Understanding Unbelief

Atheists and agnostics around the world

Interim findings from 2019 research in Brazil, China, Denmark, Japan,
the United Kingdom, and the United States

Stephen Bullivant
Miguel Farias
Jonathan Lanman
Lois Lee
 © Understanding Unbelief (2019)
Cover photos of atheists and agnostics in Brazil, Japan, and the United Kingdom
© Aubrey Wade (2019)
This publication was made possible through the support of a grant from the John Templeton Foundation (JTF grant ID#
60624) managed by the University of Kent. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the John Templeton Foundation.

Stay informed about our findings and events: research.kent.ac.uk/understandingunbelief

Understanding Unbelief
@U_Unbelief
[email protected]

2 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK

Eight key findings

1. Atheists (i.e., people who ‘don’t believe in God’) and 5. Unbelief in God doesn’t necessarily entail unbelief in
agnostics (i.e., people who ‘don’t know whether there is other supernatural phenomena. Atheists and (less so)
a God or not, and don’t believe there is a way to find out’) agnostics exhibit lower levels of supernatural belief than
exhibit significant diversity both within, and between, do the wider populations. However, only minorities of
different countries. Accordingly, there are very many ways atheists or agnostics in each of our countries appear to
of being an unbeliever (i.e., atheists/agnostics combined). be thoroughgoing naturalists. (2.2, 2.3)
(All)
6. Another common supposition – that of the purposeless
2. In all six of our countries, majorities of unbelievers unbeliever, lacking anything to ascribe ultimate meaning
identify as having ‘no religion’. Nevertheless, in Denmark to the universe – also does not bear scrutiny. While
fully 28% of atheists and agnostics identify as Christians; atheists and agnostics are disproportionately likely to
in Brazil the figure is 18%. 8% of Japan’s unbelievers say affirm that the universe is ‘ultimately meaningless’ in five
they are Buddhists. Conversely, in Brazil (79%), the USA of our countries, it still remains a minority view among
(63%), Denmark (60%), and the UK (52%), a majority of unbelievers in all six countries. (2.4)
unbelievers were brought up as Christians. (1.1, 1.2)
7. Also perhaps challenging common suppositions: with
3. Relatively few unbelievers select ‘Atheist’ or ‘Agnostic’ only a few exceptions, atheists and agnostics endorse
as their preferred (non)religious or secular identity. 38% of the realities of objective moral values, human dignity and
American atheists opt for ‘Atheist’, compared to just 19% attendant rights, and the ‘deep value’ of nature, at similar
of Danish atheists. Other well-known labels – ‘humanist’, rates to the general populations in their countries. (3.1)
‘free thinker’, ‘sceptic’, ‘secular’ – are the go-to identity for
only small proportions in each country. (1.3) 8. There is remarkably high agreement between
unbelievers and general populations concerning the
4. Popular assumptions about ‘convinced, dogmatic values most important for ‘finding meaning in the world
atheists’ do not stand up to scrutiny. Atheists and and your own life’. ‘Family’ and ‘Freedom’ ranked highly
agnostics in Brazil and China are less confident that for all. Also popular – albeit less unanimously so – were
their beliefs about God are correct than are Brazilians ‘Compassion’, ‘Truth’, ‘Nature’, and ‘Science’. (3.2)
and Chinese as a whole. Although American atheists
are typically fairly confident in their views about God,
importantly, so too are Americans in general. (2.1)

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 3

About the authors

Prof. Stephen Bullivant (co-Leader, Understanding Unbelief) is Professor of Theology and the Sociology of
Religion at St Mary’s University, where he also directs the Benedict XVI Centre for Religion and Society. His
latest books are Mass Exodus: Catholic Disaffiliation in Britain and America since Vatican II (OUP, 2019), and
Why Catholics Leave, What They Miss, and How They Might Return (Paulist, 2019; co-authored with
C. Knowles, H. Vaughan-Spruce, and B. Durcan).

Dr Miguel Farias (co-Leader, Understanding Unbelief) leads the Brain, Belief and Behaviour group at
Coventry University. He has previously been a lecturer at Oxford University where he also did his doctorate in
experimental psychology. His major research interests are the psychobiological roots of beliefs and the effects
of spiritual practices.

Dr Jonathan Lanman (co-leader, Understanding Unbelief) is Assistant Director of the Institute of Cognition
& Culture, Senior Lecturer in Anthropology at Queen’s University Belfast, and Secretary General of the
International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion. He previously served as Departmental and
College Lecturer at Oxford University, where he completed his doctorate on the cognitive anthropology of
atheism. His research aims to utilise the tools of both cognitive and social anthropology to examine religion,
atheism, morality and group dynamics.

Dr Lois Lee is Senior Research Fellow in Religious Studies at the University of Kent and principal investigator
on the £2.3m Understanding Unbelief programme. Her books include Recognizing the Non-religious:
Reimagining the Secular (OUP, 2015), The Oxford Dictionary of Atheism (with Stephen Bullivant; OUP, 2016),
and the co-edited volumes Secularity and Non-religion (Routledge, 2013) and Negotiating Religion: Cross-
disciplinary Perspectives (Routledge, 2017). She is founding director of the Nonreligion and Secularity Research
Network (NSRN), and co-editor of Secularism and Nonreligion and of the De Gruyter-NSRN book series,
Religion and Its Others: Studies in Religion, Nonreligion and Secularity.

4 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK

Contents

Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6
Note on terminology ............................................................................................ 7
1. Unbelief, identity and religion .......................................................................... 8
2. (Un)Belief, science and naturalism ............................................................... 12
3. The Values of Unbelief.................................................................................. 18
Endnotes ........................................................................................................... 20
Appendix: Survey methodology........................................................................ 21

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 5

Introduction

This report presents emerging findings from the core • To what extent does not believing in God correlate
research project of the Understanding Unbelief programme with not believing in other supernatural phenomena?
(2017-2020). Understanding Unbelief: Across Disciplines • What ranges of worldviews do such people have?
and Across Cultures (ADAC) seeks to map the nature and
• How does unbelief relate to religious and/or secular
diversity of the varied phenomena traditionally – albeit
identities, meaning, and values?
problematically and contestedly (see below) – labelled as
‘unbelief’, across different national settings. • What does unbelief look like outside of western (and
disproportionately Anglophone) countries, and/or
This multi-year research programme is motivated by within minority groups within those countries?
the growing public, scholarly, and media interest in • How do people from different countries, religious
atheism, nonreligion, and secularity, fueled by the growing backgrounds and socio-demographic groups
proportions of religious ‘nones’ and ‘unbelievers’ in understand such central terms as ‘God’, ‘religion’ and
many countries, the flourishing of secularist activism and ‘atheism’ — terms frequently used in international
nonreligious cultures such as ‘New Atheism’, and urgent surveys?
policy debates around the status and rights of atheists,
agnostics, humanists, and related groups. While the The Understanding Unbelief programme – led by an
last decade has seen a rapid expansion in research on interdisciplinary team from the disciplines of sociology,
these topics – see, most notably, the flourishing of the anthropology, and psychology – will address all of these
international Nonreligion and Secularity Research Network questions, among many others, in a more systematic
(NSRN) – understandings of these topics have typically and comprehensive way than has hitherto been
focused on narrow (and arguably unrepresentative) groups attempted. Our overarching methodology combines
within the ‘nonreligious milieu’, and with a very heavy focus in-depth, face-to-face interviews (n = 30 per country,
on the North Atlantic world. This leaves us with many across three separate regions in each) and conceptually
unanswered questions: linked, nationally representative surveys (n = 1100

6 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK

per country) across six geographically, culturally, This report is the first publication presenting some of our
linguistically, politically and religious diverse settings: emerging, interim findings. All analyses in what follows
Brazil, China, Denmark, Japan, the United Kingdom are based on surveys, conducted in April/May 2019, with
and the United States. This allows us to ask more representative samples of both ‘unbelievers’ (i.e., atheists
detailed questions than large, general social surveys and agnostics, as defined below) and – for comparative
not designed for probing the nuances of these specific purposes – the general population in each of our six
topics. countries.

Note on terminology
‘Unbelief’, ‘atheist’, ‘agnostic’
Our use of the term ‘unbelief’ follows that provided in The Oxford Dictionary of Atheism (Bullivant and Lee
2016): ‘The state of lacking (especially religious) faith or belief… unbelief is often used in a wide sense, implying
a generalized lack of belief in a God or gods.’ It is chiefly employed, along with its cognates (unbelievers,
unbelieving) as a convenient shorthand term, incorporating much of what is commonly termed atheism and/or
agnosticism.

More specifically, for the purposes of this report – and the methodology of the research underlying it – we
operationalise ‘unbelievers’ as those giving either the first (‘atheists’) or second (‘agnostics’) response to the
following widely used social survey question:

Which statement comes closest to expressing what you believe about God? (ISSP 2008)

1. I don’t believe in God. (atheists)

2. I don’t know whether there is a God, and I don’t believe there is any way to find out. (agnostics)
3. I don’t believe in a personal God, but I do believe in a Higher Power of some kind.
4. I find myself believing in God some of the time, but not at others.
5. While I have doubts, I feel that I do believe in God.
6. I know God really exists and I have no doubt about it.
7. Don’t know.

‘God’
While ‘God’ is a common concept in Brazil, Denmark, the United Kingdom and the United States, it is less
common and less relevant in China and Japan. For the ADAC survey methodology, we have followed the
World Values Survey in using the following terms for ‘God’ in China and Japan, for the purposes of determining
atheism and agnosticism.

China
佛祖、真主, 上帝 或者神明
Fózǔ, zhēnzhǔ, shàngdì huòzhě shénmíng
Buddha, Allah, God, or Spiritual phenomena

Japan
神
Kami
Traditional Japanese term designating deity or spirit

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 7

1. Unbelief, identity and religion
1.1 Current religious affiliation of atheists/agnostics (combined)
(q: ‘Do you consider yourself as belonging to a particular religion? If yes, which?’)

Shown in percentages

85
81
79
77
73

63

28

18
15
1 12
7 8 7
5 5
3 3
1 5 2 1 00 1 2 0 1 000 0 1 2
0 1 11 0 0 1 1

Don’t Know No religion Other Muslim Jewish Buddhist Christian

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

It has long been known that by no means all of those who identify as ‘nones’ or as having ‘no religion’ on surveys
are, in reality, atheists or agnostics.1 As we see above, this also works both ways: not all atheists or agnostics would
describe themselves as having no religion.

Across our six countries, between 63% (Denmark) and 85% (China) of unbelievers answer our widely used religious
affiliation question with ‘no religion’. In all countries, a significant minority opted for a religious identity, with Christian
labels being most popular in Brazil (18%), China (7%), Denmark (28%), the United Kingdom (15%), and the United
States (12%), and Buddhist ones most popular in Japan (8%).

8 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK

1.2 Religious upbringing of atheists/agnostics (combined) in each country
(q: ‘What religion, if any, were you raised in?’)

With the clear exceptions of China and Japan, a majority of atheists and agnostics in our countries say that they were
brought up within a religious tradition. Four in every five Brazilian unbelievers, three in five Danish and American
unbelievers, and half of all UK unbelievers, say that they were brought up as some kind of Christian.

Other religions are also well-represented in unbelievers’ backgrounds. Most notably, 8% in America were raised Jewish,
13% in Japan were raised Buddhist, and 4% in China were raised Muslim.

Shown in percentages

82
79

70

63
60

52

42

32

26

14 15
13
8 7
5 4
2 22 3 2 3 2
1 1 0 11 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 00

Don’t Know No religion Other Muslim Jewish Buddhist Christian

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

Conversely, a nonreligious upbringing predominates among Chinese (82%) and Japanese (70%) unbelievers, but not
among those in the United Kingdom (42%), Denmark (32%), the United States (26%), and Brazil (15%).

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 9

1.3 Preferred (non)religious identities of atheists and agnostics in each country
(q.: ‘Here are some examples of how different people who do not believe in God or gods identify
themselves. If you had to pick a label, which of these comes closest to how you identify yourself?’)

Shown in percentages

Agnostic
Non-religious Agnostic Spiritual but not religious Free thinker
16 27 13 6
16 3 6 17
17 9 14 9
34 2 9 13
27 13 14 11
21 26 18 11

Rationalist Atheist Religious label Seeker

9 8 4 5
18 20 3 12
8 6 17 6
12 8 9 2
7 6 9 2
5 4 8 0

Humanist Sceptic Secular Other

2 8 0 1
3 0 2 0
7 4 2 2
7 1 1 1
4 4 0 1
2 1 1 2

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

As explained earlier in this report (see ‘Note on terminology’), this report uses i) atheist and ii) agnostic to describe
those respectively answering i) ‘I don’t believe in God’ and ii) ‘I don’t know whether there is a God, and I don’t believe
there is any way to find out’ on the commonly used seven-option survey question: ‘Which statement comes closest to
expressing what you believe about God?’. We are using unbelievers to refer to atheists and agnostics together.

As previous studies have shown, many people who are de facto atheists or agnostics do not choose to identify
themselves, either primarily or at all, by these terms. (There are many reasons for this, which are being explored in the
qualitative research undertaken within ADAC.)

Our data strongly reinforces this. In none of our countries is ‘Atheist’ or ‘Agnostic’ the preferred identity of atheists or
agnostics. The country with the highest percentage of ‘Atheist’-identifying atheists is the USA (39%), in Denmark, it is
only 19%. Meanwhile in Brazil, 27% of actual agnostics identify as such, compared to just 2% in Japan.

10 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
Atheist
Atheist Non-religious Rationalist Free think er
30 14 6 7
21 7 22 19
19 36 7 6
20 31 13 6
29 35 3 9
39 20 4 7

Spiritual but not religious Humanist Religious label Agnostic

11 2 12 6
3 16 2 2
9 7 5 3
7 5 9 0
8 4 4 5
6 4 5 8

Seeker Sceptic Other Secular

6 5 1 1
3 1 1 2
3 3 2 0
2 1 3 2
1 1 2 1
1 2 4 2

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

There is a great diversity of preferred self-descriptors both within and across the six countries. Among all the possible
options, only ‘Atheist’ (among Brazilian, UK, and US atheists), ‘Non-religious’ (among Danish, Japanese, and UK atheists,
and Japanese and UK agnostics), and ‘Agnostic’ (among UK and US agnostics) attract more than a quarter of unbelievers
from any one country.

Other, historically important designations are markedly less popular. With the single exception of Chinese atheists (17%),
‘Humanist’ was the preferred identity of fewer than one in ten atheists or agnostics in each of our countries. (See also
‘sceptic’ and ‘secular’.)

Small but non-trivial numbers of atheists and (especially) agnostics in all our countries primarily identified with a religious
designation. This includes 12% of Brazilian atheists and fully 17% of Danish agnostics.

All of this is important for two main reasons. Firstly, it means that social-scientific studies of atheists or agnostics which
focus only on those who self-describe in this way - e.g., typically as a write-in option on a survey’s ‘Other (please specify)’
category – are limited to only a very small, and likely atypical, subset of de facto atheists and agnostics. Secondly, it
underscores the point that there is no single term – or discrete set of terms – for referring to these people which a majority
of them would actively choose for themselves. We acknowledged in the introduction the contested nature of the terms
unbelief and unbelievers: there does not, however, appear to be any self-evident candidate to replace it.

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 11

2. (Un)Belief, science and naturalism
2.1 Different groups’ mean strength of agreement with the statement
‘I feel confident that my beliefs about God’s existence are the right ones’
(-2 = strongly disagree; -1 = somewhat disagree; 0 = neither agree nor disagree;
1 = somewhat agree; 2 = strongly agree)

-0

-1

-2

Atheists Agnostics General Population

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

On a scale from -2 (strongly disagree) to +2 (strongly agree), we asked both our samples to rate their agreement with
a statement expressing confidence ‘that my beliefs about God’s existence are the right ones’. This produced several
interesting results.

First, agnostics tend to have the least confidence in their views (from -0.21 in Japan to +0.13 in the UK). This
is perhaps not wholly surprising, given that not knowing is, etymologically speaking, agnosticism’s defining
characteristic.

Second, and contrary to some popular suppositions, being an atheist does not necessarily entail a high level of
confidence or certainty in one’s views. All six of our countries’ atheists express overall levels of confidence in their
beliefs about God’s existence either notably lower than (Brazil, China), or broadly comparable to (Denmark, Japan,
UK, US), the general population’s. For instance, the comparatively high level of confidence exhibited by America’s
atheists matches more-or-less exactly the high ‘religious confidence’ of Americans-in-general. Overall, among
American atheists, 45% ‘strongly agreed’ and 20% ‘somewhat agreed’ with our question’s statement; among our
general population sample, these proportions were 44% and 24% respectively.

12 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
2.2 Proportions of i) atheists, ii) agnostics, and iii) the general population ‘strongly’ or ‘somewhat’
agreeing with the existence of various supernatural beings/phenomena

i) Atheists
50

40

30

20

10

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

ii) Agnostics

60

50

40

30

20

10

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 13

iii) General population
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

While ‘belief’ and ‘unbelief’ are normally used in relation to God (or gods), there are many other supernatural beings and
phenomena that substantial percentages of the general population believe to exist. Logically, unbelief in God need not
entail unbelief in these other things. Accordingly, our survey probed the extent to which unbelievers agree that various
supernatural phenomena either exist (e.g., ‘objects with mystical powers to heal or harm’) or are true (e.g., astrology).2

On the whole, and across all our countries, atheists show the lowest levels of supernatural belief; agnostics show slightly
higher levels; and within the general population such beliefs are typically rather prevalent.

While there is substantial variation both within and between countries on unbelievers’ most/least believed-in phenomena,
a few points stand out. First, the beliefs that there are ‘underlying forces’ of good and evil, that ‘there exists a universal
spirit or life force,’ and that ‘most significant life events are meant to be and happen for a reason’ are the most endorsed
among unbelievers globally.

Second, among our atheists, Japanese are the least, and Brazilian and Chinese the most, ‘supernaturally inclined’.
Chinese agnostics, meanwhile, are strikingly more likely to believe in supernatural phenomena than those from other
countries.

14 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
2.3 Proportions of atheists and agnostics who are naturalists (i.e., who ‘strongly’ or ‘somewhat’
disagree with all ‘existence of supernatural beings/phenomena’ questions)

Shown in percentages

27 12 8 2 26 11 27 7 29 8 35 10

Atheist Agnostic

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

While Figure 2.2 reveals the percentages of unbelievers (in God) who nonetheless believe in other specific supernatural
phenomena, there is also the question of the proportion who don’t believe in any supernatural phenomena at all. Here, we
present the percentage of unbelievers who are thoroughgoing naturalists.

For the purposes of this report, we are using a consistently negative answer to each and every supernatural phenomenon
as a proxy for naturalism.

As can be seen above, in none of our six countries surveyed does the percentage of unbelievers who qualify as naturalists
approach 50%. Even among American atheists, the most naturalistic group across our surveyed countries, only a third
seem to have a wholly naturalistic world view. Among Chinese atheists meanwhile, fewer than one in ten does.

As one might predict from the previous graphs, agnostics are consistently less likely to be naturalists than atheists. In no
country does more than one in ten agnostics qualify; in China, it is more like one in fifty.

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 15

2.4 Proportions of atheists/agnostics (combined) and the general population ‘strongly’
or ‘somewhat’ agreeing with the statement ‘The universe is ultimately meaningless’

47

36

32
30 30

25 25 25
24
23

17
14

Atheist/Agnostic combined General Population

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

For many centuries, there has been substantial scholarly and public discussion regarding the wider implications of not
believing in God – debates which continue to the present day. For example, it has often been argued that for those
without a belief in the existence of a God, the universe can possess no ultimate meaning or purpose.

While this is normally discussed at the level of abstract argument, our data allow us explore whether or not, as a matter
of empirical fact, unbelievers do regard the universe as ‘ultimately meaningless’.

While there is some variation across countries, two points stand out. First, in no country surveyed does the proportion
of either unbelievers, or the general population, affirming a meaningless universe reach 50%.

With the exception of Brazil, where 47% endorse such a view, only around a third of unbelievers in each country regard
the universe to be ultimately meaningless. While unbelievers are admittedly more likely to take this view than the
population at large, curiously this is not so in Japan.

16 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
2.5 Proportions of atheists/agnostics (combined) and general population ‘strongly’ or ‘somewhat’
agreeing with selected science items

Shown in percentages
87

80

74 74
71 70 69
68 69 68
66 66
63 63
59

52
50 49 49
46
43

33
28
26

‘The scientific method is the only ‘Humans have developed over time from
reliable path to knowledge.’ simpler, non-human life forms.’

Atheist/Agnostic combined General Population

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

Discussions of unbelief often involve discourse on ‘science’ vs. ‘religion’. Consequently, we aimed to examine the extent
to which atheists and agnostics would endorse a scientific account of human origins, as well as a strong statement of
science as the only reliable path to knowledge.

The data appear to show a divergence between East Asian (China, Japan) and other countries (Brazil, Denmark,
the United Kingdom, the United States). In both China and Japan, the percentages of unbelievers and the general
population who regard science as the only reliable path to knowledge are nearly identical. By contrast, the percentages
of unbelievers in Brazil, Denmark, the United Kingdom and the United States endorsing this statement are substantially
higher than the general population. Further, in both China and Japan, members of the general population are more likely
to endorse an evolutionary account of human origins than the unbelieving subgroup. This relationship is reversed in
Brazil, Denmark, the United Kingdom and the United States.

While those figures may suggest a united East Asian approach to science and religion, it is also important to note the
substantial difference between China and Japan in relation to the status of science. Seven-in-ten of Chinese participants
agree that science is the only reliable path to knowledge, compared to only three-in-ten of Japanese participants.

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 17

3. The Values of Unbelief
3.1 Proportions of atheists/agnostics (combined) and general population ‘strongly’ or ‘somewhat’
agreeing with selected worldview items

86
83

77
73 75 75
73 72 73
70 69
68
64

53

45 46

40
36 36
33 33
30

21

13

‘All human beings, regardless of where ‘In the long-run, society becomes
they are born, are born with dignity and better over time.’
a special set of rights.’

93
89

82
78 79
77 76 77 78

70 71

60
55 55 56

50 50 51
47 46
45 44 44
41

‘Nature has deep value beyond its ‘What is right and wrong is up
usefulness for human beings.’ to each person to decide.’

Atheist/Agnostic combined General Population

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

18 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
Perhaps the most debated implications of unbelief in the existence of God concern morality and values. In relation to
moral relativism and objectivism, we asked participants to rate their agreement with the statement ‘What is right and
wrong is up to each person to decide.’

Our findings suggest no consistent difference between unbelievers and the general population. Percentages agreeing
with this statement ranged from 41% among the general population of China, to 60% among the general population
of Brazil. While unbelievers are more likely to endorse this statement in China and the United States, members of the
general population are more likely to endorse it in Brazil, Denmark, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

As to human dignity and the objective existence of human rights, unbelievers are typically less likely to affirm these than
are the general populations – although note Denmark and the United States, where the proportions are near-exactly
the same, and the fact that affirmation of dignity and rights is the majority position among unbelievers in all surveyed
countries.

In relation to the ‘deep’ value of the natural world, regardless of its usefulness to humans, in half of the countries
surveyed (Denmark, the United Kingdom, the United States) our unbelievers and general samples endorsed it at near-
identical levels. In the other half (Brazil, China, and Japan), unbelievers were less likely to endorse the statement (82%
vs. 89% in Brazil, 77% vs. 93% in China, and 55% to 79% in Japan). Across all countries and across both samples,
however, the majority of participants endorse the claim of the inherent value of the natural world.

By contrast, a belief in progress – that ‘in the long-run, society becomes better over time’ – shows a huge amount of
cross-national variation. In Japan, just 13% of unbelievers and 21% of the population as a whole affirmed this statement.
The Chinese figures are vastly different: 69% of unbelievers, and 83% of the general population.

3.2 Five top-ranked ‘values’ choices by atheists/agnostics and general population (from 43 options)

Freedom Family Learning Science Equality

Family God Justice Freedom Truth

Freedom Equality Family Justice Science

Family Freedom Equality Science Self-improvement

Family Freedom Nature Justice Friendship

Family Freedom Postive thinking Justice Friendship

Family Freedom Compassion Nature Being in the moment

Family Compassion Freedom Nature Postive thinking

Family Friendship Freedom Truth Compassion

Family Freedom Compassion Truth Nature

Family Freedom Learning Truth Compassion

Family God Compassion Truth Freedom

Atheist / Agnostic General Population

Brazil China Denmark Japan UK USA

‘When it comes to finding meaning in the world and your own life, which of the above are most important to you?
Please select the five items most important to you.’

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 19

In figure 2.4, we saw that the majority of unbelievers disagreed with the statement that the universe is ultimately
meaningless. This raises the questions of what makes the universe meaningful for unbelievers, and to what extent might
this differ from the general population.

To address these questions, we presented participants with a list of 43 words and short phrases (e.g. ‘Beauty’, ‘Art’,
‘Family’, ‘Romantic love’, ‘Nature’, ‘Justice’, ‘The connectedness of everything’, ‘A higher power’, plus ‘Other (please
specify)’) and asked them to select the five items most important to them for finding meaning in the world and in their
own lives. Despite all items being chosen by at least one person in every country, we found very high levels of agreement
across our samples. Out of the possible 43 options, only 14 made it into the overall Top Fives for any of our six countries’
unbeliever or general population samples.

Figure 3.2 shows a remarkable level of similarity between unbelievers and the general population across our countries in
what makes the world and life meaningful. ‘Family’ was the most frequently chosen item in all general population samples,
and in four of the six unbeliever samples. Further, where it was not the most frequently chosen item, it came either second
(Brazil) or third (China). ‘Freedom’ was also a frequently chosen item across all samples. It was the most frequently chosen
item by Brazilian and Chinese unbelievers, ranked second behind ‘Family’ in half of our samples, and never fell out of the
Top Five chosen items in any sample.

Other items frequently appearing in the Top Five across both samples are ‘Compassion’ (6), ‘Truth’ (5), ‘Nature’ (4),
‘Science’ (3), ‘Friendship’ (3), and ‘Equality’ (3).

Endnotes
1
For example, Pew data from 2017 shows that 17% of US nones ‘believe in God as described in the Bible’, and a further 53% believe in a
‘God, higher power, or spiritual force’. See: https://www.pewforum.org/2018/04/25/when-americans-say-they-believe-in-god-what-do-they-
mean/04-25-18_beliefingod-00-04/

2
For brevity’s sake, our graphs give shorthand descriptions of the phenomena in question. The actual wording used on the (English language) survey
were as follows: Life after death: ‘There is some sort of life after death.’; Reincarnation: ‘Sometime after I die, I expect that I’ll be born again in
another body.’; Astrology: ‘The positions of the stars and planets affect people’s lives.’; Objects with mystical powers: ‘Some objects have mystical
powers (e.g. to heal, harm or bring good luck).’; People with mystical powers: ‘Some people have mystical powers (e.g. to heal, harm or bring
good luck).’; Significant events ‘meant to be’: ‘Most significant life events are meant to be and happen for a reason.’; Supernatural beings: ‘There
exist supernatural beings, who might be good, evil or neither, such as angels, demons, ghosts or spirits.’ [NB: culturally appropriate entities were
suggested for each country]; Underlying forces of good and evil: ‘There are underlying forces of good and evil in this world.’; Universal spirit or life
force: ‘There exists a universal spirit or life force.’; Karma: ‘There is a power in the universe that causes good things to happen to people who behave
morally and bad things to happen to people who behave immorally.’

20 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
Appendix: Survey methodology
All data were gathered through the Qualtrics Panels service in April-May 2019

For each country (Brazil, China, Denmark Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States), we gathered two samples. The
first is a sample composed only of unbelievers (n = 900), which is made to be representative of the unbelieving population
of each country in relation to Age, Sex, and Region. The other is a General Population sample (n = 200), made to be
representative of the general population in relation to Age, Sex, and Region, which we use for the purpose of comparison.
Our total global sample for ADAC will be n = 6600. Please note, however, that these interim findings are based on a
sample of n = 5285, broken down like so: Brazil (n = 846), China (n = 903), Denmark (n = 593), Japan (n = 1016),
UK (n = 1109), and USA (n = 818).

In order to develop representative samples of unbelievers in our chosen countries, we utilised the most recently available
data from two largescale, highly respected survey programmes: the World Values Survey (WVS; 2010-2014) and the
International Social Survey Programme (ISSP; 2008) to establish a demographic picture of unbelievers according to three
variables (Age, Sex, and Region). We then set demographic quotas for our own survey based on this picture. For example,
if our data from the WVS indicates that 40% of the unbelievers in a particular country are female, we then set quotas of
40% female and 60% male for our own sample of said country.

Based on our analysis of existing WVS and ISSP data regarding belief in the existence of God, we established the
following quotas for our unbelieving samples.

Continued overleaf

Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 21

 Age Sex Region

Brazil 50% - 18-29 75% - men 50% - Southeast

25% - 30-49 25% - women 25% - Northeast
25% - over 50 25% - South

China 25% -18-29 55% - men 15% - North China

45% - 30-49 45% - women 10% - Northeast
30% - over 50 25% - East
30% - South Central
10% - Southwest
10% - Northwest

Denmark 20% - 18-29 60% - men 30% - Capital Region

35% - 30-49 40% - women 15% - Sealand
45% - over 50 20% - Southern Denmark
20% - Central Denmark
15% - Northern Denmark

Japan 15% - 18-29 55% - men 35% - Kanto

35% - 30-49 45% - women 15% - Kansai/Kinki
50% - over 50 15% - Kyushu/Okinawa
10% - Chubu
10% - Tohoku
5% - Hokkaido
5% - Chugoku
5% - Shikoku

UK 20% - 18- 29 60% - men 10% - Greater London

40% - 30-49 40% - women 10% - Scotland
40% - over 50 5% - Northern Ireland
5% - Wales
30% - East Anglia, Southwest,
Southeast
25% - North, North West,
Yorkshire
15% - West, East Midlands

USA 30% - 18-29 75% - men 10% - New England

40% - 30-49 25% - women 10% - Middle Atlantic
30% - over 50 20% - South Atlantic
5% - West South Central
15% - East North Central
10% - West North Central
10% - Rocky Mountains
20% - Pacific

22 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham,

UK
Understanding Unbelief: Atheists and agnostics around the world | 23
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24 | St Mary’s University, Twickenham, UK