel or aluminum (hard tooling). Below is a
quick overview showing you the difference between the tooling methods. Understanding the
difference will help you keep your project on time, within budget, and give you properly
functioning parts.
SoftTooling
-Silicone molds and the urethane process are used when a lower volume of parts is needed (1-
100). This is because the tooling and piece price is more economical for lower quantities. On
average, silicone tools usually cost in the hundreds to thousands of dollars, pending on the part
geometry.
-Silicone molds can be used for prototype, bridge and production of low volumes from one part
to hundreds of parts. Most silicone molds are good for about 25 shots per cavity.
-Silicone molds are typically injected with material that is manually gravity fed through a tube.
Pending on the type of material, it can take anywhere between 1-24 hours to cure. Once the parts
within the mold cure, the molds are manually opened, and any necessary finishing is done by
hand.

HardTooling:
-Steel/aluminum tools are used for the injection molding process for prototype or bridge, but
these tools are mostly used for high volume production (100s-100,000s).
-Steel/aluminum tools typically range in price from thousands to tens of thousands of dollars.
And pending on the material and part geometry, the tool life can range from thousands to
millions of parts.
-Steel/aluminum tools are injected with material from an injection mold machine. The machine
injects mold into the mold with less man-power when compared to silicone molds. The curing of
material will take between a few seconds to a few minutes, thus yielding more parts much
quicker than silicone tools.

SOFT WARE OF RP:

STL files:

STL is the standard file type used by most additive manufacturing systems. STL is
a triangulated representation of a 3D CAD model (Figure 1).

The triangulation (or poly count) of a surface will cause faceting of the 3D model. The
parameters used for outputting a STL will affect how much faceting occurs (Figures 2 and 3).
You cannot build the model smoother than the STL file. If the STL is coarse and faceted the
physical 3D printed model will be coarse and faceted as well. However, the smoother/ less
faceted your surface is, (the higher the poly count or triangulation) the larger your file. 3D
printing can only accept a certain file size; therefore its important to find a balance between your
model, its desired surface, and the 3D printing process of your choice.
When exporting to STL in your CAD package, you may see parameters for chord height,
deviation, angle tolerance, poly count, or something similar. These are the parameters that affect
the faceting of the STL. Weve compiled tips on exporting for the best surface: file size ratio
below.
Preparing your files
The following step-by-step instructions for converting CAD files to STL came from each CAD
software companys website or from 3D printing and design user forums; its an overall
simplified step-by-step process from the greater 3D printing community. If your CAD software is
not listed below or if you require additional assistance, please contact your CAD software
technical support for information about exporting to an STL.
The first step in the RP&M process is virtually identical for all of the various systems, and
involves the generation of a three-dimensional computer-aided design model of the object. A
good, preferably solid CAD modeling or a total enclosed surface water tight CAD model is a
key component of success RP processing. The CAD file is then translated into a triangulation
tessellated STL format, which is the standard of the RP&M field. Figure 3.2 shows a typical
example of STL model which is composed of triangles and each triangle is described by a unit
normal vector direction and three points representing the vertices of the triangle.

DMLS:
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is an additive manufacturing technique that uses a Yb
(Ytterbium) fibre laser fired into a bed of powdered metal, aiming the laser automatically at
points in space defined by a 3D model, melting or rather, welding the material together to create
a solid structure. DMLS was developed by Elextrolux Rapid Development and the EOS firm of
Munich, Germany.
The DMLS process involves use of a 3D CAD model whereby a .stl file is created and sent to the
machines software. A technician works with this 3D model to properly orient the geometry for
part building and adds supports structure as appropriate. Once this "build file" has been
completed, it is "sliced" into the layer thickness the machine will build in and downloaded to the
DMLS machine allowing the build to begin. The DMLS machine uses a high-powered 200 watt
Yb-fiber optic laser. Inside the build chamber area, there is a material dispensing platform and a
build platform along with a recoater blade used to move new powder over the build platform.
The technology fuses metal powder into a solid part by melting it locally using the focused laser
beam. Parts are built up additively layer by layer, typically using layers 20 micrometers thick.
This process allows for highly complex geometries to be created directly from the 3D CAD data,
fully automatically, in a relatively short time and without any tooling. DMLS is a net-
shape process, producing parts with high accuracy and detail resolution, good surface quality and
excellent mechanical properties.
Direct Metal laser Sintering (DMLS) builds solid metal parts directly from powdered metals. It
always used to build simple rapid tooling because of short lead times, eliminate the cavity
machining required. For advanced, cooling channels and inserts can also be built in the rapid
tools. Rapid tools using harder, tougher materials can be used to inject hundreds to thousands of
plastic parts.
UNIT V Rapid manufacturing process optimization: Factors influencing accuracy, Data
preparation error, Part building error, Error in finishing, Influence of build orientation.
Allied process: Vacuum casting, surface digitizing, Surface generation from point cloud, Surface
modification-Data transfer to solid models.

Factors influencing accuracy:

The accuracy of a RP process is difficult to predict as it is a
function of many different factors, some of which can be interdependent. The factors that most
influence RP process accuracy can be considered in three groups [Pham and Ji, 2000]. The first
group includes factors causing errors during the data preparation stage such as STL file
generation, model slicing and part build direction. The second group includes factors influencing
the part accuracy during the build stage such as process specific parameters. The third group of
factors is directly related to the part finishing techniques employed.

Data preparation error:

Errors due to Tessellation
Most RP systems employ standard STL input files. A STL file approximates the surface of the
3D CAD model by triangles. Errors caused by tessellation are usually ignored because of the
belief that tessellation errors can be minimised by increasing the number of triangles. However,
in practice the number of triangles cannot be increased indefinitely. The resolution of STL files
can be controlled during their generation in a 3D CAD system through tessellation parameters.
For example in ProlEngineer, the STL generation process can be controlled by specifying the
chord height or the angle control factor [Williams et ai., 1996]. In particular:
Chord Height. This parameter specifies the maximum distance between a chord and surface
(Figure 9.1). If less deviation from the actual part surface is required, a smaller chord height
should be specified. The lower bound for this parameter is a function of the CAD model
accuracy. The upper bound depends on the model size.
To achieve a better part accuracy, tessellation errors have to be taken into account. For example,
if the part is large, a feature with a small radius will be tessellated poorly. Suppose a model with
overall dimensions of 250x250x250 mm has a round comer with a radius of 1 mm. The results of
tessellating the model by applying Chord Heights of 0.5 and 0.05 mm respectively are shown in
Figure 9.2. Unfortunately, the increase of Chord Height leads not only to smoother surfaces but
also to larger data files. Therefore, a compromise parameter value should be selected to obtain
the best trade-off between accuracy and file size.

Errors due to Slicing:

RP processes have a stair-stepping problem that is found in all layer manufacturing technologies.
Stair-stepping is a consequence of the addition of material in layers. As a result of this discrete
layering, the shape of the original CAD models in the build direction (z) is approximated with
stair-steps. This type of error is due to the working principles ofRP processes, which can be
assessed in data preparation.

Part building error:

Different process-specific errors occur during part building. For example, material
shrinkage and control errors are the most significant factors influencing the part accuracy when
thermal RP processes are employed, e.g. SLS, MJM, FDM, LENS, etc. On the other hand, curing
and control errors are the main factors in RP processes such as SL and SGC. In this section,
specific part building errors resulting from SL and SLS processes are discussed
There are two main types of errors in the part building process, namely curing errors and control
errors. Curing errors refer to those errors that are caused by over-curing and scanned line shape.
Control errors are those errors caused by layer thickness and scan position control. Both types of
errors affect part accuracy.
Over-curing. Laser over-curing is necessary to adhere layers to form solid parts. However, it
causes dimensional and positional errors to features. The overcured material in the bottom layer
can be seen in Figure 9.7a, from which the unusual thickness of the bottom layer can be noted.
This causes a dimensional change in the z direction along the lower feature boundary. As a result,
the feature shape is deformed and the feature centre position is shifted. Figure 9.7b shows part of
a deformed boundary of what should have been a circular feature.

Control errors. Theoretically, the layer thickness should be at the defined value and the border
line should be positioned at the specified positions. In fact, the layer thickness is variable and the
border position is not precise. Figure 9.l 0 shows the phenomenon of uneven layer thickness.
Part Building Errors in the SLS Process
Many materials can be processed by SLS (see Chapter 4). All of them have
different properties and characteristics that can affect part accuracy. The main cause of part
inaccuracy is the shrinkage during sintering which does not always occur in a uniform manner.
The shrinkage of a new layer can be constrained by the existing part substrate or by support
powder trapped within enclosed areas. In addition, areas at high temperatures tend to shrink more
than those at lower temperatures and part geometries such as thick walls or sections can increase
the shrinkage [Beaman et aI., 1997]. To compensate for shrinkage, a material shrinkage
coefficient is calculated using a test part and a scaling factor is applied in each direction to the
STL file. However, scaling a three-dimensional faceted file uniformly is not a simple task and the
resulting geometry can be slightly deformed compared to the nominal geometry depending on
the scaling technique used.
The best way to overcome problems due to shrinkage would be to build a trial part, measure its
shrinkage and distortion and rebuild it according to a new design taking into account the
dimensions and shape changes that occur during the process. Unfortunately, this approach is
unrealistic because it is time consuming and costly. In practice, to compensate for the shrinkage,
scaling and offsetting are applied to the part dimensions according to the following relation:
new dimension = a (desired dimension) + b
In this way, it is possible to compensate for the shrinkage occurring during the SLS process and
for the part growth due to the laser beam melting diameter (Figure
Part Finishing
Some RP applications such as fabrication of exhibition quality models, tooling or master patterns
for indirect tool production (see Chapter 8) require additional finishing to improve the surface
appearance of the part. To achieve this, the stairstep effect on important surfaces has to be
removed. Usually, this is done by sanding and polishing RP models, which leads to changes in
feature shapes, dimensions and positions. The model accuracy after finishing operations is
influenced mostly by two factors, the varying amount of material that has to be removed and the
finishing technique adopted. These two factors determine to what extent the dimensional
accuracy ofRP models will be reduced during finishing.
Varying amount of material. During the data preparation stage, the RP model shapes are
approximated with the comers of the stair-steps. Each RP process reproduces the comers and the
stair-steps with a different resolution. Hence, the amount of material that has to be removed to
improve the surface finish will vary depending on the RP process employed. Also, the amount of
material to be removed on surfaces of the same model can vary due to the selected part build
orientation. For example, Figure 9.16a shows a surface profile of a SL model where the stair-
steps can be seen. Figure 9.l6b depicts another surface of the same model but with a minimal
stair-step effect. The former was built facing upwards and the latter downwards. As a result of
the part build orientation, varying amounts of cured resin are left for removal around the
periphery. In practice, it is very difficult to remove a varying amount of material from the
surfaces of the same model without reducing the model accuracy.
Finishing technique. A number of processes can be employed to finish RP models, for example,
wet and dry sanding, sand blasting, coating, spraying, infiltration with special solutions,
machining, etc. Each technique has specific technological capabilities and can be characterised
by the achievable dimensional accuracy and surface roughness. The techniques that assure better
dimensional control during the finishing operation will have less impact on model accuracy. For
instance, models finished employing milling will have less influence on accuracy than those
using manual wet sanding or sand blasting.
Selection of Part Build Orientation
One of the most important decisions to be made when employing any particular RP technology is
the selection of the part build orientation. This decision is a very important factor in minimising
build time and costs, and achieving optimal accuracy. When making this decision, designers and
RP machine operators should consider a number of different process specific constraints. This
may be quite a difficult and time-consuming task.
Each RP process has specific technological capabilities that have to be taken into account before
a particular build direction is selected. Choosing the best orientation is a multi-criteria task that
involves trade-offs between maximising the surface smoothness and accuracy of important
features and minimising the build time and cost. In this section, the orientation constraints of two
RP processes, SL and SLS, are discussed. Because SL and SLS have orientation constraints that
are common with other RP methods, the information included in this section can be regarded as
generic for layer manufacturing technologies.
The following feature constraints should be considered in choosing candidate build
orientations for the SL process [Pham et aI., 1999].
User specified critical surfaces: If these surfaces are planes, they have to be placed such that
their normals point in the build direction. In other words, they are horizontal and upward facing.
Cylinders, cones and surfaces of revolution are orientated so that their axes are vertical.
Coordinate systems: Since a coordinate system is usually created by the designer and employed
whilst modelling, the orientation of the coordinate axes may represent the most logical build
direction. It is placed so that the z-axis points in the build direction.
Holes: In order to avoid hard-to-remove supports and stair-stepping inside holes, these are
placed orthogonally to horizontal planes.
 Cuts: If these carve through the part entirely or have a depth greater than a certain minimum,
the planes which they cut through (placement planes) are made horizontal. Otherwise, they are
ignored.
Shafts: These are orientated such that their placement planes are horizontal in order to provide
the best external surface finish.
Protrusions: If these are created by revolving a section, the axes are positioned so that they are
vertical.
Shells: These are orientated so that the concave part of the shell faces upwards in order to
minimise internal supports. However, if the part is built on an older SL system employing the
deep-dip recoat method, this orientation should be avoided as it would produce a trapped volume
[Pham et aI., 1997].
Axes: All axes are placed so that they are vertical.

Orientation Constraints of the SLS Process

The orientation constraints of the SLS are dictated mostly by two factors, the process accuracy in
the X-Y plane and Z direction, and the material used, since the shrinkage and anisotropic
properties of the sintered powders are different. To utilise the technological capabilities of the
SLS process fully, designers and machine operators should understand its specific part
orientation rules.

Vacuum casting:
 Another form of RTV moulding known as Vacuum Casting is widely used for
producing accurate silicone tools for casting parts with fine details and very thin walls. The
process requires initial investment in a vacuum chamber with two sections. The upper section is
for mixing the resin and the lower is for casting the resin into the mould. A vacuum chamber
manufactured by MCP Systems is shown in Figure

The MCP vacuum casting process includes nine steps as shown in Figure 6.3 [3D Systems,
1995]:
1. The first step is to produce a pattern using any of the available RP processes (SLA, SLS,
FDM, etc.).
2. The pattern is fitted with a casting gate and set up on the parting line, and then suspended in a
mould casting frame.
3. Once the two-part silicone-rubber is de-aerated and then mixed, it is poured into the mould
casting frame around the pattern.
4. The mould is cured inside a heating chamber.
5. The pattern is removed from the silicone mould by cutting along the parting line.
6. The urethane resin is measured, dye is added for coloured components and casting funnels
placed. Then, the mould is closed and sealed.
7. The computer-controlled equipment mixes and pours the resin inside the vacuum chamber.
Because this takes place in a vacuum, the mould is filled completely without leaving any
airpockets or voids.
8. After casting the resin the mould is moved to the heating chamber for 2 to 4 hours to cure the
urethane part.
9. After hardening, the casting is removed from the silicone mould. The gate and risers are cut
off to make an exact copy of the pattern. If required the component can be painted or plated.
Vacuum castings are precise replicas of the patterns, dimensionally accurate without blemishes,
with all profiles and textures faithfully reproduced. A variety of resins specially-formulated for
vacuum casting are available on the market to offer various characteristics in hardness,
toughness, flexibility and temperature resistance.
Surface Digitizing: