DEVELOPMENT OF SOVIET MARITIME POWER

by

Nicholas George Shadrin

s
DUDLEY KNOX LIBR >K
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
MONTEBEY. CALIFORNIA 8394Q
Till- GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

Washington, D.C. 20006

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

of

THE GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

announces the

Final Examination

of

Nicholas George Shadrin

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Tuesday, July 11, 1972, at 2:00 P.M.

in

The Conference Room, Bacon 201

2000 H Street, Northwest

Washington, D.C.

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83 G 17 7
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Ill LD OF STUDIES: International Relations

DISSERTATION: "Development of Soviet Maritime Power"

DIRECTOR OF THE CANDIDATE'S RESEARCH:

Vladimir Petrov, Professor of International Affairs

EXAMINING COMMITTEE:

Andrew Gyorgy, Professor of International A fjairs and Politica. Sen n

Charles Fox Elliott. Associate Pro/essor of Political Sciem jnd
International Affairs
Carl Arne Linden, Associate Professor of Internationa! Affairs and
Political Science
John Hardt, Senior Specialist on Soviet Economics, Congressional
Research Service, Library of Congress; Research Consultant in s >viet
Economics and Comparative Economic Systems, Graduate Sell if .

Arts and Sciences

Thomas William Wolfe, Senior Staff Member, Social Sciences Depart-
ment, Rand Corporation

Vladimir Petrov, Advocate

The Dean of the Graduate School ol Arts and Sciences, presiding

 ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION
Development of Soviet Maritime Power
The development of Soviet maritime power has been an uneven and
complex process closely associated with the level of Soviet industry and
supplemented by skillful utilization of foreign technology. The Soviet
government inherited a relatively strong maritime tradition and a substantial
number oi Tsarist specialists. During the restoration stage, 1921-1927, the
shipyards were put back into operation, and construction of a number of
ships, laid down prior to the Revolution, was completed. Toward the end of
the 1920's. the construction of naval ships, particularly submarines, started.
Primary attention up to the mid-1 950's had been given to the Navy. The
development of merchant marine, fishing fleet, and river transport had been
exercised mainly on a residual basis. A number of naval programs, approved
and partially implemented during Stalin's reign, resulted in a numerically
sizable Navy. Rapid development of all aspects of the Soviet maritime
power, which started in the mid-1 950's, was the result of a major revision of
policy, particularly with respect to naval construction. The USSR decided
not to build aircraft carriers, not to fight its major opponent with his
weapon system, but, instead, to build a Navy whose striking power would
he concentrated in new weapon systems-missiles, which can be launced by
various carriers from the surface, in the air, and under water. Consequently.
j number of classes of Soviet ships have no equal among the major naval

powers at this time. The Soviet Merchant Marine presently occupies sixth
place in the world. It is capable of satisfying the needs of rapidly growing
Soviet foreign trade, domestic sea transportation, and military and
economic aids; and it plays a significant role as an auxiliary of the Soviet
Navy. Soviet shipbuilding is well developed, utilizing advanced methods of
construction. Foreign deliveries played an important role, and permitted
concentration on naval shipbuilding. In oceanography, the Soviets are one
of the leaders in the world. During the last decade, considerable attention
has been devoted to the exploitation of mineral resources from the sea. The
appearance of the Soviet fishing fleet in remote areas of the world's oceans
preceded that of the Soviet Navy and Merchant Marine. Presently, both the
fishing vessels and the gear they employ are among the most advanced in the
world. The role of the Soviet fishing fleet in foreign aid is substantial and
growing.
The vastness of the Soviet Union's territory and its poorly developed
land transportation made inland waterways indispensable for the transpor-
tation of goods, raw materials, and people. Efforts to master the Northern
Sea Route, which is destined to play an important role, continue. The
Soviet maritime power of today is the result of more than 50 years of the
Soviet Union's development as a state and represents to a large degree the
realization of tie long-cherished Russian dream to be a great maritime
t

nation. In May, 1972, Admiral Gorshkov emphasized the peacetime role of

navies as "political force at sea" which "continues to have paramount
importance as an instrument of policy of great powers." The upward trend
m the development of all aspects of the Soviet maritime power should
continue, creating greater capabilities and permitting more flexible appli-
cation of it in the interests of Soviet policy.

/ S-3C177
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 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Born in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, May 19, 1928

B.S. 1952, the Naval Academy
M.E.A. 1964, George Washington University
Department of Defense, 1960-

CONCERNING PERIOD OF PREPARATION AND

GENERAL EXAMINATION

CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE:

Benjamin Nimer, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs,

Chairman
Kurt London, Professor Emeritus of International Affairs
Wolfgang Herbert Kraus, Professor of Political Science and International
Affairs
Franz Henry Michael, Professor of International Affairs and Far Eastern
History
Burton Malcolm Sapin, Professor of International Affairs and Political
Science
William Reid Johnson, Associate Professor of History

LANGUAGE REQUIREMENTS:

English passed: October, 1964

Polish passed: September, 1968

FIELDS OF STUDY:

International Politics
Political Theory
Soviet Economics
Far Eastern International Relations
Soviet Foreign and Military Policy

TIME IN PREPARATION: September, 1964-February, 1970

GENERAL EXAMINATION PASSED: July, 1969-February, 1970

 Development of Soviet Maritime Power
Volume I
By

NICHOLAS GEORGE SHADRIN

B.S. 1952, the Naval Academy

M.E.A. 1964, The George Washington University

A Dissertation submitted to

The Faculty of

The Graduate School of Art and Sciences

of The George Washington University in partial satisfaction
of the requirements for the degree of Doctor c-i: ^..xlosophy

Juae, 1972

Dissertation directed by
Vladimir Petrov
Professor of International Affairs

i
to
 DUDLEY KNOX LIBR'*RY
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA 9394Q

To those at sea

83 617 7

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v

Most of the research material for the dissertation was

derived from Soviet sources. Some German and Polish language

publications were also used. Use of American and British sources

was limited primarily to naval matters. Soviet specialized

periodicals (particularly journals and transactions) , as compared

to books, were found most useful, and provided historical

data based on the Soviet archives, most of which is unavailable •

in the West. These periodicals have presented a detailed picture

of current trends in the development of the civilian branches

of Soviet maritime structure.

There are many to whom the writer is indebted for various

degrees of assistance and encouragement. The idea to study the

subject of Soviet maritime development in a broader scope was

born during many prolonged discussions of naval development

with Robert W. Herrick and a number of mutual friends. In

spite of often profound disagreement over various aspects of

the subject matter, those discussions were extremely stimulating

and contributed heavily to the decision to write.

In addition to the many faculty members of the George

V/ashington University, whose efforts and patience are deeply

appreciated, I wish to express my particular gratitude to

Professors Wolfgang H. Kraus, Kurt Loudon, Franz Hv Michael,

Benjamin Nimer, Vladimir Petrov, and also Charles F. Elliott,

John Hard and Thomas W. Wolfe. I would be remiss if the

contribution of my wife Eva, who even found time and patience

to read a portion of this paper, were not acknowledged.

IX
 TABLE OF CONTENTS '"--.
.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

LIST OF TABLES * vii

VOLUME I.

INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter

I . NAVY . . . 7 6

Heritage 6
From the Revolution to World War II .... 28
The Soviet Navy During World War II 61
The Baltic Fleet
The Black Sea
The Northern Fleet
The First Post-World. War II Period
to the mid-1950s 79
Military Theory 89
From the Mid-1950s to the Beginning
of the 1970s 110
Development of Forces 131
Submarines
Surface Ships
Naval Aviation
Shore Defense Forces and Naval
Infantry
Science and Armament
Party Control and Personnel Policy 200
Forward Deployment 224
Medite rranean
Indian Ocean
aval Exercises
Conclusions 25S

iii
II . MERCHANT MARINE • 231
t

History of Development, Plans and their

Implementation 231
The Need for the Merchant Marine 304
Shipping Policy 309
Fleet Composition 320
Organization and Management of t.he
Soviet Merchant Marine 326
Personnel Policy, Educational and
Research Institutes 335
Shore Facilities 347
Containerization 358
\/ Some Economic Aspects of the Soviet
Merchant Marine 364
1/ Conclusions 372

VOLUME II.

Ill . SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY 3S0

General Development and Yards 330

Research and Development 392
Shipbuilding Methods Employed 393
Propulsion Systems and Their
Development 404
Diesels
Steam Turbine Propulsion Systems
Gas Turbines
Nuclear
/
/ Automation of Propulsion Systems
Soviet Hydrofoils
Air-Cushioned Vehicles (ACV>
Hovercraft)
Some Factors Determining Designs and
Construction 434
Conclusions . . . . 449

IV
IV. OCEANOGRAPHY '
451
t

The Development and Major Work of Soviet

Oceanography 457
Oceanographic Vessels 472
Underwater Research and Equipment 479
Research and Plans for the Exploitation
of Minerals in the Sea , 491
The Organizations 498
Conclusions 502

V. FISHING INDUSTRY 504

General Developments 504

Research and Development 522
Fishing by Kolkhozes and in Inland
Waters 534
Organization 545
Problems, Trends of Development, Plans . 551
Conclusions 561

VI . RIVER TRANSPORT 565

Organization and Control Structure 5S9

Natural Waterways and their
Navigability 573
Soviet Canals and the Artificial
Waterways 575
Mixed, River - Sea, Transportation 578
New Ships of the Soviet River
Transport 582
Plans for the Future 584
Military Role 587

VII . NORTHERN SEA ROUTE 589

Icebreakers 595
Legal Aspects of Soviet Arctica and
Northern Sea Route 603

v
 .

EPILOGUE '.

(
612

APPENDIXES . . 633

I Warsaw Pact Countries 633

II. Soviet Foreign Trade, Economic and

Military Aid ! 654

III. Some Aspects of the Maritime Law,

International Cooperation 682

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY " 702

GLOSSARY . 707

vi
 LIST OF TABLES
~~
~\

Page

Amphibious Landings During World V/ar II *.

177

Statistical Table of Soviet Ships 298

Soviet Foreign Trade Shipments 307

Economic Performance of Various Soviet Tankers 436

Major Characteristics of Soviet Tankers 433

Soviet Icebreakers 597

Navies of East European Countries, Members of WTO 652

Postwar Soviet Foreign Trade 659

Soviet Trade with Developed Countries 660

Soviet Foreign Trade , 1965 - 1970 664

VII
 ~

INTRODUCTION ~^-

Many scientists have pointed out that a more appropriate

name for our planet would be the Ocean and not the Earth, for close

to three quarters of the planet surface is covered by the water.

Historically, a maritime or sea power has played an important

role in international development. Quite often naval power has

— \

been associated with such terms as sea power or maritime power,

but such important elements as merchant marine, fishing fleet,

oceanography, shipbuilding, and associated research and development

have been overlooked. Recently, the traditional importance of the

sea and its use for communication and application of power or

power-in-being has been elevated, and it is rapidly becoming an

important source of minerals and food. Post World-War-II changes

in the world's socio-p'olitical structure, particularly the

formation of opposing blocs of nations and the emergence of

numerous newly independent states, have provided conditions for

the more intensified use of the sea for development, competition,

and containment. A pattern of world trade creating a certain

interdependency of nations is substantiated by transport, of which

the merchant marine is a most vital part,, and thus, of great

 importance to national economies. Internationally, there is

a tendency to solidify maritime nations in a regulated approach

i.e. peacetime mutual protection in the sphere of economics and

often
in military alliances. Continents which have oceans between

them are no longer divided by their expanse but rather are

joined
by them.

In the post World-Y/ar-II period, the originally

undisputed
and unquestioned capability of the US to control the sea
has been
gradually contested, particularly in the decade of the
1930' s,
and the main challenge has come from the nation whose
maritime
power had not been felt for a long time, and which
the West was

accustomed to treat as a classical land power, the Soviet

Union.
Growing Soviet political, economic, and military
involvements
around the world have recently been practically without
exception
associated with maritime power. The analysis of this power, its

development, internally and in the relation to other

states, and
the nature of the challenge is of obvious
importance.

Not long time ago, one US Air Force general, arguing for

a greater budget appropriation for his service vs. the US Navy

requirements, expressed what well might have been a widespread

feeling: "To maintain a five-ocean navy to fight a no-ocean

opponent is a foolish waste of time, men, and resources".

Today,
no one would seriously support such a
statement. But presently,
-t

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the mightiest military power ever assembled can hardly be put

to the test, particularly in the form of open warfare. Economic

competition, on the contrary, is less constrained, and, being one

of the constants of foreign policy, can, under certain circumstances,

assume a form of economic warfare with maritime power being an

essential element of its implementation. •

The very size of the Soviet Union makes certain of its

regions dependent on maritime transportation. It is transportation

in general, more precisely poorly developed transportation, which

has kept the rich resources of Siberia, the Far East, and the

North, from being utilized in the Soviet economic development

up to a recent time, and still handicaps the development of an

integrated economy. But it seems that the more unfavorable is the

geographic ___location of a country with respect to the sea, the

more mobile and numerous must be her maritime power in order to

satisfy internal needs, and to be able to make a bid equal to

that of a possible opponent.

Y/ith due recognition for the prevailing interest in the

present and the future, the past, however, cannot be ignored,

for there lies the foundation of the development. For this reason,

the development of the Soviet maritime power, the analysis of

which is undertaken in this dissertation, is examined in a

historical context. All significant facets of Soviet maritime

•?
 power, naval, merchant marine, fishing fleet, river transport,

shipbuilding, oceanography, and the mastering

of world's unique
Northern Sea Route, will be examined in
connection with the
political, economic, and military aspects
of the country's recent
historical process. In addition, there will be a
brief analysis
of the post-war maritime development in Eastern 'Europe,
as well
as of Soviet Union foreign trade, economic and
military aid/
and of certain aspects of maritime
law. Combining the historical
method with functional analysis, it
is still necessary to make
.

considerable use of statistics and limited

technological data
and considerations, for they appear to provide a better
guarantee
against arbitrary conclusions.
Scenarios have become a fashionable
approach in analyzing complex
socio-economic and military-political
problems. But too frequently constructed on
the basis of liberally
exercised assumptions, and often
without consideration of essential
factors, many scenarios proved
nothing and confused greatly.
Dealing with a long neglected and
still weakly researched subject,
and forced to rely on scarce
sources, which obviously do not
provide complete information, it
was found advisable not to employ
the scenario approach at all.

In the process of collecting

research material for this
dissertation, the main emphasis was
on the Soviet sources.
Western sources were used when the
desired information was not to

/ .
be found in Soviet sources, as frequently occurred in matters

associated with the Soviet Navy. While tradition has played an

important role in the development of all aspects of Soviet maritime

power, it has been particularly important for the Navy. For

this reason, a brief outline will be provided of Russia's naval

development in the continuum of history. The leaders of the Soviet

maritime establishment have been using Russian maritime tradition

not only for indoctrination of personnel, but to justify Soviet

maritime expansion. The West is being frequently attacked for

portraying the Soviet Union as a land power. Commander-in-Chief

of the Soviet Navy, Fleet Admiral Gorshkov has labeled that

alleged practice as a "diversion", a subversive act of psychological

warfare emphasizing that the Soviet Union did not build its maritime

power, "from scratch".

The importance of the ocean to mankind in the future will

certainly grow. Many scientists predict that a great age of the

oceans is upon us. New factors of a political, military, economic

and scientific-technological nature unknown or unforeseen by the

classical figures of sea power are now operating. Regardless of

wbich school or theory of international relations one subscribes,

the combined effect of these factors exercises a profound influence

upon international relations. The share of Soviet maritime power

in this influence appears to warrant examination.-

 *
CHAPTER I '

NAVY

Heritage '-.

The naval tradition which has been vigorously

portrayed in pre-Revolutionary Russia and in the Soviet

Union became part of the Russian heritage. The extensive

Russian naval histj^qy which dates back more than a

thousand years was initiated with a drive to have access

to the open sea. From the 9th to the 11th centuries

inclusive, the Kiev princes initiated nine sizeable sea

expeditions in the Black and Caspian Seas in order to gain

access to the trade routes. The largest was the expedition

of 907 led by Prince 'Oleg, in which an 80,000-man army

supported by 2,000 boats participated. Oleg's expedition

culminated in the capture of Constantinople, where the

decisive role was played' by a well prepared and skillfully

executed landing.

In the Baltic Sea successful expeditions against

Sweden were initiated by Novgorod (1188 and 1191) . A

pence treaty with Sweden concluded in 1201 guaranteed

Novgorod secure trade routes in the Baltic Sea. >

The disintegration of the state of Kiev in the

12th century, the advance of the Mongols, continuous wars

with German Orders and Sweden forced the Russians to

retreat from the sea. In the 14th century all 'trade

routes in Black, Caspian, and Baltic Seas were lost,

although Novgorod continued to navigate the White Sea.

In the 16th century, particularly during the reign of

Ivan IV (the Terrible) , the drive to gain access to the

sea became one of the major goals of Russian foreign

policy. V/hile Ivan IV opened access to the Caspian Sea

but failed to in the Baltic, Peter the Great succeeded.

As a result of prolonged wars with Sweden "the

window into Europe" was opened at the beginning of the

18th century and Russia established a stronghold in the

Sea of Azov where the first flotilla of ships was organized

in 1696, the year considered to be the year the regular

Russian Navy was born with Peter the Great as its creator.

The first major battle was won by the young Russian regular

navy in 1714 at Gangut against the Swedish Navy.

During the reign of Peter the Great not only

extensive ship construction but the construction of fleet

/
 .

bases as well was initiated. In 1700 the Admiralty was

organized, and in 1701 a nautical school, the forerunner

of the Naval Academy, was established in Moscow. The

development of the Russian Navy after the death of Peter

the Great in 1725 depended to a large degree upon each

ruler's attitude toward it. Its fortunes fluctuated, but

in general it was an important element of Russian military

power up to the Revolution.

During the reign of the Catherine (1762-1796) the

Russian Navy was active in the Mediterranean and Black

Seas. The Baltic squadron dispatched to the Mediterranean

in 1769 won a victory over the Turkish fleet at Tchesme

(June 24-26, 1770) which, together with the Battle of Gangut

and Sinope (1853) , has been viewed as a most important

event in the history of the Tsarist Navy. A number of

victories were achieved by Admiral F. F. Ushakov in the

war with Turkey (1790, battle of Tendra) and in joint

actions with Turkey and the allies against Napoleon's

fleet in the Mediterranean (Battle of Corfu, February 1799)

Admiral D. N. Sinyavin also won an important victory at

Afon in June 1807.

The covenant of 1780, known as armed neutrality,

was a Russian attempt jointly with other European nations to

8
restrict the British application of sea power and to protect

neutral merchant shipping.

The beginning of the 19th century was marked by a

number of scientific and commercial cruises, including

Krusenstern cruise to circumnavigate the globe. In 1814

the Russians made an appearance on Kauai Island, Hawaii.

A ship belonging to the Russian-American fur company which

had control of the Alaskan fur trade and a base in

California was wrecked off the coast. During the following

year another ship was dispatched to the island to recover

the cargo and possibly set up a trading post. Outposts

were set up in Hanalei and Waimea. Kauai's king, Kaumaulii,

agreed in writing to place himself and his kingdom under the

control of the Tsar and to permit the Russians to establish

factories and plantations and export sandalwood. The

documents also gave half of Oahu, then ruled by Kamehameha I,

to the Tsar. The expedition was recalled in 1819 because

of political complications with England.

The success of the Battle of Navarino Bay in 1827

in which a Russian squadron participated on the side of

allies in the war against Turkey for Greek independence

1
Neighbor Island News, April 12-8 and 16-12,
1971, Hawaii.

3
was not followed up, due to British opposition to the

Russian plan to attack Constantinople.

The first half of 19th century witnessed the '

beginning of the gradual replacement of sailing ships by

steamships, a process which in Russia was delayed by

technological backwardness. The first armed steamship,

Izhora, was built in 1826 and the first steam frigate, the

1,340-ton Bogatyr 1
,' armed with 28 guns, in 1836. The

first screw driven steam ship was built in 1848 but

construction of ships of the line started just prior to the

Crimean War, for which Russia was poorly prepared. Mines

were also developed during the first half of the 19th

century, and Russia v/as well advanced in this development.

The year 1853 produced two important events: (a) The

first battle between Russian and Turkish steamships on

November 5, as a result of which the Turkish ship was

captured. The Russian ship v/as under command of Lieutenant

Butakov, a future admiral and author of the first tactics

for the steam fleet. (b) The Battle of Sinope of November

18th, during which eight Russian ships under Admiral

Nakhimov attacked a Turkish squadron of 16 ships and, using

explosive shells, destroyed all but one Turkish ship.

The Crimean War (1854-1855) did not produce naval

10
battles, for vastly superior British- French fleet was in

complete control of the Black Sea. The defense of

Sevastopol' for eleven months by the Russians has been *

glorified since, with the Navy given the major part of

the glory. In the Baltic the allied fleet made an attempt

to attack Kronstadt, but the strength of the defenses and

the first use of mines (contact and controlled) by Russians

changed the plan. Defeated in the Crimean War, Russia

was denied sizeable naval forces in the Black Sea under

the 1856 Paris Treaty. The main goal of the war - to

prevent Russia from free access to the Mediterranean

through the Straits - was achieved by the allies. 2

Soon after the Crimean War Russia began an intensive

modernization of its navy. Several types of armored

ships - ironclad, armored steamers, large gunboats - were

built. Russian preoccupation with mine-torpedo warfare

resulted in the const-ruction of the first minelayers and

steam boats carrying torpedos. The intensive shipbuilding

2
The above historical period of the Russian Navy
is described in (1) Istoriya Voyenno - Morskogo Iskusstua
(History of Naval Art) Textbook for higher naval schools
.

edited by Admiral S. E. Zakharov, Moscow, Boyenizdat, 1969

pp. 20-69. (2) David Woodward, The Russian at Sea (New
York, Praeger, 1965) pp. 40-69, 95.

11
program resulted in a rather strong naval forces toward
3
the mid-1860' s.
>

In 1863 Russia dispatched two squadrons of its ^liips

to the U.S. The motives behind the move remain controversial,

but the Russian version, recently reinforced by the Soviet

Press, goes as follows: "The Lincoln Administration does

not feel too strong: The Southern Confederates are

attacking and Great Britain and France are about to give

them direct support by intervening in the war with their

navies. On 24 September a Russian naval squadron, under the

command of Vice Admiral S. S. Lesovskiy, entered the mouth

of the Hudson in New York .... Then Secretary of War

of the United States Wallace, exclaimed: 'God bless the

Russians!' New York authorities expressed the same

sentiment in a different way: a lavish reception, a "soir'ee

Russe", was held for the officers of the squadron.

Why did a Russian squadron come to New York? Vice

Admiral S. S. Lesovskiy had his orders: in event of

recognition of the Southern Confederates by Great Britain

or some other European power, place a squadron at the

disposal of the government of President Lincoln. In U. S.

History of Naval Art, pp. 71-72.

12
 ,

diplomatic documents of the period there is the following

message of the U. S. envoy from St. Petersburg: . . . it

cannot be doubted that knowledge of this fact by the French

and British Governments was the bridle which kept them on

a leash." 4

Modern American writings, while recognizing the

existence of speculation in 1863 that the visit of the

Russian squadron was the expression of support for the

North, emphasize that the real motive was the Russian

desire to save the ships in case of war between the European

powers and to employ them against the enemy from the American
5
ports, thus downgrading the visit to a sort of deception.

During the 1877-1878 war with Turkey, the Russian

Black Sea Fleet was still weak in contrast to a strong

4
Izvestiya 7 October, No. 236, and 18 October, No.
247, 1969. The article by Sagetelyan, " In Neutral Waters ",
described the cruise of Soviet squadron in Atlantic and its
visit to Cuba. Unfriendly remarks of the American press
to the presence of Soviet ships in proximity of the U. S.
were given in contrast to the described visit of Russian
squadron in 1863.

William E. Nagengast, "The Visit of the Russian Fleet

to the United States: Were Americans Deceived?" The
Russian Review, January 1949 pp. 14-19.

'
/ 13
Turkish fleet, which had many new heavy armored ships.

The round ironclads designed by Admiral Popov (called

Popovki) , although well armed and protected by heavy armor,

could not be used at sea owing to their poor seaworthiness,

and hence were employed only for off-shore (coastal)

defense. Mines were widely used for defense in the Danube

and in the Black Sea. On the initiative of Lieutenant

S. 0. Makarov a faster steamer carrying four torpedo boats

was used for torpedo attacks. The war ended victoriously

for Russia, but. the Berlin Treaty of 1878, while removing —

restrictions on Russia's Black Sea Fleet, did not change
6
the Straits situation.

During the last two decades of the 19th century

the Russian Navy was reinforced with a considerable number

of newly built ships including battle ships and cruisers.

The theoretical search for modern naval tactics and employment

of naval forces produced a number of major works by the

Russians, particularly the works of Admiral Butakov, ( New

Basis of Steam Navy Tactics 1874 ) , and of Admiral

Makarov ( Discourses on problems of naval tactics 1896) .

At the end of the 19th Century more than 200 years

6
History of Naval Art, pp. 75-77.

/ " 14
of a struggle to have direct access to the Mediterranean

Sea with the desire to control the Turkish Straits ended

i

in vain for Russia, mainly because of the opposition of

the European States, particularly England. While militarily,

all wars with Turkey were won by Russia, the desirable

outcome was not achieved by diplomacy, although* the degree

of access as defined in various treaties fluctuated.

The treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) opened the Straits^

to Russian commercial shipping. During 1807, at the

Tilsit meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I, an

attempt was made to determine the boundaries between the

spheres of influence of the East and the West. The Tsar

claimed Constantinople, but Napoleon exclaimed, "no, never

Constantinople, that would mean world dominance!'

The 1329 Treaty of Adrianople opened the Straits

to commercial ships of all nations. In 1833 the Sultan

was forced by circumstances (advance of rebellious Viceroy

of Egypt) to accept a Russian offer of assistance consisting

of a Russian warship at anchor in the Bosphorus supported

7
Cited by Dr. Egmont Zechlin in awe 11 docuinented
lecture delivered at the meeting of the Joachim Jungius
Society for Science, Hamburg, 31 October and 1 November
1963, Goettingen, Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1964, p. 1.

15
 ,

by a 13,000-man army ashore. Under pressure from Western

powers, however, the Russians moved off, but only after

»

securing their position by a new Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty,*

guaranteeing Russians the right of passage of their

warships through the S.traits and thus into the Mediterranean

The French and the British protested the treaty, supporting

the protest with a naval demonstration at the Dardanelles.

The London meeting of the Concert of Europe resulted in

a different rule (the Covenant of the Straits of 1841)

which prohibited naval ships from transiting the Straits

in peacetime. This rule was reaffirmed in the Treaty of

Paris (1856) and of Berlin (1S78) , and remained in force

until World War I. While offering Russia a safeguard

against an attack from the Mediterrannean, it made her

"prisoner" of the Black Sea, which proved to be true during

the war with Japan, 1904-1905. As a member of the Entente,

Russia continued her 'effort to gain control of the Straits.

According to the 1915 London agreement, the Allies agreed

that the Straits should go to Russia after World War I.

The agreement was nullified by the October Revolution of

1917 and the Soviet government's repudiation of all Tsarist

s Ibid., 11.
p.

IG
treaties. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne demilitarized

the Straits and provided for free passage for warships of

all nations with some limitations imposed on the total

strength of the transiting naval force.

The Montreaux Convention of 1936, which is in force

at the present time, permitted Turkey to fortify the

Straits again and made passage of Black Sea power warships

practically unrestricted, though limiting passage of

non-Black Sea power naval forces to size and cruising

time. The last time the Turkish Straits became an international

issue was in the middle of the 1940's, when the Soviet

Union tried unsuccessfully during the Yalta and Potsdam

Conferences to obtain support of the Western allies for

control over the Straits, and/or to obtain rights for a

naval base in the Mediterranean. The Soviet Union tried

to apply direct pressure against Turkey in 1946, which met

United States opposition and contributed to Turkey's

entering NATO. In May 1953 the Soviet Government formally

withdrew the demand. 9

At the beginning of the 20th century growing Russian

influence in the Far East (Manchuria and Korea) and her

9
Ibid. , pp . 45-56

17
possession of Port Arthur (since 1S98) worsened Russo-

Japanese relations. When war broke out with the Japanese

attack of Port Arthur (February 1904) , Russia had considerable

overall numerical superiority in ships but qualitatively

many of the Japanese ships were better. But the major

factor was geography, for most of the Russian ships were

in the Baltic, and the Black Sea Fleet was useless.

In the strategic sense, the problem of war was

centered in the control of the sea, and the Japanese Navy

which was superior to the combined strengths of the Port

Arthur and Vladivostok squadrons, exercised that control.

In order to reverse it, the Russian government decided to

send to Port Arthur the Second Pacific Squadron, which was

formed in the Baltic. The squadron consisted of a mixture

of new as well as old ships and it had to make an

unprecedented 18,000-mile cruise. There were no bases on

the way, and replenishments, repairs, and combat training

presented the squadron with enormous difficulties. The

Second Pacific Squadron left Libau in October 1904 and

reached Madagascar, in December where it spent almost

three months waiting for the formation of the Third

Pacific Squadron, which was being organized in the Baltic

from old, slow and mainly obsolete ships. The Third Pacific

18
Squadron left Libau in February 1905 and in May joined

the Second Pacific Squadron at Cam Rahn Bay (French

Indochina) . With the fall of Port Arthur, Commander of

Joint Squadron Admiral Rozhestvenski decided to break

through to Vladivostok. In the middle of May the joint

squadron reached Korean Straits, where it was ciet by the

Japanese Fleet. In the Battle of Tsushima (14-15 May 1905)

the Russian Squadron was destroyed. Of the 37 Russian ships

only one cruiser and two destroyers reached Vladivostok.

Five ships escaped and were interned in foreign ports,

and five other ships carrying the wounded Rozhestvenski

and the Commander of the Third Squadron, Admiral Nebogatov,

were captured by Japanese. The defeat was disastorous

and among other things demonstrated Russia's backwardness

and unpreparedness for the war, the lack of talented

leadership at the top, mistakes of the command, the low

level of readiness, and the poor tactical training of the

Russian Navy. In spite of numerous examples of valor on

the part of the Russian crews, the extensive use of mine

warfare, attempts to employ submarines, and delayed and

adventuristic decision to reinforce the Pacific naval

forces with the Baltic squadron, the main objective to gain

command of the sea was not achieved, and the war was lost

19
 10
by Russia.

The war clearly demonstrated the importance of the

navy. If Russia would control the sea or at least have '

superior naval forces, Japanese would have little chance

for success in Manchuria. The defeat was particularly

bitter to the Russian navy for it was the first large

scale battle it lost in its 200-year history.

While at the turn of the century the Russian Navy

ranked third after Great Britain and France, the war

reduced Russia to the sixth place as a naval power. The

defeat did not discourage the Russians, for soon a new

program of navy modernization and build-up was launched.

The semi-official naval officers "League for Fleet

Renovation" demanded the construction of the most powerful

ships. The naval build-up among leading maritime nations

of the time clearly demonstrated the increased role of sea power,

and hence, helped to -ally various elements of Russian society

favoring shipbuilding porgrams in spite of strong opposition

in the newly created Duma.

In 1906 the naval general staff was organized and

in addition to other functions charged with developing the

10
History of Naval Art , pp. 92-93.

"
I 20
 ,

shipbuilding program for fleet restoration. The staff

worked out four variants of the program of which the last

was approved and accepted in 1908 as a minor program. In

1910 a new major shipbuilding program was worked out under

which instead of the 1,125 million rubles required for the

program, only 787 million v/ere allocated. The. government

appropriation for shipbuilding and reconstruction of

shipbuilding yards grew steadily, however, prior to

World War I; in 1908 it was 36 million rubles, in 1908,

35 million rubles, in 1910, 50 million rubles, and in 1912",

114 million rubles. But those amounts v/ere too late

and too little, and, when war started, the Russian navy

had a preponderance of old ships, repeating to a large

degree the sad experience of the war in 1904-1905, and not

a single ship visualized by the large shipbuilding program

A 12
was ready.

In 1910 the naval general staff made an attempt to

introduce a Navy Bill visualizing the construction of a

very powerful navy. Accordingly, in the Baltic Sea alone,

"^Shipbuilding No. 7, 1966, pp. 71-72.

12
"Floty v pervoy mirovoy Voyne" ("Navies in the
First World War"), v. I - Actions of the Russian Navy,
Military Publishing House, Ministry of Defense of the USSR,
Moscow, 1964.

21
24 battle ships, 12 battle cruisers, 24 light cruisers,

103 destroyers, and 36 submarines were visualized by the,

end of the 1920 's. The execution of such a program would

require tremendous appropriations which Russia could not

afford and, instead, the socalled major shipbuilding

13
program of 1911-1915 was approved. •

The backwardness of her industry forced Russia

to place many orders for ships, and particularly ship

machinery, in foreign countries, including Germany. In

1909 began the build-up of a modern Russian navy; four

dreadnought type battleships were laid down in Petersburg

for the Baltic and two years later, three more battleships
14
for the Black Sea were laid down in the Nikolaev shipyards.

The increased role of torpedo armament was reflected

in the construction of the Novik-class destroyer, the best

15
ship of its type in its time. The first detachment of

TO
M. A. Petrov, "Podgotovka Rossi i k pervoy mirovoy
voyne ha more " (Preparation of Russia for First V/orld War
at Sea) Voenizdat, 1926, pp. 98-100, 133-148.

l4 Sudostreniye No.
10, 1971, pp. 60-62.

*•*
In 1911 Novik had most powerful torpedo armament
(15 tubes) and during a test in 1913 set a world speed
,

record of 37.3 knots. The shin, modernized in 192S, served

the Soviet Navy until 1941 when she took a torpedo intended
for the cruiser Kirov and was blown up. Military Historical
.

Journal No. 12, 1970, pp. 109-110.

22
torpedo boats was formed in the Baltic and was composed of

several Nixon patrol boats. The prototype was bought in the

U. S. in 1906 and produced in one of the plants in southern

. 16
Russia.

The Russian navy built the world's first minelayers and

minesweepers (Zapal class) during 1910-1912, as was the world's

first submarine minelayer, Krab. Under the major program of

1912 four Ismail-class or Borodino-class battle cruisers,

32,000-ton capital ships combining the speed of the cruiser and

ft

armament and protection of battleships, were laid down. This

ambitious program had no paralled in any other navy. For

example, it visualized the construction of most powerful

battleships, "monsters, larger and more powerful than anything

„ 17
sought theretofore".
'>->

The Baltic and Black Sea battleships were completed

Sudostroeniye No. 4, 1967, pp. 75-76.

17
David Y/oodward, pp. 161-162, described the ships as
follows: "They were to have an armament of twelve sixteen
inch guns, equal in power to the armament of nine eighteeen
inch guns, which was the main armament of the biggest and most
powerful battleships ever built, the Japanese giants Yamato
and Musashi which, were laid down twenty years after the
Russian ships were designed."

.*

23
 during the war, but the majority of the planned ships
were
either never completed or even started. The prolonged
construction of ships was explained by a shortage
of material,
a weak industrial base and great dependence
upon foreign
deliveries some of which were obviously stopped
as soon as
hostilities commenced and some purposely
delayed prior to the
18
war.

The Russian Navy started experiments

with what might
be termed- shipboard aviation at the turn of the
century.
Experiments with ballons were followed by
man-carrying kite
systems, one of which was installed
in a torpedo gunboat in the

Baltic in 1903. A number of seaplane models were

designed by
D. P. Grigorovich, and the M-5 model was built
in considerable
quantity. A design of aircraft carrying ship
was proposed
in 1909 and 1913, both with catapults and
speeds up to 30 knots.
The lack of shipbuilding capacities
and delays in
construction of warships of other types
precluded the Tsarist
Navy's utilization of such concepts.
The ships assigned to carry
Planes were in the majority obsolete
and ill-fitted for the job
" a blunder typical of the Tsarist Navy
of the period, in which

18
hlS WaS thG ° ase With machi °ery
for a battle cruiser,
two li
Sm>ri~in~?r
,f
iSerS a
f'
'
V°
Str ° yerS Winery
ordered in Germany.
S Y ' a soraeivhat Similar picture, though on a smaller
Belli t*
-cau., was repeated at the beginning oi
World War II.

24
 .

technical genius was often thwarted by

criminally incompetent
19
administration"
i
l

Nonetheless, just prior to World War

I, the Russian Navy
had aviation schools on the Baltic and .^~
on the Black Sea.
Naval aviation was widely used during
the war, particularly in
20
the Black Sea. When World War I started, the
Russian Navy
consisted of nine battleships "
(pre-dreadnought type) ,
14
cruisers, 62 destroyers, and 15
submarines. In addition there
were under construction 7 battleships
(dreadnought type) , 4
battle cruisers, 6 cruisers, 36 destroyers, and 18 21
submarines.
Theoretically facing a vastly superior
German Navy in the
Baltic, the Russian fleet received
the defensive task of
holding the eastern part of the
Gulf of Finland and assuring
the defense of the Petrograd from the sea hy fighting
a
mine-artillery position prepared in
advance in the narrowest
part of the Gulf. m reality, however, the German navy was
tied

19it
Early Russian Shipboard Aviation",
U.S. Naval Institute
Proceedings, April 1971, pp. 55-61.

20
1917 the Russian seaplane carrier
nnm .
J? >
force was
numerically the second largest in the world.
U.S. Naval
inst itute Proceedings April
1971, p 63
.
~~
. .
~
21
History of Naval Art , p. 104.

25
up by a vastly superior British navy and could spare little

to fight Russian navy in the Baltic. The main task on the

Black Sea was said to maintain control of the sea. There was

not a more detailed plan for the war. But in the Black Sea;

the Russian navy was a superior force and was more active
22
during the war.

During the course of war, mine warfare was extensively

used in the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the North Sea. Mines

used by the Russian Navy were quite advanced and effective

for the time. In addition to employment of mines in the central

mine-artillery position in the Gulf of Finland, they were used

in the southern part of the Baltic Sea, in the blockade of the

Bosphorus in the Black Sea and for the protection of sea

communications in the north, resulting in a number of losses

to the German Navy, including the damaging of the Goeben and

the Breslau.

The Russian Black Sea Fleet was also active against

lines of communication, particularly against the Zonguldak

coal traffic. Both the Black Sea and the Baltic fleets were

also active in supporting the army's maritime flanks. Starting

in 1015, the Germans became more active against shipping in the

99
Ibid. , p. 106

2G
 north, and the Northern Flotilla was organized
to protect it

in July 1916. Ship traffic in the north was

quite extensive;
in two years, 1915-1917, 1,800 ships delivered 5 ,475,000 tons
'

of various cargo and 1,780 ships departed Arkhangelsk

and
Murmansk carrying 4,463,000 tons. In addition, 36,000 Russian

expeditionary corps troops -were delivered

from 'Arkhangelsk to
23
France.

The combat activity of the Russian Navy

continued even -

after the first revolution, in February 1917, in spite of the

fact that the command of the navy was gradually disintegrating

and was being replaced by committees consisting of
elected
commissars. The 1917 October Revolution put an end
to the
Russian participation in the World War
I.

By way of summary it can be stated

that at the time of
the 1917 October Revolution, Russia had a well
established
naval tradition and a sizeable
navy, which although not

distinguishing itself' in a major sea battle,

managed nonetheless
to fulfill the basic tasks assigned to
it. The first world war
interrupted the planned development
of the Russian navy. More
than 200 years of Russian naval history up to the time of the
Revolution had to its credit a number
of considerable

23
History of Naval Art, p. 128.

27
 achievements as well as disappointing
failures, of which
Tsushima was the major one. The pre-Revolutionary Russian
t

Navy had traditionally combined the

innovativeness and ingenuity
of seme of its officers with the backwardness
of the economy
supporting it and the incompetence
and corruption of the
administration. The established naval
tradition served the
future Soviet navy well, and
represented a powerful base upon
which the navy was restored,
rebuilt, and developed.

From the Revolution to World

Wa r II '
^

During 1905-1906, mutiny and

revolutionary movement ,

infected the Russian Navy, m addition to well known mutiny on

the
battleship Potemkin, there were
mutinies on other ships of
the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. The revolutionary movement
intensified again in 1911 and
1912, when attempts to organize
sailors rebellions were
uncovered in the Baltic and Black
Sea
Fleets. 24

At the time of the February

1917 Revolution, the influence
of various leftist
parties in the Russian Navy was
quite strong.
The period between
February and October 1917 witnessed
the
gradual disintegration of
organized command in the navy and
the

24„ _ ..
Nayda Revolutiona ry Movement in Tsarist
Navy
Academ* *i
academy of I' -
«
Science of USSR, 194S, o. &^~ ''
>

I
/
28
 further growth of leftist influence.
The Communists skillfully
used the confusion created by the
February Revolution and
indecisiveness of other parties
and considerably increased
their
influence and the number of
party organizations under
their"""
control in the Navv At th^
tne +-;™~
*<*.vy. az time of^ u.,
the October 1917
Revolution, a great number of
sailors sided with the Communists.
.Many naval units, particularly
from the Baltic Fleet, actively
participated in the revolution on
the side of Communists.
During the civil war which broke
out soon after the October
1917 Revolution, the Navy was active again.
Although some-
combat actions took place
at sea in the Baltic, the
Black Sea,
and the North Sea, which
have been treated by Soviet historians
as important military contributions
of the Navy, helped to
resist intervention and
thus to protect the Young
Soviet
Republic, the sailors ashore
acting as commissars, commanders,
members of the newly organized secret Police, and
agitators
Played a much more important
role. But the Red forces did
*>t enjoy a monopoly of the sailors'
affection, for some
supported social revolutionaries
and some joined the anarchists,
m general, Communist influence was
considerably stronger in
the Baltic Fleet
then in the Black Sea Fleet. 25

23
 The Council of People's Commissars decree 29 January

1913 signed by Lenin announced the disbanding of the Tsarist

Navy and the creation of new, workers-peasant Red Navy, based

on volunteer service and elected commanders. In addition to

the position of People's Commissar for Naval Affairs, occupied

by sailor-Bolskevik P. E. Dybenko, the position, of Commander

of Naval Forces of the Republic was established in September

1918. Rear Admiral of the Tsarist Navy V. M. Al'fater, was

appointed to be the first commander of the Soviet Navy. In

December 1918, the Naval General Staff was organized.

During the winter of 1917-1918 the majority of the v

Baltic Fleet ships were at Revel (Tallin) and Helsinki. In

February 1918, the Soviet government ordered all ships of

the Baltic Fleet to be transferred to Kronstadt in order to

prevent their capture by the advancing Germans. Initially,

all ships were concentrated in Helsinki, and from there they

were moved in three detachments to Kronstadt during March-April

1918. The event known as "the ice cruise" undertaken under

severe winter conditions with the Gulf of Finland covered

by thick ice, resulted in the arrival at Kronstadt of 236

27
combatant and auxiliary ships of the Baltic Fleet.

26
I-Iistory of Naval Art , p. 142.
27
History of Naval Art, pp. 144-146.

30
 During the summer of imo
1918 somewhat similar
situation in
the Black Sea had a different
outcome
outcome. Th. spring 1918
The advance
of the Germans threatened
to occupy Sevastopol', '
.here
practically the whole Black
Sea Fleet was stationed.
The
Soviet government decided to
transfer the fl
XraQSfer ^
*i ^et
to Novorossiysk.
Because the Bolsheviks
V1 " S ^-pt,,
'
influence in the Black Sea Fleet
.as considerably weaker
than the Baltic Fleet,
the execution of
the order was delayed
until April 30, 1918,
when finally
.est of the ships, including
two new battleships,
sailed for '

Novorossiysk. The Go-mon

Geiman High
tr-,-~u r>
Command, however, demanded
return of fleet to Sevastopol'.

agreed to satisfy the

The Soviet

demand hut secretly ordered

the scuttling
^^ ^^
Ihe

of the fleet. The order again was not executed

immediately, and
the fate ofeach ship was decided
hy a hailot of all the
memhers
o* the crews. As a result, one
battleship, one cruiser,
and 6
destroyers returned to
Sevastopol- and the rest
of the ships
were sunk by their 28
crews.

The civil war was

fought on land, and naval
forces under
the command of
the Soviet Government
were employed exclusively
toassist the ned Army
maritime flank and also,
as was the case
^the^ster^part of the Gulf of .inland,
to protect the

28
Sudostrenive
~ No p. tq^o
19 °8 ^^
gavalj °' pp 62 - QQ ^£jiistorv__of
£t ? p. 1477 ' ' '>

3±
maritime approaches to the main centers. Many specialists

of the former Tsarist Navy were employed, and during 1918-1920

29
7,605 mines were sown in extensive mine warfai*c. *

A number of river flotillas formed and manned by sailors

of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets took an active part in the

combat. At the beginning of 1921, when the civil war was

practically over, the Soviet Navy presented a sorry spectacle.

In the Black and the North retreating White Guards and

intervening foreign powers took away three battleships, 10

'

cruisers, 64 destroyers, 30 submarines, and many auxiliary" ships

and transports. Actually, the fleets in the Black Sea, the,

30
Pacific, and the North ceased to exist. The Baltic Fleet

represented a "gathering of lifeless ships" moored to the docks

31
and manned at only 20-40 % of strength.

Most of the ships were badly in need of repair, but the

Navy's supply of spare parts was exhausted. There was no fuel

and the greater portion of ship repair facilities were damaged,

I

destroyed, or deteriorated. Added to the Navy's desperate.

29 History of Naval Art 166-167.

, pp.
30
Boyevoy put' Sovet skogo voyenno-inorskogo flota (Combat
Path of the Soviet Navy, hereafter referred to as Combat Path) ,

Moscow, Voenizdat, 1967, p. 590.

Ibid., p. 147

/
32
 material condition was the problem of
ideological reliability
and the regime's trust in the Navy.

The sailors, particularly from the

Baltic Fleet, became
"the glory and the pride of the Revolution".
Accustomed to
having their own organizations such as
Baltic-Revvoensovet
(Revolutionary Military Council) and
Tsentrobalt, the sailors,
particularly those in Kronstadt not only
continued to enjoy -

a degree of revolutionary independence

but represented a force
to be reckoned with. The number of Bolsheviks among the

sailors during the civil war was considerably

reduced, for many
of them left the ships to fight ashore, later
to be appointed
to party and government positions throughout
the country.
Measures initiated in 1920 by the Party
to tighten political
control in the Baltic Fleet (which
for all practical purposes
meant Kronstadt) was met with great
criticism by the sailors.
This coincided with the profound
disappointment of the
Petrograd workers, leading to large-scale
disturbances which
were ruthlessly suppressed by
the regime. 32
i

The sailors in Kronstadt proclaimed their

support of 'the
i

Petrograd workers, and in early March

1921 the Kronstadt
mutiny began. It lasted 18 days and was crushed by
a direct

32
Sounders , pp. 89-91.

.
•

;
/

33
 attack over the ice by Red Army units, with the participation

of a few hundred delegates to the Tenth Party Congress which

started its work in March 8th in Moscow. Thus, the revolutionary

activity in the Navy was ended and the "wings" of the "eagles

of the revolution" clipped.

Suppression of Kronstadt mutiny was follqwed by the

purge and the "filtering" of all Navy personnel. These measures,

coupled with the discharge of personnel in the course of

demobilization, reduced the Navy's manpower from 180,000 to

33
39,859 men by the end of 1921.

The Tenth Party Congress resolved "to undertake measures

for the restoration and strengthing of Red Navy" subject to

the "general conditions and material resources of the country".

The Congress also decided "to strengthen the Navy with

political workers, and to return to the Navy all Communist

seamen working in other fields." The decree signed by Lenin

ordered the salvage of repairable ships sunk during the civil

war and the repair of available ships. 34 The intensity of

/
i

the 1922 ship repair program, according to Lenin, had to be

i

defined by "the size of the Navy which was necessary to keep

33 Combat P ath
of the Soviet Navy , pp. 148-149.
34
History of Naval Art, pp. 168-169.

/
3't
 35
for political and economic reasons". During the 1921-1924

period, two battleships, two cruisers, and a number of destroyers

36
and submarines underwent major repair and entered the service.

The first All-Union meeting of Communist seamen to

discuss the problem of restoring the Navy was called in

Moscow in April 1922. While they discussed the nature of the

future navy, participants rejected proposals of two opposing

groups: one headed by a former Tsarist navy specialist demand-

ing construction of "an open sea fleet", e.g. in general a

balanced navy built around super dreadnoughts, for "lack of

money, production capacity, and human resources", and the

socalled "young school", demanding const rua-ti on ox a light

navy, a "mosquito fleet", submarines, and aviation for its

one-sided emphasis. It was stressed that a navy incorporating

all classes of surface ships, submarines, and aviation and

"acting aggressively in cooperation with the Red Army" was

needed for the country's defense. A resolution also

recommended the sale of old ships and the use of the money thus
37
obtained for the speedy restoration of usable ships.

°° The Combat Path p. 148.

,

History of Xaval Art , p. 169.

37The Combat Path,

pp. 149-150.

35
 During 1921-1922 all shore fortifications were taken away

from the navy and subordinated to the army.

The Fifth Congress of Komsomol (Young Communist League)

qo
in 1922, acting on Party orders assumed the role of Navy patron.

In addition to sending thousands of its politically reliable

and hard working activists for Navy service, the Komsomol

conducted an effective pro-navy propaganda campaign and organized

socalled "The Navy Week". As a result in 1922-1924 over

10,000 young Communists joined the Navy and more than a

thousand of them entered the Navy's educational institutions.

A considerable amount of money and goods, including clothes,-

were collected and sent to Navy units and many enterprises,

districts, and cities, became patrons of individual navy units.

Certain measures to train future command personnel, as

officers were called at that time, were undertaken as early as

October 1918, when an eight-month officer training course was

organized. In 1922 a number of preparatory schools (some with

three-year programs) were opened to train future cadets of the

naval school, which at the same year switched over to a four-year

program. In February 1922 the naval academy for the advanced

38
The Komsomol has continued this role of patron of the
Navy from 1922 up to the Present. It sends its "best
representatives" for service in the Navy.

3 ro
-
training of senior naval officers resumed operation. In

addition, a special school to train political officers for the

39 ,
Navy was also organized.
,

In 1922 ship exercises were resumed in the Gulf of

Finland and in October 1923 Baltic and Black Sea naval units

held maneuvers with the participation of Red Army units. In

1924 the number of ships in commission increased considerably,

and in addition to regular exercises the training detachment

of the Baltic Fleet (cruiser Aurora and training ship

Komsomolets) performed a 47-day cruise from Kronstadt to

Arkhangelsk and back with calls at Bergen and Trondheim

(Norway) . In the same year the Soviet ship Vorovskiy was

transferred to the Far East via the Cape of Good Hope. The

ship stopped in Canton where it was visited by Sun Yat-sen.

The appearance of a Soviet ship in China resulted in considerable

40
pro-Soviet propaganda.

In 1925 Soviet 'ships visited Norway, Sweden, Italy, and

Turkey, those visits helping the Soviet government to strengthen

its position in foreign relations. During the same years

extensive minesweeping was conducted, and in 1925 the approaches

o9
.Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1971, pp. 16-19; Combat Path
of the Soviet Navy pp. 153-154.
,

40
Combat Path, pp. 155-157

37
to the Soviet ports were declared to be clear from nines in
41
the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov.

In 1924 the first stage of the Red Navy restoration was

completed. In addition to the Baltic and Black Sea, modest

naval resources, primarily patrol ships, appeared in the

Caspian Sea, the Far East, the Amur River, and the North.

The second stage of the Red Navy development and the final

stage of its restoration started in 1324. The years 1924 and

1925 are known as a period of "military reform" worked out by

Frunze, who replaced Trotsky as chairman of Revvoensovet and

the People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. Approved

by the April 1924 Plenum of the Party Central Committee, the

military reform influenced the organization, personnel policy,

4:
training and hardware development of the Red Navy and Red Army.

Fleets, shore defense systems and naval aviation were

united into the Naval Forces under a single chief. The

military lav/ approved 18 September 1925 established compulsory

military service, and the duration of conscript service in the

Navy was set at four years. Starting in 1925 the gradual

transformation to the one-man command system to replace the

41 Ibid
. , p. 158.
42
Sudostroycniye No. 2, 1970, pp. 52-55.

38
dual commander-commissar system was initiated in the Soviet

Armed Forces. In the Navy the process was particularly slow

43
and exercised with great care, continuing until 1933.

The October 1924 decision of the Council of Labor and

Defense approved a shipbuilding program, authorizing major

repair of a battle ship, cruisers, and destroyers, as well as

completion of construction of ships laid down prior to the

Revolution and found suitable for completion. Thirty-five

million rubles were appropriated for ship restoration in 1925,

44
and 64 million rubles, in 1926. The year 1925 was marked

by more extensive combat training. For the first time, a

squadron of ships headed by the battleship Marat with Frunze

aboard entered the Baltic Sea and sailed to Kiel Bay where it

anchored. During the year, Soviet Navy ships sailed a total

of 260,000 miles, 159,000 in the Baltic Sea, 49,000 in the

45
Black Sea, and 24,000 in the Far East.

43
The number of socalled old specialists, former Tsarist
naval officers, in the Navy was considerable and proportionally
higher than in any other services. On the other hand, Party
members represented only 27% of the naval officers. The special
nature of the service was also taken into consideration. Combat
Path of the Soviet Navy, p. 196.

44
Shipbuilding No. 4, 1971, pp. 45-4S.
45 Combat
Path, p. 160.
 The first Soviet six-year (1926-1932) shipbuilding

program authorizing the construction of 12 submarines, 18

patrol ships, and 36 torpedo boats was approved and successfully

fulfilled.

When the second period of development ended in 1928, the

Soviet Navy in general had recovered from the ordeal of the

Revolution, the civil war, and the Kronstadt mutiny; there

was an established system of organization and command; a

number of documents defining principles of combat training

and combat employment of the ships were produced; the majority

of ships suitable for restoration were repaired and in

commission; the gradual construction of new chips- had begun.

The Soviet Navy had in commission three battleships, five

cruisers, 24 destroyers, 18 submarines, and a considerable number

46
of smaller combatant and auxiliary ships.

Rapid industralization of the nation, initiated in 1928

with the launching of first Five Year Plan, was an important

factor in future naval development.

The construction of first Soviet naval units commenced

In 1927, when the first D-class (Dekabrist) submarines were

laid down in Leningrad. In the Black Sea, the first Soviet

46
History ox Naval Art, p. 169.

no
 .pedo boat, Pervenets, was built in the same year, to be

•allowed by the construction of the G-5 series of torpedo

ts (Tupolev's design) and later the D-3 class. The

struction of escort type ships of the Uragan class (also

47
nown as the "bad weather" class) was initiated in 1923.

During the years of the second Five Year 'Plan, naval

construction not only intensified quantatively but became

:-.oi*e diversified and sophisticated qualitatively. While the

construction of L and Shch classes of submarines initiated

during first Five Year Plan continued, the Soviets started to

build railroad transportable submarines of the M class.

Construction of more sophisticated submarines of the P and

S classes was also started. In 1936 the first X-class

submarine, the largest and most powerful for that time, was

laid down. The development of surface forces was accelerated

concurrently. In 1932, the destroyer leader Leningrad was

laid down, followed by Minsk (Baltic Fleet) , Moskva and

Kharkov (Black Sea) , Baku and Tbilisi (Far East) . During

the same period construction began of a large series of

destroyers (Project - 7 Gnevnyy-class) and of the cruiser

)

47
*'
Sudostroyenie No. 4, 1971, p. 47, Combat Path , p. 165,
and History of Naval Art, p. 170.

41
 '

virov. A considerable number of minesweepers, coastal patrol

48
boats, and torpedo boats were also built.
I

When the second Five Year Plan was completed, the *

Soviet Navy had in commission more than 6 times as many

submarines, twice as many destroyers, 6 times as many aircraft

and 3.5 times as many torpedo boats as in the last year of

49
first Five Year Plan.

The Soviet Pacific Fleet was organized in 1932 and the

,
Northern Flotilla in 1933 (since 1937, the Northern Fleet)
ft

thus establishing the Soviet naval forces in all four major

theaters.

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1937) clearly demonstrated

to the Soviets the need for stronger naval power. They did

their best to provide assistance to the republican government,

but could not convoy their merchant ships delivering the war

material. They also could not produce any convincing show of

naval strength which would restrain the activity of the

i

Franco Navy, patently supported by German and Italian forces;

i

/ I

a few Soviet "merchant ships were sunk or captured. As Admiral

Ibid .
, A short review ox the development of individual
types of ships by the Soviet Union will be presented later.
49
S. Gorshkov in Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1963, pp. 9-18.

"T

42
 ,. G. Kuznetsov noted, "At that time
it became particularly

apparent how important the sea is for

us and how we need
50
a strong navy." i

A separate Commissariat of
shipbuilding was organized
and a new shipbuilding program worked out
toward the end of
1937 was approved in aydB.
193S Whii^
hlle +u -
the program visualized
,ir

the
continued construction of submarines
and destroyers, it placed
heavy emphasis on building
battle ships, heavy and light
cruisers, and minesweepers. 51

V/hile the
events in Spain had definitely
contributed to
the size of the approved
program and speed with which
the *

Soviets began to execute

it, the Soviet awareness
that a larger,
.ore balanced and modern
navy was needed had existed
before.
But the extremely l
imit ed resources and
industrial capacity
had excluded the
initiation of any sizable
shipbuilding

on a
Program. ln 1935 , then Soviet

visit to the Black Sea

industrial ^
Fleet, predicted the
construction
Of larger ships
of "any type" in the

Kphasized "the difficulties

°* large turbines". 52
with
not so remote future, but

in
i n Januarv
^ ^ ^ ^^^
7Q o r Soviet
January 19o6 c „
.

President M. I.
50 v
n
G Kuz hetsov, Nakcnrno fn^ + --.^ r? \
1936, p. 257. ^^^^-A^il^^^^ve^
' *

Voenizdat, , Moscow,

^£*±™yevSyc No. 4, 1971, p. 47.

5?
^akanuno . p. 94

/ •

U
 .

linin, when presenting medals to a group of naval officers,

stated that the "time had come for the Navy to take a greater
53 i

part in the country's defense". Ordzhonikidze also stressed ,

the necessity to count on Soviet production capacity alone;

a statement which requires some qualification. The Soviet

Union had tried hard for years, and not without some success,

to receive foreign assistance to its naval construction. In

1026 there were official contacts between representatives of

54
German and Soviet navies to that end. The Soviets desired

German cooperation in the reconstruction of their navy,

particularly in submarine construction. In spite of German

reluctance, plans for a submarine were purchased. Consequently,

the modified and improved version of the German B-3 submarine

designated Type-S by the Soviets was built in a large series.

Many Soviet ships of the pre-Y. orld Y/ar II period showed many
r

sisns of foreign design (particularly Italian and some French)

One destroyer leader,' Tashkent, was even built in Italy and

blessed by a Catholic priest. Machinery for some propulsion

53
Ibid. , p. 103
54
D. Woodward, p. 202; The visit of a German naval mission
to the Soviet Union led by Admiral Spindle r mentioned in the
book was actually preceded by the March 1926 Berlin meeting
between Germans and a group of high-ranking Soviet naval
officers.

illi
 .

installations, particularly for Pro.jcct-7 destroyers, was

bought in England, but the American government rejected

55
requests for capital ship designs.
'

After the 1939 German-Soviet Treaty was signed, the

Germans were asked for blueprints of a battleship (Sharnhorst

class) and an aircraft carrier (the Graf Zeppelin class)

The request was turned down, but a deal to buy the cruiser
56
Lutzow was concluded. The Soviet spy apparatus was also
57
involved in obtaining the blueprints of new foreign ships.

The knowledge of foreign ship designs and construction

methods had certainly helped the Soviet shipbuilding industry.

Nonetheless, it would be wrong to conclude that the foreign

assistance and/or information was crucial, for the bulk of the

weapon systems and main propulsion and auxiliary machinery had

been Soviet designed and built. The decisive factor determining

the Soviet shipbuilding output and the quality (or lack of it)

of Soviet ships was the industrial capacity (volume output) and

55
D. Woodward , p. 203.
56
Woodward p. 207-211, and S. Breyer, " Guide to the
D. ,

Soviet Navy ", United States Naval Institute, 1970, pp. 21-37.

57
For example, the blueprints for a new Italian
submarine were obtained by master spy Krivitsky. W ashington '

Post, February 13, 1966, "Who Killed Krivitsky?".

45
 .

the precision in production of machinery and

armament systems.
Many quite advanced systems were designed which
could not be
produced for lack of the same production
capacity, materials,
and experience. In 1937 when two Five Year Plans of

industrialization, with the great emphasis on

heavy industry,
were fulfilled, the Soviet Union managed, despite
the great
strain on its economy, to increase naval construction.
The"
decision to develop a "large sea and
ocean navy" and to
start the construction of ships of all
types was made in 1937.
The 1938 shipbuilding program was
prepared in the typical"
Stalinist style manner, i.e. in great
secrecy, without
consultation with the top naval leadership.
Execution of the
program started before it was formally
approved by the
CO
government

Realization of new naval development

program generated

KUZne V '
Nakahune PP- 221-226. Other important
evenrs Jf'thl
events ol f-°
the period were:
>

1} June 1933 " Naval development program

M* 1Q j
iyjJ-1938 approved.
for
\

^tober 193S - After

ars, nf
aiea Pi Khasan (August 1938) clashes with Japan in the
of Lake
,

decision to accelerate the

^^
development of Pacific Fleet was
made. '

Sea Fleet
3>
^ " DeciSion to strengthen the Black
19 ° Ctober 1940 - A decision
^ (
the Soviet t\Government of CC of CPSQ and
to "accelerate construction
naval forces". of light
Combat Path , p. 582-583.

46
a shipbuilding boom. Throe new battleships of the Sovetskiy

Soyuz-class, and a number of Chapaev-class cruisers were

laid down. Construction of improved destroyers (Project-7U)

and of submarines was accelerated. As a result, the total

tonnage of the Soviet Navy surface fleet grew by 108,718 tons

59
and submarines by 50,385 tons from 1939 to June 1941. As

early as 1939 the Soviet Union had more submarines than any

other country in the world. In fact, the Soviet submarine

60
fleet was larger than those of Germany and Japanese combined.

The task to build "the open sea and ocean navy worthy of Soviet

Union as a great sea power" was proclaimed. Molotov's

statement to the First Session of the Supreme Soviet of the

USSR that the "mighty Soviet state should have an open sea

and ocean navy corresponding to its interests and worthy of

its great tasks" became a slogan. Minister of Shipbuilding

Industry, I. Tevosyan, writing in Pravda 5 promised to move

his industry from 6th place in the world in 1939 to first

place in 1942-1943.

The growing importance of the Soviet Navy was formally

59
Combat Path , p. 166.
60
N. G. Kuznetsov, Pravda , 25 July 1939.
61
Prav da, 21 and 23 July 1939

47
 —

recognized by the establishment of an independent People's

Commissariat of the Navy of the USSR in December 1937 and by

the organization of the Main Political Directorate of the

62
Navy and the Main Naval Military Council. One of the

Stalin's top lieutenants, a member of the Politburo and

Secretary of the Central Committee of the Party, A. A. Zhdanov,

who since the middle 1930 's had been responsible for naval

development, was appointed as a member of the Main Naval

, 63
Military Council.

In 1939 the naval of ficer's schools, which had grown in

number, acquired the status of higher educational institutions

and increased their enrollment. While the number of young

officers graduating from naval school increased, the Stalin's

purge of 1937-1938 considerably reduced the number of

experienced senior officers, particularly flag officers.

Former commanders-in-chief of the Soviet Navy Orlov,

t

Murlevich and Viktoro'v, fleet commanders Dushenov, Sivkov,

'I
Kozhanov, and Xireev, and many other senior flag officers were
/
arrested and most of them shot. Only one, Pacific Fleet
.

Commander N. G. Xuznetsov, survived and was appointed as a

62
Combat
-----
Path
-
— , pp. 163-169.

Nakanuae, pp. 221-222.

43
 People's Commissar of the Soviet Navy. Many young inexperienced

officers were promoted to fill the positions of the liquidated

commanders of fleets, flotillas and units. The widespread

belief that nearly all of the former Tsarist naval officers

64
left the Navy and that the majority of them became victims of

the purge is erroneous. Surprising as it may be, the percentage

of former Tsarist officers who fell victim to the purge was"

considerably smaller than that of the purely "Soviet bred"

officers. Moreover, the most senior of them (Admiral G ller

a

and Fleet Admiral Isakov) were promoted and became Chief

of Main Naval Staff and a Deputy People's Commissar of

the ^

Navy respectively. In general, the wide use of the former

Tsarist officers by the Soviet Navy continued up

to the end
of 1947, they were particularly numerous in the scientific,

research, and educational establishments. 65

The problems associated with the development of

Soviet
Naval theory, especially in connection. with the old specialists,

the former Tsarist officers, should be briefly mentioned.

The

'See for example, R. W. Herrick, " Soviet Na

val Strategy",
United States Naval Institute,
1968, p. 45\
65
In 1947, for example, majority of
position of full
professors and heads of the departments
both in the Soviet
naval Academy and Frunze Higher
Naval School were occupied
by former Tsarist officers.

43
 c t

decade of the 1920' s and first half of the 1930' s witnessed

the theoretical struggle between the various points of view

on construction and combat employment of naval forces in the

Soviet Union. In general, the debates were mainly conducted

in the Naval Academy and naval schools, although occasionally

commanders of fleets and even the commander-in-chief

66
participated in them. Basically, the two opposing points

of view were most loudly expressed. One, held mainly by the

socalled old specialists (primarily, but not exclusively, former

Tsarist officers) argued for the balanced navy, an open seas

fleet composed, together with light surface forces and

aviation, of capital ships as the backbone of the Navy. The

proponents of the other view, the "young school", rejected

any crucia.1 role for the capital ships and argued for a

light-forces navy with preference given to submarines. "Down

with the doctrine of the command of the seas" became the main

slogan of the young school, expressed by its loudest proponent,

A. B. Alexandrov. The debates have received comprehensive

analysis in Western as well as Soviet literature.

66
Nakanune , pp. 49-51.

Sec for example, D. Y/oodward, pp. 205-203, and

particularly, Fedotov-Y.'hite in Journal of "che Royal United
Sor v i g s In s t i t u i o n August 1935; R. W. Ilerrick, Soviet Naval
,

Strategy N. G. Kuznetsov, Nakanune

; rjg, 49-55; and S. Gorshkov
,

in ilo rskoy Sbornik No 2, 1967, pp. 9-12.

, .

50
 The debates definitely contributed to the development

of Soviet naval theory, helped Soviet naval officers to learn

more about Western naval theories, and in general reflected ._

the concern of naval circles regarding the condition of Soviet

Navy and the need for its improvement. However, the debates

neither resulted in an officially approved theory nor influenced

any shipbuilding program. The theory of "small war" which was

most widespread and recognized since the mid 1920* s up to beginning

of the 1930's reflected the pragmatic recognition of the -"

weakness of the Soviet Navy at that time. The Soviet ship-

building of p re-World War II period reflected, at most, the

occasional excessive utilization of available industrial

capacities assigned to naval construction by arbitrary decision

of Stalin and his immediate circle. Thus, newly appointed

Commissar of the Navy, N. G. Kuznetsov, learned about the

details of 1937-1938 shipbuilding program from the head of the

shipbuilding industry. His previous knowledge of the program

was limited to "rumors" and "some small details" overheard

f? Q
during the sessions of Main Naval Council. Of course, the

future program was discussed and debated among top leaders of

the Navy, but the opinions expressed were so much at variance

68 ,
Nakanune, p. 221.

51
with one another that, when top naval commanders were invited

to the conference with Stalin in late 1936 or early 1937 and

were asked what kind of navy was needed and what types of ships

should be built, they could not give uniform answers. Reportedly,

Stalin concluded the meeting with this remark that they themselves
69
did not know what they needed.

The war with Finland (November 1939-March 1940) produced

important consequences for the pre-World War II development

of the Soviet Navy. The role of the Baltic Fleet in the Y/ar

was limited to the support of the Red Army and marginal

submarine activity. The war revealed the extremely poor

preparedness of the Red Army and the absolescense of its

armament. The March 1940 Plenum of the Party Central Committee

70
"analyzed the results and lessons" of war with Finland and

decided to speed up the rearmament of the Red Army, particularly

its armored and air branches. Implementation required

industrial capacity and steel, both of which were in short

supply. As a result, the construction of large ships, battle-

/
ships, and cruisers was slowed down in the spring of 1940 and,

69
Ibid . , p. 257.
70 "
Snravo chnik of itsera " (Officers' Reference Book),
Voenizdat, Moscow, 1971, p. 157

52
after drastic revision of the shipbuilding program in October

of 1940, was stopped completely. Only the construction of

71
submarines, destroyers, and smaller surface ships continued.

Simultaneously, the accelerated development of naval bases

and shore defense installations was undertaken.

During the 14 years of pre-World War II shipbuilding

(1927 to June 1941) 433 ships (excluding torpedo and

patrol boats and auxiliaries) were laid down. Of that number,

312 including 206 submarines and 106 surface ships (4 cruisers,

7 destroyer leaders, 30 destroyers, 18 escorts, 38 minesweepers,

1 minelayer, and 8 gun boats) were completed before the wars

started and commissioned. At the beginning: ox the v/ar, 219

ships, including 3 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers, 10 cruisers,

45 destroyers, and 91 submarines were on the building ways.

Twenty-three submarines were completed during the second half

72
of 1941.

The Soviet pre-World War II naval development has been

differently assessed at home and abroad. The main controversy

have been centered around the role of the submarines in over-all

naval construction and the theory of their combat employment.

71
Nakanune , p. 261.

7?•

"Voenno-Isto richc skiy zh urnal - VIZ (Military Historical

Journal) No. 6, 1971, pp. 36-37.

r
3
For example, some claim that the submarines were under evaluated
73
in theory and practice. While others came to the opposite

conclusion, claiming that submarines were the main striking

~~^~
74
force of the Soviet Navy.

It is hard to agree with either conclusion. The May

1928 decision of the Revvoensovet of the USSR, .which discussed

the role of Navy in the military forces of the country, stated

"while developing the Navy it is necessary to combine surface

and submarine fleets, shore and mine position defense, as well

as naval aviation in proportion corresponding to the character

75
of combat operations". The naval development program

incorporated into the second Five Year Plan again emphasized

close cooperation between fleet aviation and shore defense but

some preference was shown to the development of submarines and

"heavy aviation".

In the late 1930 's preference was given to surface

ships, which were viewed as the nucleus of the navy. The

submarines were supposed to act against enemy communications,

and when this task was the main one, the submarines were viewed

73
V oennaya Strategiya (Military Strategy), Third Edition,
1963, p. 168.
74
Combat Path , pp. 216 and 363.
75
VIZ No. 6, 1971, p. 34.

5U
as the main forces. The 1937-1933 program was visualized

as a program for the development of a balanced navy. Not a

single Soviet pre-World War II program neglected submarine

construction, and each one planned and actually built more

submarines than the previous one. Accelerated construction of

surface ships became possible because of new shipbuilding

capacities introduced in the mid and late 1930s, but by no

means did it affect the construction of submarines. The

fluctuation in the number of submarines built (6 during the

first Five Year Plan, 137 during the second Five Year Plan,

and 86 during uncompleted third Five Year Plan) is explained

by the construction in the third period of a larger number

of more sophisticated classes (S, L, M, and K) submarines, which

obviously lengthened the average time for construction of one

unit.

To summarize the pre-World War II development of Soviet

Navy it should be stated that with the exception of a short

i

period of disgrace following the Kronstadt mutiny, considerable

/
attention was devoted and effort spent to restore the available

naval units, to organize naval forces, and to incorporate them

into combined all-arms forces. Considering the exceptionally

1 C\
'

Ibid. , pp. 36-37.

/
weak Soviet economy, the shortage of industrial capacities,

which were overtaxed, the number of ships built and the even

larger number laid down in the pre-war period is remarkably

high. The initiation of the 1937-1938 shipbuilding program

borders on adventurism, for, apart from the demands of the

civilian sector, which had been traditionally neglected, the

program was carried out to the detriment of the other services,

including the army. The minor war with Finland clearly

revealed this weakness, forcing redistribution of industrial

capacities and, hence for all practical purposes termination

of the program as far as capital ships were concerned.

Tremendous expenditures of money, production capacities, and

steel for the program brought little benefit to the Soviet

naval forces.

To a certain degree, the situation in 1941 was the same

as the one in 1914. Moreover, in an operational sense, the

planned naval employment, particularly of the Baltic Fleet and

the Black Sea Fleet, was not much different from that of the
/
pre-Revolutionary period.
.
;

The decisive battle on the mine-t

artillery position held sway in the theory of naval employment.

Moreover, while the Tsarist Navy v/as well prepared for mine

warfare, the Soviet Navy had fallen behind in mine development

5G
and had neither magnetic mines nor the means to sweep them.

The number of minesweepers and anti-submarine ships was

inadequate, and there were no amphibious ships. Neither ships

nor aircraft were equipped with radar, and sonar was in the

embryonic stage of development. Soviet naval gunnery was good,

as was torpedo armament, but the anti-aircraft 'artillery of

ships was weak. Naval aviation had about 2,000 aircraft, but
77
many of them were old. The geography of the Soviet Union has
>

forced it to keep naval forces in four major theaters, with

primary attention as far as strength is concerned given to

the Baltic Fleet and the Pacific Fleet, a logical step, for

the major threat was anticipated from Germany and Japan.

However, what is logical does not always turn out to be

practical, as the war confirmed for the Northern Fleet, which

was the most active, was at the same time the weakest of four

major Soviet fleets, and had the least well developed base

system.

The importance of Northern Fleet apparently was well

understood by the Soviet command and Stalin personally.

N. G. Kuznctsov, pre-war and wartime chief of the Soviet

Navy, in his memoirs described a conversation with Stalin

77 History of Naval
Art, pp. 171-174.

57
during which the latter emphasized the necessity to train the

fleet under much harsher conditions in the North and the whole

year round, and the necessity, with the aid of the largest

Soviet shipbuilding yard, to create large naval forces in

the naval theater which was ice free and had outlets to the

oceans. The admiral concluded that "It is more difficult

to train and educate skillful commanders and sailors than it is

to build ships" is quite revealing and corresponds to the

78
conditions prevailing in the Soviet Navy in the pre-war period.

In general, Stalin's role in the Soviet naval development was

crucial. Admiral Kuznetsov stated, "The Navy was allowed under

an unwritten rule to decide on any important matters only after

consultation with him (i.e. Stalin), although Molotov and

Zhdanov were sometimes authorized to prepare naval decisions

before they were examined by Stalin". And further: "After

my first few meetings with him in 1938, I became convinced that

he had a clear idea Of the importance of the Soviet Navy, which

by then had grown. The Soviet Union had come to occupy a

fitting place in the world political arena. The events in Spain

from 1S36 to 1939, and the need to back up our foreign policy

with the strength of our navy well beyond the nearest seas like

78
The War Years, p. 164.

58
O
the Baltic, which were restricted or almost closed, made us

speed up the working out and implementation of a large-scale

shipbuilding programme. In that period, Stalin took the most

active part in creating a big navy. It was he, as I later

discovered, who had taken the fundamental decision that we

should have a big navy, and it was a correct one. The policy

of building up the Soviet Union's defense might, which was

pursued by the Party and the government, called for readiness

79
to fight not only on land, but also at sea".

The Soviet naval command had been analyzing German

submarine operations in the Atlantic and the Weserubung

(the Weser Exercise, i.e., the capture '_>£" Norway and Denmark)

and was convinced that "the importance of sea battles was not

to be underestimated". Evaluating the Weserubung as "an

adventuristic operation" the Soviets nonetheless that "nobody

could say with conviction that their adventure was not to be re-

peated when Germany attacked the Soviet Union" somewhere in

80
the Baltic or in the North.

In spite of the Navy's subordinated role in the Soviet

^ The
79
War Years, p. 163.

80
Ibid. , p. 124.

/ 53
.1
 general staff strategic plans? 1 the existence
of an independent

People's Commissariat of the Navy permitted the

naval staff to
analyze the situation independently. Soviet naval intelligence
detected the German preparation for the war and
reported its
findings, but as was the case with a number
of other sources,
the warning was apparently ignored by Stalin.
'Nonetheless,
the Soviet Navy, by order of Admiral Xuznetsov, had been
alerted to readiness state No. 2 since June
19, 1941, and
at 2335 H on June 21st was placed in state of
readiness No. 1
(war). As a result, during the first day of
war, June 22,~1941,
and in spite of first German air strikes
on Sevastopol and the
Baltic Fleet naval bases, there were no losses of Soviet

ships. As a matter of fact, Moscow learned

first about the war
from Sevastopol (the main base of
the Soviet Black Sea Fleet). 82

N - G. Kuznetsov, Second Book of Reminisceence

War Years, Oktyabr', No. , the
12, 19681

History o f Great Patriotic War, Vol.

.. II p 12;
yoenizdat, Moscow, 1961; and D.
Woodwlrd, p. 209.

60
 The_Soviot Navy during
World W ar II

The element ox surnHco achieved

of surprise ^^u-
in the German attack
on the Soviet union and the
fast advance of Geraa
n Ar my created
conditions under which the
traditional role of the
Soviet
Navy to support the Red
Ar.y's marltime flanks
gained ^
overling imp ortance. W hile C-ennan navai
activity, centered
mainly around the air
and mi ne warfare
action in the Baitic
and
nearly totally ahsent
in the northern
region and the BU<*
Sea,
inflicted considerable l c;c PQ rt „ +u
losses on the retreating
Soviet fleets
it did not prevent them
from fulfilling thp unng
,„ assigned
their tasks
completely, but did reduce their effectiveness.

TJie_BajLtic Fleet

The Baltic Fleet 6thad ln ~

hart -,-« co ^ssion 2 old
battleships,
2 cruisers, 2 destroyer
y leaders 19
leadeis, iq a +
destroyers, 6 minelayers,
7 escorts, 33 minesweepers,
48 -i
PT boats
> a »H e«
ooats, and .
65 submarines.
The fleet aviation '

had 656 i^i „•

aircraft including
o aiicrait,
172 bombers. a«
83 I

Between Jun e/ 23 and

the
the end rtof +the month, several
-p i

minelaying
operations were conducted
and the
'
th* „ *
antral mine-artillery
-,
!

Position in the
western part of the
Gulf of
OI Finland
Finl as well ,
_________
83
Combat Path T p. 288.

61
as a number of secondary minefields were established. The

fleet bases of Libau, Riga, and Tallin were captured by the

German Army. Considerable resistance was offered by joint

efforts of the Baltic Fleet and Red Army units during the

defense of Tallin and the Moonsund Islands. The Baltic Fleet

bombers based on Sarema Island managed to bomb •Berlin,

carrying out a total of 9 raids in August and the first four

days of September. Although the material losses inflicted

on Berlin were negligible, the raids had some psychological

value, for it was the only time that Soviet aviation succeeded

in bombing Berlin until 1945.

Despite considerable losses inflicted by German mines

and aviation, the evacuation of Tallin saved not only most of

the ships, but most of the personnel as well. The defense

of Hanko Naval Base in Finland lasted 165 days, until

December 1941. The evacuation of the base ordered by Moscow

was conducted under extremely unfavorable conditions and

i

resulted in considerable losses in people and in ships.

Nonetheless, the Leningrad garrison was reinforced by 23,000

men with combat experience and a large amount of

badly needed
hardware and ammunition from Hanko. 85

84
Ibid. , p. 290.
85
.Morskoy Sbomik No. 12, 1971, p. 63

62
 The loss of bases bottled up the Ealtic Fleet in the

eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, mainly in Leningrad and

Kronstadt. The naval guns even from damaged and partially

sunken ships were effectively used in the defense of Leningrad,

but massive German air raids (particularly in September 1941)

inflicted additional losses on the ships. One »out of two old

battleships lost half its guns, but its two remaining turrets

continued to firer

During the winter of 1941-1942 and the spring of 1942

Germans improved the minefields in the western part of the

Gulf of Finland, of which both shores were in German hands, *

thus effectively blocking the surface forces of the Baltic Fleet

in their remaining bases. The only forces of the fleet which

could be used for a campaign at sea were submarines and naval

aviation, and the latter was used mainly against land targets.

This is how Admiral Kuznetsov describes the use of naval

aviation during the f*irst year of war: "Torpedo-carrying ,

planes were, of course, the best means of striking at transports,

/ !

and for years they had been preparing for just that/" But in
J

view of the emergency, the bulk of the fleet air arm had been

sent against the enemy's tank columns moving towards Leningrad.

°VIZ, No. 10, 1970, pp. 72-78.

G3
i
In addition, it was providing cover for the Fighth Army

fighting in Estonia, and bombing German units advancing on

„87 *

Tallin. Later, particularly after 1943, when the situation

at the land front stabilized, fleet aviation was reinforced

and it resumed its activities in the Baltic against German

ships, particularly transports in the route alo'ng Swedish

S3
coasts. The light surface forces of the Baltic Fleet, especially

PT boats, maintained combat activity through all over the war,

in 1942-1943 in, the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland and

starting with the summer of 1944 in its western part as well

as the Baltic Sea.

The activity of the Baltic Fleet submarines was the most

interesting. In spite of the most adverse conditions for

transiting the Gulf of Finland, the Baltic Fleet submarines,

with marginal assistance from naval aviation and the minesweepers

in the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, managed to reach the

open Baltic and inflicted losses on- German shipping in every

year of the war. The number of submarines sorties into the

open sea and their successes varied, the low point being in

1943. But in spite of the considerable losses, the overall

8'
7The War Years , p. 118.
SpGombat
Path , p. 296.

64
 .

combat effectiveness of Soviet Baltic Fleet submarines towards

the end of the war increased steadily. While in 1941 only

seven submarines scored successes, sinking fifteen ships'

including one submarine; in 1942 14 submarines sank 37 ships;

in 1943 only 2 submarines managed to sink 4 ships; in 1944 13

submarines sank 37 ships, and in 1945, 12 submarines sank 35

snips. One Soviet submarine, L-3 , was successful in each

of the 4 years of the campaign, specializing in gunnery attacks,

to which 17 ships, mainly small, fell victim. The greatest

combat successes in torpedo attacks were scored by submarines

Shch-310 and Shch-307, which sank 10 and 9 enemy ships

respectively. Submarines S-13, K-52, and: L-3 were credited

with having torpedoed 6 ships each. The activity of the Soviet

Baltic Fleet submarines forced the Germans to introduce the

convoy system in 1942 and again in the second half of 1944. 90

Submarine S-13 is credited with six sunken ships, among them

two
large ones, Wilhelm Gustloft (25 ,484 tons) sunk January 30, 1945
and Steuben (14,660 tons) sunk February 9, 1945. The loss of

39
Mor skoy Sbornik No. 8, 1967 and No. 11, 1967, pp. 46-52.
These well documented articles presented only
confirmed enemy
losses and are the first Soviet open press
publication of this
nature

90
Morskoy Sbornik No. 11, 1967, p. 49. For example, in
December 22, 1942, in a communication to Hitler's
headquarters it
was pointed out that "every submarine
breaking through the blockade
is a threat to shipping throughout
the Baltic Sea and endangers
the German merchant fleet,
which is barely sufficient as it is."
• / •

/
Wilhelin Gustloft was the largest marine catastrophe, in which
91
4,000 people perished. In 1945, with the advance of the Soviet

armies, larger surface units of the Baltic Fleet, destroyers

and cruisers, continued to be kept mainly in the eastern part

of the Gulf of Finland, for neither their condition nor the

»

navigational situation (mine danger) permitted their employment.

Besides the submarines only light surface forces (PT boats and

patrol boats) and naval aviation were active in the Baltic.

The Black Sea

At the beginning of the war the Soviet Black Sea Fleet

had in commission one old battleship, 5 cruisers, 3 destroyer

leaders, 13 destroyers, 2 escorts, 47 submarines, 84 PT boats,

92
and 626 aircraft. At the beginning of the war, Germans did

not have their own naval forces in the Black Sea and were

apparently counting on the Rumanian Fleet, which was greatly

inferior to the Soviet Black Sea Flee't. "However, with the

majority of Soviet naval aviation involved in the land struggle,

650 Rumanian and 450 German aircraft represented a real threat

to the surface forces of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet. Later,

91
N. Kuznetsov in Novy Mir No. 7, 1969, pp. 150-156,
"S-13 Attacks".
°2
Combat Path, pp. 367-368.

GG
 .

in the course of the war, Germans brought their own naval forces

consisting primarily of light surface ships and sqveral submarines

to the Black Sea, but they were not very effective against the

vastly superior Soviet Black Sea Forces. The German advance-

on the land represented the main problem encountered by the

Black Sea Fleet just as in the Baltic. The defense of the naval

bases of Odessa (more than two months) and Sevastopol' (more

than eight months) was assigned mainly to the Navy and commanded

by admirals. Supported by a number of amphibious landings,

particularly at Kerch-Feodosiya, the defense of the naval bases

tied up a considerable number of German troops.

From the very beginning of the war, Black Sea naval

aviation made a number of strikes against Rumanian oil refinery

centers with marginal success. However, when the situation on

the land front worsened, the aviation was tied up and its

activity in support of the naval operation diminished. In mid

1942, because of the loss of all major bases the Black Sea

Fleet was forced to operate out of the auxiliary bases of Poti

and Batumi. More than ten amphibious landings were made by

the Black Sea Fleet, including sizable ones at Novorossiysk

and Kerch

93
History of Naval Art, pp. 256-271,

67
 The forces of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet were used in

all types of naval operations. However, the special nature of

the opposition and the often not very skillful application of

forces precluded the Soviets from achieving a more effective

employment of their fleet. For example, the dogmatic approach

to mine warfare produced a number of mine fields in the Black Sea

which handicapped the operation of Soviet naval forces much

more than they did the Germans. The submarines, particularly •

in the early period of war, were not employed aggressively and

were losing valuable combat time waiting at assigned positions

for the few enemy ships navigating the sea. Naval aviation,

in contrast, was very active in the Black Sea and is credited

94
with 80% of the enemy tonnage sunk. In 1944, when the Germans

were retreating, the Soviet Black Sea Fleet failed to completely

interrupt German communications, thus permitting the partial

95
evacuation of German troops from Crimea.

cj4
ft i s to vy of Naval Art , p. 417.
95
Ibid . , p . 418.

68
 The Northern Fleet

When war broke out, the youngest Soviet flee't, the Northern,

was in a stage of accelerated development. One of the main"' — -._

problems was the absence of a well-developed base system, which

detained the reinforcement of the fleet with ships and aircraft.

There were only S destroyers, 7 escorts, 2 minesweepers, and

15 patrol boats in commission. The fleet also had 15 submarines

and 116 aircraft, both of which were considered to be the main

striking force. But, almost half of the aircraft were obsolete

96
seaplanes and there were only 11 bombers. By a special

decision of the State Committee for Defense, the Northern Fleet

was reinforced by 130 civilian ships (merchant ships, fishing

trawlers, etc.) converted into minelayers, patrol ships, mine-

sweepers, and tenders. But the quality of the converted ships

was such that they were a poor imitation of what was needed;

they were badly suited for the intended missions. In addition, .

by the same decision, S submarines (out of 20 planned) , six PT

boats, and 4 patrol boats were transferred via the White Sea-

Baltic Canal from the Baltic Fleet. Eight small submarines

were delivered from the industry in 1942. During July-October

1942, the Soviet Pacific Fleet sent one destroyer leader and
'

96
Combat Path, p. 216.

89
 two destroyers, «mcn io.
which fn~ +ho f-j *»,-+
.he first
*>, . time traversed the Northern
-*-.;

Sea Route from East to west.

u V/e<?t a mmy.^**
a ~-?
number of minesweepers for
sweeping influence mines were bought
in England. In the 'middle
of 1942, the fleet aviation was reinforced
by 31S aircraft
from the Baltic Fleet, the Black Sea Fleet, and the
Caspian
97
Flotilla. The Pacific Fleet sent 6 submarines to reinforce
the Northern Fleet in the fall
of 1942. Those submarines had
to make a secret crossing of the Pacific and
to enter the
Atlantic. through the Panama Canal.
In the process of this
17,000-mile transfer, one Soviet
submarine, L-16, was torpedoed
by an unidentified submarine S00 miles from
San Francisco. 98
The base system cf the Northern
Fleet was also improved in the
course of the war. In August of 1941 the White
Sea Flotilla
was formed. In 1941 the naval base on
Novaya Zemlya was
organized, and, to protect
communications in the Kara Sea, the
Kara Naval Base was organized
in 1944 on Island Dikson."
As
was the case in the Baltic
Sea and the Black Sea, no large
scale
naval operations were planned
by the Germans in the Arctic
waters. Plan Barbarossa visualized the
capture of Murmansk
— i

97„.
History of Naval Art ,
pp. 294-295.
93
The War Years , pp. 148-149.
99
C ombat Path , pp. 244-250.

70
by ground forces. When the Germans failed to fulfill the plan,

the Allied convoys started to arrive at Murmansk with vital

supplies and armaments. The Germans own shipping supporting

forces in Norway began to be attacked by forces of the Soviet

Northern Fleet. The Germans then shifted considerable naval

forces to the north and engaged in more active 'operations against

the Allied convoy system as well as the Russian Northern Fleet.

The general weakness of the Soviet naval forces in the North

and their preoccupation with supporting the Army flank limited ^

their operations against Nazi shipping and in defense of their

own shipping, thus precluding any substantial contribution by

the Northern Fleet to the protection of the Allied convoy

system, which took on strategic importance. Overall, 41 convoys

totalling 797 transports arrived in the Soviet Union and 36

convoys totalling 726 transport left Soviet ports in the North

during the war. Eighty-three transports, including seven Soviet

100 .

ships, were lost. During the war there werel,471 internal

Soviet convoys involving 2,568 transports escorted by total

number of 3,617 naval ships. The system assured the transportation

of 1,672,000 men, 3,863 guns, 380 tanks, 13.5 thousand vehicles,

1Q1
and other military cargo totalling 1.5 million tons. In the

TOP
VIZ, No. 11, 1971, pp. 22-29.
1Q3
Combat Path, p. 252.

71
summer of 194-1 the Soviet Northern Fleet was reinforced by a

number of British and American ships, including one battleship,

one cruiser, 9 destroyers, and 4 submarines. Those ships were

102
employed mainly in the White Sea Flotilla.

The action of the Soviet naval forces caused some damage

and forced Germans to escort their convoys. According to the

Soviets, 158 German transports and up to 50 combatants were

103
sunk or badly damaged. During the first two years of the

war, the submarines occupied first place in the number of enemy

ships sunk, but starting in the second half of 1943, naval

aviation took the lead. Lack of repair facilities and a weak

base system led to the steady decline in number of Soviet

submarines at sea. Thus, whereas at the beginning of wa r an

average of up to six submarines were on patrol, in 1944 this

104
number was reduced to 2 or 3. The submarines of the Northern

Fleet made 194 attacks, fired 676 torpedos, and placed 837

mines. The Germans in turn were also active in mine warfare;

1 09
^All the ships were old and could hardly be used in
the high seas. After the war all of them minus two which were
lost, were returned to their original owners. D. Woodward,
The Russians at Sea p. 214.,

103 VIZ, No.

12, 1970, p. 20.
104
History of Naval Art, pp. 452-453.

9
50% of Soviet submarine losses are credited to mines.

During the war with Germany the Soviet Pacific Fleet

represented a deterrent force against Japan, and also served

a role of reserve fleet for the Soviet Navy from which some

ships and considerable numbers of personnel were transferred

to active Soviet fleets, particularly the Northern. In August

1945, when war against Japan was declared, the fleet had in

commission 2 cruisers, one destroyer leader, 12 destroyers, 19

escorts, 78 submarines, 10 minelayers, 52 minesweepers, 49

submarine chasers, 204 PT boats, 19 landing ships, and 1,549

aircraft. In addition, the Amur Flotilla had about 200 ships

and 70 aircraft. The fleet was in good level of training and

combat readiness. The remnants of the Japanese Navy still

tied up by the US Navy could hardly offer substantial resistance

The capture of Sakhalin, the Kurile Islands, and a number of

ports in northern Korea was the main task set forth for the

Pacific Fleet. A number of successful amphibious landings,

during which for the first time in the Soviet Navy specially

built (mainly American) amphibious ships were used, were

executed. The war was over in seven days, although the

105
History of Naval Art , p. 454, and VI_Z No. 12, 1970, p. 21.
106 „
'

Combat Path, p. 511, and History of Naval Art, pp. 505-50S

73
 107
occupation of the Kurile Islands took until 31 August.

In summary, World War II threatened the very, existence of

the Soviet Union. To be or not to be was not an academic

question. The main role of the Soviet Navy in such a struggle,

auxiliary in nature, was "to assist the Army in the maritime

flanks", and was determined mainly by the interests of the

ground forces. However, the defense of Leningrad, Odessa,

Sevastopol, as well as Moonsund Islands, Tallin and Hanko, in

which the Navy played a very important role, had strategic

TOP —
importance. The Soviet Navy was neither prepared for

nor there was any necessity created by the opponent to contest

the control of the sea in a strategic sense, for German naval

activity with the exception of in the North, where they

challenged the allied convoy system, was marginal. To a large

degree that was attributable to the intense naval campaign

conducted by the Allied naval forces in Atlantic. The former

head of the Soviet Navy, Admiral N.» G. Kuznetsov, evaluated

the situation as follows: "It must be said in all fairness

that the deployment of the German Navy against the Soviet Union

depended, in certain measure, on the battles which had been

1Q7 IIistory of Naval Art 513-514.

, pp.

108 VIZ,
No. 5, 1970, pp. S8-89.

74
fought at sea since the opening of the war. If it had not been

so, the German High Command would have assigned it^s navy a

bigger role in Plan Barbarossa. The actions in the Atlantic

prevented the German High Command from switching its ships

to the Soviet shores .... our allies' success or failure in the

Atlantic determined the size of their aid to us' during the

hardest years of the war. The battle for the Atlantic was,

to some extent, fought to allow passage of convoys to our

109
ports of Murmansk and Archangel."

The Germans failed to conduct a single amphibious

operation on the maritime flank of the Soviet Army, nor was

there any indication they planned to. The Soviets, however,

made several dozens of landings. Navy infantry and socalled

naval rifle brigades formed from sailors and navy shore units

totalling 405,000 men, were often incorporated in the ground

forces and used as shock troops, in addition to their role

in the defense of naval bases. Moreover, the formation

I

of the numerous naval flotiallas mainly on the rivers (Volga, '

Dnepr, Danube)
/ played an important role in the war. In spite
!

of the predominant importance of the land struggle, naval

I

combat, limited mainly to coastal waters, was intense during

109
The War Years, p. 113.

lb
certain periods of war. The main role on both sides was played

by the land based aviation, followed by submarines and light

boats). The Soviet

surface forces (particularly Soviet PT

prepared for antisubmarine warfare. Only

N avy was poorly
forces increased
towards the end of war were anti-submarine

and their equipment, thanks mainly to the Allied deliveries,

improved.
Soviet
Mine warfare was also extensively used, but the

N avy ,
while improving towards the end of the war, was not at

of warfare. The Soviet

its best in this traditional form

Navy neither had influence mines at the

beginning of the war

nor the means to sweep them. Again, it was the Allies who

The Soviets
supplied the original equipment to the Soviet Navy.
of
failed to enlarge its navy with merchant ships capable

operating as minesweepers. The leading role of aviation

in naval combat was clearly established. When circumstances

permitted, during the second half of the war, Soviet

naval
ll2
aviation was increased considerably. The important role

H Q Morskoy Sbornik No. 11, 1971, pp. 25-28.

11:L
The Y/ar Years, p. 134.

Soviet sources credited naval aviation with two

thirds of all enemy ships sunk or damaged during the war.
History of Naval Art, pp. 523-525.

76
 t

the aircraft carriers was clearly

demonstrated to the
f

Soviets by its Western allies. But the conclusions drawn by

some Western students of Soviet

naval affairs that the carriers

of the war in the Baltic

could have greatly changed the conduct

erroneous to say the least, and

and the Black Seas are clearly

ignore the then existing realities.

'
The anti'-aircraf

defense of the Soviet ships was weak, and the

short radius of

Soviet fighter aircraft and their small

number, particularly

obstacles
during the initial period of war, were additional

to more active Soviet surface forces operations.

be
The Soviet Navy of the war years could in no sense

called a balanced fleet. However, the construction of a

considerable number of surface ships in addition to numerous

submarines, particularly during the late 1930' s, demonstrated

the Soviet understanding of the concept of a balanced fleet in

general, but it did not have the capability to realize

it.

Defending the pre -Wo rid War II naval development, Admiral

Kuznetsov stated: "The war showed that the sea power was

113 For example, R. W. Kerrick in the Soviet Naval

Strategy, p. 53, stated, "Had the Baltic and Black Sea fleets
had their own carrier-based air cover to protect the forces
afloat, including carriers themselves, from the Luftwaffe
attacks, there is every possibility that those fleets could
have continued offensive operations and greatly retarded the
Nazi offensive, to say the least".

77
 114
something more than just submarines .

The pre-war distribution of naval forces with traditional

concentration in the two closed seas, the Baltic Sea and* the

Black Sea, did not meet the requirements of the war. The

delayed development of system of bases in the North with the

resulting weakness of the forces of the Northern Fleet, which

was most active during the war, was one of the serious mistakes

committed in the pre-war naval development. The rapid advance

of the German Army interrupted the attempted reinforcement of the

Northern Fleet from the Ealtic.

In spite of the considerable losses in submarines,

particularly in the Baltic, the Soviet Navy stubbornly continued

to employ them throughout the war. Initially suffering from

poor training and the consequences of the pre-war purges,

the Soviet Navy had considerably improved its operational and

tactical skills toward the end of the war. The combat activities

of Soviet submarines,* naval aviation, and PT boats forced

Germany to escort shipping in the North and in the Baltic.

In the Black Sea, the Soviet Navy managed to retain supremacy

but it is doubtful that the Black Sea Fleet potentials were

fully realized in the war.

U 4 The War Years, p. 1G2.

78
 , '

The outcome of the war produced considerable improvements

in naval geography for the Soviet Union, compared, with what

it had been prior to the war. Both successes and failures of

the Soviet Union and its allies on the one hand and the enemy

on the other produced rich material for examination and

evaluation which influenced the consequent development of the

Soviet Navy.

The First Post-World-War-II Period

to the mid 1950s

When World War II ended, the Soviet Navy had in commission

2 old battleships, 9 cruisers, 48 destroyers, 173 submarines,

393 torpedo boats, 59 patrol ships, 208 minesweepers, and

4,150 aircraft. The civilian ships mobilized at the beginning

of war were transferred according to a special decision of the

115
Soviet Government to their previous owners.

When the navies of defeated opponents in World War II

were divided among the victors, the Soviet Union received:!

!

from Germany/ one cruiser, 10 destroyers, 10 submarines, 44

/
minesweepers, 30 torpedo boats, and other ships, mainly

auxiliaries; from the Italian Navy, one battleship, one cruiser,

2 destroyers, 3 destroyer escorts, two submarines, and 11

115
Combat Path p. 534.

73
miscellaneous boats: from Japan, 7 destroyers, 17 escort ships,

2 mine layers, one sub chaser, 4 minesweepers. According

to an agreement, all Japanese ships were disarmed. Most 'of

the ships received from the former German, Italian, and Japanese

navies, with the exception of some German submarines, particularly

those captured by the Soviets as a war prize in Gdansk, were

of old designs with worn out machinery and armament. There"

was a very limited supply of spare parts and ammunition for

them. Many of the ships were never commissioned in the combat

h

nucleus of Soviet Navy, and those which were did not serve for

a long time. The ex-German submarines of the XXI, VII, and

XXIII types, minesweepers, and some auxiliaries were used by

117
the Soviets up to the late 1950s.

The degree of destruction of Soviet industry caused

by the war, particularly in the Soviet European part, was

colossal. Yet, the first post World War II Five Year Plan

approved March 18, 1946, and devoted mainly to the restoration

of the economy, visualized the "1950 level of shipbuilding

exceeding that of 1940 by two times" and "the development of

Combat Path , p. 535.

117
u
The detailed list of disposals of older submarines
and surface ships by the Soviet Navy are
given in 1962-1963
and earlier editions of Jane's Fighting Ships.

fin
 i

lis
strong and mighty navy in the USSR".

But, during the first 3 to 4 years, Soviet industry

was in no condition to assure construction of newly designed

ships. Soviet Navy attempts to force the shipbuilding industry

to accelerate the beginning of construction of new ships

failed and the ships of pre-World War II design, whose short-

comings were revealed during the war, were built at first.

Thus, a number of Chapayev-class cruisers, Otlichnyy-class

destroyers, and improved M-class (M-V) submarines were built. ^

Toward the end of the 1940s the construction started on

Sverdlov-class cruisers, Skoryi-class destroyers, large ocean-

going Z-class submarines and medium-range W-class submarines.

Foreign experience, particularly that of the Germans, became

known in detail and helped the Soviet Union in the development

of new ship types. The development and beginning of construction

of new destroyers and escorts, both with flush decks, with improved

armament started as early as 1950. The destroyer Neustrashimyi

(Tallin-class) served as a prototype for a large series of

/
Kotlin-class destroyers. The construction of a number of
I

Kola-class escorts was followed by the construction of the improved

1 18
Combat Path , p. 585.
119
Kuznetsov, Nakanune , pp. 262-263.

81
and modernized Riga class. A large number of minesweepers, PT

and patrol boats, and submarine chasers were built. Also in

the early 1950's two Stalingrad-class battle cruisers were

laid down, but their construction was stopped soon after

120
Stalin's death.

The post-war development of the Navy was* accompanied by

traditional reorganizational measures and repressions which"

were particularly harsh under Stalin. On 25 February 1946 the

People's Commissariat of the Navy was abolished. Four years

later, 25 February 1950, the Naval Ministry of the USSR was

reinstituted in order to "focus attention on the speediest •

development of the navy". On March 15, 1953, the separation

was ended, and the Ministry of Defense of the USSR was formed

unifying both ministries, the military and the navy. Stalin's

post-war order to have two fleets instead of one in the Baltic
. _ .. . 121
and Pacific was abolished in 1956. Among other organizational
"

changes was the abolition of a number of naval flotillas

(White Sea, Danube, and Dnepr) and the socalled naval defense

districts. In the mid 1950s the Soviet Union returned its naval

bases in Port Arthur and Porkalla-Ud to China and Finland

120
Stalin had "unexplainable partiality for' heavy cruisers",
and people around him were advised not to test it.
Kuznetsov
Nakanune p. 259.
,

12 1
Ibid. , pp. 276-278.

82
 122
respectively. In 1947, the top leadership of the navy

was shaken by Stalin. The head of the navy, Flee^ Admiral

Kuzhetsov was demoted in rank to Rear Admiral and sent to the

123
Far East. Kuznetsov's three top deputies, Admirals Alafuzov,

Galler, and Stepanov, were court martialed and sentenced to

prison, where Galler, a former Chief of Main Nctval Staff,

died. The waves from this Moscow repression reached the

lower echelons of the navy structure, but were not as disastrous

as in the late 1930s. Commander of the Pacific Fleet Admiral

Yamashev was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy.

In July 1951, however, Vice-Admiral Kuznetsov was recalled

124
to Moscow and appointed Minister of the Navy. Kuznetsov's

name again became associated with the accelerated development

of the Soviet Navy. In the same month of his appointment as

minister, Kuznetsov went on an inspection of the Baltic Fleet.

All the best units of the fleet were gathered near Riga for

122
Combat Path , pp. 539-540.
123 y
Nakanune , p. 212.

124
V/hile commanding a fleet in the Pacific, Kuznetsov
was promoted to vice-admiral, for the second time.. The third
was in 1956, when he was demoted again from the rank of Fleet
Admiral of the Soviet Union, a rank he also held twice.
Combat Path p. 579.
,

63
 the review. After the parade the Admiral called a meeting of

officers at which hedescribed the bright future of the navy

and the large shipbuilding program for the development of an

ocean-going navy. He also declared that in the not-too-remote

future, the Soviet Union would start the construction of

aircraft
125
carriers. -- •

Parallel to the shipbuilding activity, considerable

research and development efforts were initiated in atomic

weaponry, rocketry (missilery), electronics (radar, sonar,

communications, and control), and propulsion. In 1950 aviation

received the first free-fall atomic bombs. At the beginning

of the 1950s nuclear warheads for torpedos and cruise missiles

were developed. In 1953 the first hydrogen bomb was tested.

Also at the beginning of the 1950s the Soviet Union

started
the development of nuclear propulsion systems, and the
construction of nuclear powered submarines dates back to 1953

Simultaneously, the experiments were being conducted on a wide

scale to employ closed-cycle engines for submarines. 1?7

_

During
/
7
12 5
This was the last time that the subject of aircraft
carrier construction was raised in such a
definite manner.!
126
Combat Path, p. 544, and Morskoy Sbornik No.
19? 6,

Combat Path, p. 542.

QJj
the first half of the 1950s the Soviet Union conducted an

extensive research and development program with various missiles,

including those for the Navy. The first elements of the? Navy

for which missiles were developed were aircraft (TU-4 , Bull,

in the early 1950s and later the TU-16, Badger) and the

submarines. The first experimental launch of a ballistic

"
missile from an obviously submerged submarine (most likely
128
converted Z class) was conducted in September 1955. In
129
addition to the TU-4, TU-16, and IL-28 bombers, a considerable

number of jet aircraft, mainly MIG-15, MIG-17, and YAK-25

"

fighters were delivered to the Navy.

Thus, during the first post-war decade, the. Soviet Navy

was reinforced with a considerable number of newly built ships,

*

submarines, and aircraft. Many old and obsolete ships were

decommissioned. A number of ships built just prior to World

War II were modernized. The research and development efforts

resulted in a number- of successes in the nuclear field, missilery,

and electronics. The first cruise missiles entered the service,

more missiles were under development, and some had even been

128
Combat Path , p. 585.
129
The IL-28 were first delivered to the Navy in 1951
in two versions, one as a bomber-mine-torpedo carrier, and the
second as a reconnaisance aircraft, designated IL-28R; the
TU-16 aircraft were first received in 1954.

8
tested. In short, the prerequisites were achieved for the

future development of qualitatively new navy on the basis of what

the Soviets later called the "scientific and technological

revolution in the military affairs".

By the mid-1950s, the Soviet Navy had become larger than

any in the world except that of the United States, but

qualitatively, particularly in the relation to the threat from

the most likely opponent and in the relation to the tasks

1

which it had to fulfill, the Soviet Navy was in no better

position than that prior to World War II. The Soviet Navy

long-range forces were still in very short supply, while the

forces for the traditional mine -a raillery- ?crs±ticm warfare

were in abundance. But it was highly problematic that a

potential enemy would be so obliging as to bring itself into

position and subject itself to very powerful combined gunnery

torpedo attacks. The employment of submarines was planned

independently from th'e main forces, the squadrons o.f surface

ships, and the main tasks of submarines were preliminary,

130
independent strikes against enemy forces. Such forms of

naval combat represented nothing more than the use of naval

130
History of Naval Art pp. 564-565, and S. Gorshkov
,

in Morskoy Sobrnik No. 2, 1967, pp. 9-21.

8G
forces in the proximity of one own shore, i.e. the forms typical

for a coastal navy. The main limiting factor, of course, was

the absence of carrier-based aviation and the dependence* upon

land based aviation of very limited radius of action (particularly

fighters). It had become evident to the Soviet leadership,

particularly the military, that despite considerable resources

devoted to the Navy under conditions of a very tight economy,

it was not going to fulfill its major tasks unless drastic

changes were instituted. While apparently there was a mutual

understanding of the necessity for change, what was desirable

was viewed differently by the various power groups. Except for

the loud pronouncements of Khrushchev against large surface

ships (which, considering the types the Soviet Navy had at the

time, were basically correct) there is no indication whatsoever

that the Party leadership had turned anti-Navy. But some Army

leaders came very close to demanding the practical abolition

of the Navy, claiming that there were not many naval tasks (as

they understood them) which the army, armed with the nuclear

missiles, could not fulfill, including strikes against carriers

(with long-range aviation) and against amphibous forces approaching

131
a defense area. Particularly strong attacks were launched

131
See S. Gorshkov, The Development of Soviet Naval Art ,

Morskoy Sbornik No. 2, 1967, pp. 9-21.

87
against the surface ships and naval aviation. It was also

claimed that the ground troops did not need the Navy's support

even during anamphibious operations and, thus, the amphibious

ships and the naval infantry (marines) were obsolete and not

a a
132
needed.

The need for the submarines was never challenged by any

group.

The period of the mid 1950s and the decisions made at

the time resulting in "the decisive changes in the shipbuilding

program in the direction of the creation of nuclear missile-

carrying submarines, missile-armed surface ships and ships v

armed with modern anti-submarine, anti-mine, and anti-aircraft

weapon systems and missile-carrying aviation" were crucial for

133
the further development of the Soviet Navy. It seems

appropriate at this point to interrupt the examination of naval

development and to make a brief analysis of international

factors influencing the military policies of the Soviet Union,

to indicate the major stages in the development of Soviet

/
military doctrine, and briefly examine the Soviet military

science and the role envisaged for the Soviet Navy. Such i

132
Combat Path , pp. 545-546.
133
Ibid. , p. 547.

88
considerations are also essential for the establishment of the

role assigned to the various naval forces by Soviet military

theory, and for a clear understanding of the employment of

those forces under various conditions.

Military Theory

"Whoever operates without principles has not pondered

on what he wants, falls into hesitation and half -measures, and

loses all in war." Napoleon

Soviet military thinking focuses primarily on three broad

interrelated concepts: military doctrine, military science/

and the military art. In spite of a distinct overlapping

of these three concepts, there are clear distinctions as to

their particular content and purpose, and a clear hierachical

relationship among them with military doctrine at the top.

Military doctrine is defined as "a system of states

guiding opinions on the character of war under given specific

historical conditions, the determination of the tasks of the

armed forces and the principles of their construction, as well

as the methods and forms of armed conflict, following from the

goals of the war, and the socio-economic and military technological

134
capacities of the country." Developed and determined by the

Spravochnik ofitser g, (Officer's Reference Book )

Voenizdat, Moscow, 1971, pp. 73-74.

RQ
political leader-ship of the state, the military doctrine,

according to the Soviets, reflects the social, economic, political,

and historical characteristics of the state, the nature of its

internal and external policies. Military doctrine, when adapted

and put into effect, acquires the nature of a state law.

Usually five periods in developing Soviet military doctrine are

distinguished:

(1) 1917-1928' that is, the Civil War and the time preceding

the industrialization of the country;

(2) 1929-1941, up to the beginning of World War II r In

view of the predominantly continental character of the war n

contemplated, the main role during this period was assigned to

the Army, although considerable attention was devoted to the

role of the Navy, and it was correspondingly strengthened.

The main emphasis was on the combined efforts of all forces and

resources, and the ideas of waging war by any particular

predominant branch of* the armed forces (for example, Douhet's

135
aviation theory) were rejected.

(3) 1941-1945, the war period. In spite of the fact

In the course of the second world war, the Air

Force certainly proved its indispensibility but not its
independent and conclusive power without the effective
support of the other armed forces, as was foreseen and preached
by Douhet's theory.

90
that much new and original was contributed to military theory

in the course of war, the period can hardly be recognized as

a stage in doctrinal development, because, for all practical

purposes, it was a reaction to the reality imposed by the

enemy.

(4) 1946-1953, the post-war period, when the experience

of World War II, the sharp deterioration of relations between

two opposing systems in the international arena, and the

availability of nuclear weapons were determining factors.

(5) From 1954 to the present. The period began with the

availability of nuclear missiles, and is characterized in the

Soviet military writings as a revolution in military affairs,

with corresponding fundamental changes in the doctrine.

Usually two sub-stages in the development of doctrine are

distinguished in this period; the first, 1954-1959, when the

introduction of nuclear armament into the Soviet armed forces

and its quantative accumulation started, accelerating towards

the end of the stage; and the second stage, starting in 1960,

during which the rearmament of Soviet military forces with

nuclear missiles was concluded on a broad scale. Major

"1 o r*
Istoriya voyn i voennogo iskysstva (History of wars and
military arts ) Textbook for officers-students of higher
educational establishments of the Soviet Armed Forces. Approved
by the Minister of Defense, Military Publishing House, Moscow,
1970, pp. 466-467.

SI
changes occurred in the views on the character of combat

actions. Toward the end of the 1950s, defense as^a combat

action had started to be considered as acceptable only for the

secondary areas and only at operational and tactical levels.

Defense on the strategic level was rejected as unacceptable.

The defense of the country, and its military forces from the

enemy's nuclear strikes had started to be viewed as an independent

type of strategic action. The naval combat activity acquired -

137
the same importance, i.e. independent strategic actions.

Thus, it took a considerable period of time, close to a decade,

before the present Soviet military doctrine was formulated in

138
the years 1963-1964.

The Soviet doctrine emphasizes that a future war will be

a decisive armed clash of two opposing social systems

characterized by the unprecedented bitterness of the armed

conflict. That doctrine reserves decisive role in a modern war

137 Ibid 499-500.

. , pp.
138
The practice of many Y/estern military analysts to
consider changes in the doctrine and the development of Soviet
armed forces in connection with changes at the top leadership is
erroneous. While there is no denying the influence of various
top men upon the development of military policy, it has to be
stressed that in the post-war period, the Stalinist stage not
excluded, socalled Zadel or laying the foundation for change was
the work of the predecessors. The wave of writings which
inevitably occurred right after the change of the. leadership
were probably encouraged by it to promote appearance of novelty.

Q
to nuclear missile armament. Simultaneously, the use of '

conventional armament is not excluded and the need is stressed

»

for a flexiable organization of military forces corresponding

to the various conditions of the conduct of the military struggle. 139

Two facets, or principles, of military doctrine are distingusihed,

the political and the military-technical. The 'political

principles apparently reveal the socio-political essence of

the war, the character of political objectives, and the

strategic tasks of the state. The military-technical principles,

being more dynamic, determine problems of organization, the

tasks of military forces, and the means, methods, and forms

of military struggle. With respect to means of conducting

warfare, both nuclear and non-nuclear war are considered, and

to scale, world and local. A world war is viewed most likely

to be anuclear war, and under certain conditions of short

duration; and yet, together with the action of strategic nuclear

forces, which include' the strategic missile troops and ballistic

i

missile nuclear submarines, are visualized the independent

operations of naval forces.

139
Officers Reference Book, p. 77-78. See also, Major
General S. N. Kozlov, "Military Doctrine and Military Science"
in Xommunist vooru zhennykh sil, No. 5, March 1964, and Thomas
W. Wolfe, Soviet Military Theory: An Additional Source of
I nsight into Its Development p-3258, Santa Monica, California,
,

The Rand Corporation, November 1965.

i

r /

93
 .

Soviet military science includes the following:

general theory (general basis) of military science;

theory of education, training and indoctrination;

military historical science; military administration

(organization and control of military forces) ; military

geography; _
•

military technical sciences.

The theory of military art, or just military art, is

considered to be the most important component part of Soviet

military science, and has been traditionally divided into

strategy, which studies the conditions of the preparation and

conduct of war as a whole, and its campaigns, and operational

art, which is the study of operations and of tactics, of battle.

It has been the tradition of Soviet military science to consider

all three component parts of military art as being mutually

connected and inter-dependent, with the leading role reserved

to strategy. In the 'nuclear age, the role of strategy has

been elevated even more, basically because of the crucial,

decisive role upon the outcome of the war of nuclear strikes,

which are controlled by strategic leadership. Strategy

constitutes the direct executor of the orders of the doctrine,

140
Officers' Reference Book , p . 60

94
but the armed struggle is directly guided not by doctrine,
141
but by strategy. The major propositions of strategy, as

part of military science are taking into consideration in

doctrine, and represent the main content of its military

technical principles. The Soviets view strategy as common and

unique for all services of the military forces. of the country,

142
for war is conducted by the joint efforts of all of them.

Operational art (not tactics) dealing with the

preparation and conduct of combined and independent operations

of the armed forces is more heterogeneous, and each branch of

the armed forces has its own operational art.

No single branch of the Soviet ?»n&e*i £or.<sas- i.e. ground

forces, air force, strategic missile troops, and air defense,

with the notable exception of the Soviet Navy, claims to have,

apart from the operational art and tactics, a different concept

of the military art, not to mention of military science as a

whole. The Soviet Navy, however, does and proclaims it quite

loudly. Accordingly, naval science is a part of the military

science to the extent that it uses most of the common laws

141 Marshal V. Sokolovskiy and Ma j Gen. M. Cherednichenk,

.

"
sovremennoy voennoy stategii " (On Contemporary Military
Strategy) ,Kommunist Vooruzhennykh Sil No. 7, April, 1966.
,

142 0fficers' Reference Book, p. 68.

95
/*
of the latter and is subordinated to the common military

strategy. In its turn, naval science includes as' a main

component, naval art divided into tactics, operational art,

and strategic employment of the Navy. 43

Moreover, the growing

importance of the Navy, under contemporary conditions, was said

»

to contribute to the appearance of a "qualitatively new naval

art" and "further outgrowth of naval science from military

science", particularly as far as the development and the

operations of the Navy are concerned. In general it is

claimed that naval science is based on the common laws with

military science, and naval art on the common principles

with the military art, but "in the area of tactics, the theory

of naval art is practically independent and in the area of

operational art it is to some degree connected with the theory

of military art; but only in the area of strategic employment

of the Navy does it (the theory of naval art) have its source

in military strategy, except however, for features completely

/
143 Rear
Admiral K. A. Stalbo, " Razvitiye voenno-morskoy
Nauki" (The Development of Naval Science), Morskoy Sbornik
No. 12, 1969, pp. 32-37.
j

144
Ibid. , pp. 35-36.

96
 ^

145
secular to it". Thus, the independent character of Soviet

Navy operations has been recognized, first when its fleets were

converted into "striking power oriented first of all against

the land" and now when they are considered together with the

strategic missile troops as "the main deterrent to aggression". S

Nevertheless, it is basically wrong in the framework of Soviet

military theory and terminology to speak about the Soviet naval

strategy, for such a category does not exist.

*

In general, Soviet military theory as a well organized

discipline has been developing all of its elements in ~~.

historical perspective and conceptual unity. It took into s

account changes which occurred in the political and technological

spheres. It seems that both understanding of the power of

threat and the power of presence have been demonstrated by the

Soviet Union lately, particularly through the employment of its

145
Ibid . p. 37.
, The specific character of the Soviet
Navy and, before it the Russian Navy, has to be recognized, for
it is the only service which in the past has had its own
ministry.
Even today, even in the presence of unified agency of operational
control of the services, the Ministry of Defense ,* there is the
Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and the Navy. More-
over, the 1967 Universal Military Law approved by the Supreme
Soviet and put into effect in January 196S in paragraphs three
and four defines the Soviet military forces as composed of the
Soviet Army, the Soviet Navy, Internal troops (the Ministry of
Internal Affairs) and Border troops of the KGB (the Committee
,

for State Security)).

4o Marshal M.
Zakharov, "uroki istorii" (The Lessons of
,
History), Kommunist No. 9, July 1971, p. 75, and Krasnava Zvezda.
a
May 9, 1971.

Q7
 naval forces.
Does tM«
this mean that
the Soviets h
tohan. and what
in general has
? ^-readi^
been their at« + .

attitude toward

—- -
.

s
Plulospher of sea no, the

- .. .... west,
c ~° iu

particularly ia
/ in the
r r-
thA Tr lit
United States to
>;
-»°»--
"°"
naval policy? to sub stantiato '

--
-v er
— ~~ - -.
Mahan's work w as

been aoceptedl"' cu
weXI knowa ln

as n universal
.
o«^
rsax and
.
°* Sea P° w :::::::r"«
*ave
*-
even orio-i nol
™-*inal, _ .

owing to the
following con.iH
«*
<-•
considerations: th« +theories m ;
.

being heavily
biased, aes
were viewed M
despite
1 P a te ti
their historical k*--
around Great centered
Britain'
ta
"S PraCtlCeS
toward unilateral >
national
considerations-
10 *s> (o\
( 2)
•

prior tQ
la COQ cepts of
"^
th^
•*
W -e expressed
in the worK of
Caot
Captain Colomb of
the

n
BriUsh tfaa
Na vy during the
I 860s and nordered .

the problem
of the
protects of British
and the „•coerce
"aval forces.
attribution of
forces .
Hence, the theories hava h
U ° alled "Colomb-
Muiian . •,
Hahan" with -fun *
.
Ui ful1
' ^cognition of Mahan'*
maj0r COQ tribution
in th«
ln the „
development of the +h«
theory to maturity
Uiit y> {*\
(3;
„ ,
Mahan's
ffeup^T
general principles
•

f conrfl +
0,13 a
- .

e ° tinS the "

power of — i

10US and
*»*•«*• -^cipies) are
rooted
tea inln Jo
Jomini as well
•

is ~i
l&
^lausewitz nnrt h«
and hence
' are not origin*
*

•t least
Communist ideology,
in its
its Propagandistic
D
expression
Passion, being
h •

nti ^i militantiy "

^-colonial and i

anti-imperialist *** has -also "

"*ts also y^«*yca

,
oiavpfit
an
^t, -,-,,
. . important
role in the official denigration of Mahan's philosophy of sea

power.

V/hile the Soviets' dislike of Mahan's theories on ideological

grounds can be disregarded, the correctness of some of Mahan's

conclusions and the applicability of his major tenets to the

present situation is another matter. It seems .that the sea

"
power theories formulated by Mahan have not been compatible

with the times for decades in either in the political-economic or

the military spheres. Mahan was obviously wrong in intimating

that control of Europe depended on control of the sea. Neither

World War I, with the presence of the grand fleet of England and

of the High Seas Fleet of Germany, nor World War II prove it.

Submarines in both wars drastically changed the late 19th

century equation (which in turn was based on 17th and 18th

century facts). Particularly questionable on the broad scale

is Mahan's concept of the control of the sea, which lies at the

very heart of his theory. The concepts have been variably

defined and interpreted. For example, late Fleet Admiral W. F.

Halsey, USN, used to define control of the sea as a state of

affairs in which "we can go wherever we want to go, on, over

or under the sea, and do whatever we want to do when we get

there; and we can prevent other people from going where we

don't want them to go and from doing things we don't want them

bS
 147
to do". During the decade of the 1950s the Sixth Fleet

in the Mediterrnean did exercise such control to a large degree.

However, there was no opposition and the environment was*

extremely favorable and far from being hostile. The command

of the sea concept often claimed to be exercised in the waters

around Vietnam (and previously in Korea) is highly questionably

today. First, the U. S. ships have been treated as sanctuary

for fear of retatiatory blows far outweighing the questionable

outcome of attacks agaiust the ships. Second, the major port

feeding the war, Hai Phong, has never been blockaded and the

supply ships of the opponent's friends continue to sail.

Moreover, the navies of all major powers, particularly super

powers, are being charged with the mission of conducting military

actions against the land, much more than with the decisive

battles at sea, whose goal would be to destroy the enemy's

naval forces. Moreover, the naval forces of today are so

widespread and so heterogenous that one can hardly speak of a

decisive battle or even the need for unqualified control of the

sea. While essential in some areas, desirable in others, and

for a limited time, revision of the control of the sea concept

is long overdue, and new theories of sea power or maritime power

Marine Corp Gazette, June 1969, p. 27

ICO
reflecting changed realities are needed. The growth of Soviet

military power in general and naval power in particular are

14 8
among the major factors generating the need for reexamination.

The development of Soviet maritime power, particularly

its naval power, has been one of the major factors forcing

reevaluation of old concepts and the necessity »to adjust for

new realities. These new realities did not appear at once , but

are the result of two decades of development. Particularly

important was the decade of the 1960s, foundations for which,

at least, in the case of Soviet Union, were laid in the mid-1950s

and were the result of a changed strategical situation which

must be examined and of advances in science and technology for

which the term "revolution in military affairs" was coined.

Soviet military specialists distinguished three main stages

in this military-technological revolution which are associated

with nuclear armament, missiles, and control respectively.

Nuclear armamen't initially was to be employed together

I

with conventional means of warfare. Approximately in the

/
mid-1950s a contradiction between the potentials of nuclear
'

warheads and the mean of delivery developed (free fall bombs

148
The reexamination seems to be underway, as evident from
a number of articles, Congressional hearings, and some books. See
for example, the Wall Street Journal, October 20, 1971; The
Washington Post, 17 January 1971; The Congressional Records, Vol.
117, No. 125, 1971, and Hanson W. Baldwin, Strategy for Tomorrow ,

New York, Harper and Row, 1970, p. 377.

/

101
delivered by aircraft) . The appearance of missiles wedded the

tremendous destructive power of nuclear weaponry with a most

reliable means of delivery. The new missile-nuclear armament

has acquired a high degree of sophistication and reliability

thanks to the wide introduction of cybernetics, which also

149
tremendously improved command and control and communication.

The post-World War II period produced a drastic shift in

the nature of threat to the Soviet Union from a potential

enemy. While before the war the primary threat had been posed

by the continental powers, after the war the Soviet Union had

to face the coalition of Western powers headed by traditional

naval powers "in whose armed forces special importance had,

150
for a long time, been attached to the navy". The formation

of NATO with the United States as the chief ally elevated the

significance of the naval power even more. In addition to the

direct maritime threat to the Soviet Union, the Atlantic Ocean

communications again *became the arteries through which American

military power would be delivered, but in this case as reinforce-

/
raent to the NATO. However, by the early 1950s except for the

149
Colonel V. Bondarenko, " Scientific-Technological
Progress, and Strengthening the Country's Defense" Communist,

of Armed Forces, no. 24, December 1971, pp. 9-16.

150 ;vlorskoy Sbornik No.

2, 1967, p. 16.

102
need to increase the Soviet naval forces along the familiar

quantitative line to fulfill the traditional tasks; not

much
seemed to have changed for the Soviet Navy. '

In the early 1950s, however, when the American aircraft

carriers were assigned the task of delivering nuclear

strikes
against the Soviet Union, the situation had changed, and quite

drastically. In the eyes of the Soviet military leaders,

the
attack carrier became at once a ship capable of fulfilling

strategic tasks and together with the Strategic Air Force

of
providing the Americans with the capability of a broad
targeting
possibility which included practically the whole country.

Obviously it became the task of the Na^y and the Air Defense

(PVO) of the country to prevent the attacks of carrier-borne

aircraft. In order to fulfill its tasks the Soviet Navy had

to destroy the United States carrier strike forces before they

reach launching position. If the Navy failed, it would become

the task of the PVO to repel the attacks of carrier-borne

aircraft. Obviously, the Navy's task to sink or even severely

damage the attack carrier before she could

launch the aircraft
was the most important, for it was unrealistic to count on a

one hundred percent success in intercepting and destroying

f lying aircraft, and yet it was unacceptable to let even few

aircraft carrying nuclear bombs to penetrate.

Thus, the problem

103
 or how to counter the attack carrier
forces acquired a very
important significance. I„ addition, the American
experiments
with the REGULUS missile with a
nuclear warhead and intended
for the strategic delivery by
submarines became known. This"^
just reinforced the Soviet's
conviction that "during the first
post-war decade, the fleets of -the
Western coalition were built
up with great intensity, far and away "
surpassing in their
striking power the other branches
of the armed forces. The
tendency to assign to the naval
forces the role of one of the
primary strategic weapons in a
future war was becoming ~
increasingly clear". Fo r the Soviets all these meant
that
the threat of an attack from the maritime direction
had increased
sharply and the defense interest
of the country "demanded a
considerable increase in the combat
might of the Soviet Navy". 152
The doctrine of "massive retaliation"
proclaimed by the
American government in 1954 had
probably reinforced Soviet
convictions of the necessity
not only to improve defensive
measures but to speed up the
development of the means of delivery
for nuclear weapons. The latter, naturally, raised the
question

151„ „
S. Gorshkov in Morskoy Sbornik No. 2, 1967", p. 16.
152,.. ,

mu
 of the Navy's role in delivery, and the best means of achieving

it, if the role should be assigned. In short, while the Soviet

shipbuilding industry was involved in the massive production

of conventionally armed ships and submarines, the urgent need

for a constructive revision of naval policy had arisen. The

death of Stalin in March 1953 released the Soviet naval planners

from the need to follow his arbitrary rule, and produced a more

favorable atmosphere for objective discussion and evaluation

of naval policy. Moreover, the physical characteristics of

nuclear armament (size and weight) made it possible in the"

mid-1950s to consider its delivery by a variety of means.

This led to the problem of selecting the best carriers for

nuclear armament, i.e. whether aircraft (and in what mode of

operation, land based or carrier based) or submarines or surface

ships; as well as the means delivering nuclear weapons to the

targets, i.e. bombs or warheads for torpedoes or missiles. The

progress achieved in *the research and development of missilery

indicated the rockets might soon become an important means for

153
the delivery of nuclear weapons. As was indicated earlier,

153
The progress with missile development in the mid-1950s
made the Soviet Army so happy that its "influential authorities"
decided to solve all problems including those associated with naval
warfare, by missiles tipped with nuclear warheads. See Morskoy
Sbornik No. 2, 1967, p. 11.

105
a further consideration was that definite progress was achieved

in the development of nuclear propulsion systems for submarines.

West Germany's joining NATO and the creation of the

Warsaw Pact in May 1955 further aggravated the already tense

situation of confrontation between the two major opponents, the

US and the USSR, and the systems of alliances Under their

leadership. This in general was the political, military and

technological situation in the mid-1950s, when the crucial

decision which changed the course of Soviet Navy development

was made.

Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy and Fleet Admiral

of the Soviet Union S. Gorshkov described the decision-making

process in the following way : "Party and government did not

share efforts but devoted considerable time in studying the

problem in detail, clarifying and comparing various points

of view of Navy and Army specialists, scientists, and designers,

analyzing experience of the war and the possibilities which

had been opening in connection with accelerated progress in

science and /technology."

154
Consideration was given to the

composition of the future Navy and what forces, i.e. surface,

I

submarine, aviation, or any combination of them, should

154
Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1963, p. 15.

106
represent the "main striking forces" of the future Navy.

Apparently, as to the nature of a future war, i.e N

whether

nuclear or conventional, there was no problem, for it was

assumed that it would be nuclear. Special consideration was

given to capital surface ships. The Soviets "know that sun

had set on battleships as far back as the Battle of Midway in

1942", and, according to Gorshkov, "the replacement of long-range -

guns in surface ships with artillery using nuclear ammunition

and even missiles would not make them any less vulnerable or ^
suited for the employment in a nuclear war as a primary naval
155
strike force." The Soviets also concluded that "the process

of the sun setting on aircraft carriers as well had begun,

and that the process was irreversible". The Soviets became

convinced that "seeking ways in which to employ them (aircraft

carriers) as a primary strike force in the armed struggle at

156
sea had no future".

The rejection of the attack aircraft carriers as the main

striking force of the future Soviet navy was made in the atmosphere

of a strong belief that the era of the general erosion of surface

naval forces has began. This, of course, does not mean the

complete rejection of the surface ship's usefulness or the

155 Morskoy
Sbornik No. 2, 1967, p. 19.
156 T ,.,
Ibid. r

107
necessity to have them. But the Soviets strongly believed

that it is much easier to locate the surface ship, including

v

the carrier, than to locate even a diesel-electric submarine,

not to mention nuclear-powered submarines. Moreover, they have

been convinced that any surface ship is more vulnerable to a

nuclear blast than a submarine. Finally, the package of weapon

systems, i.e. the variety of missiles which did not require

large capital ships and could be effectively deployed aboard

smaller ships, and particularly aboard submarines and long-range

aircraft was selected.

'
Thus, in the words of S. Gorshkov, "In the mid-1950s,

in connection with the revolution in military affairs, the

Central Committee of our Party defined the path of Navy develop-

ment, as well as the Navy's role and place in the system of Armed

Forces of the country. The course taken was one which required

the construction of an ocean going navy, capable of carrying

out offensive strategic missions. Submarines and naval aviation,

equipped with nuclear weapons, had a leading place in the

program. Thus, there began a new stage in the development of

the Navy and of its naval science.

The latest achievements in science' and production, and

the creation, on this base, of what were, in principle, new

weapons for the armed struggle made it possible to bring about

'

/ . 1G8
in a short period a radical change in the technical base, and,

in essence, to create a qualitatively new type of armed force,

;

our ocean going navy, in which submarine forces, aviation, .^

surface warships, and other types of forces developed

harmoniously. Thus the beginning was made for the creation

of a balanced Navy, capable of successfully conducting combat

157
operations under differing circumstances."

Of course, it must be realized that the decision of the

mid-1950s just established a concept which gave the green ^

light so to speak for the corresponding development of the Soviet

Navy, and it would take years, more than a decade, for its

final implementation. Neither the Soviet technological-

industrial base was immediately ready for the concept implementation

nor was the Soviet military theory, especially its naval art,

adjusted to the concept. Now we shall examine the development

of the Soviet Navy since the mid-1950s to the present time.

157 S. Gorshkov, Morskoy Sbornik No. 2, 19 67, p. 20.

The balanced navy was defined by Gorshkov as follows: "By
well balanced navy we mean a navy which, in composition and
armament., is capable of carrying out missions assigned it in
a nuclear war, as well as in a war which does not make use of
nuclear weapons, and is also able to support state interests
at sea in peacetime."

ic Q
•
 .

Fron tho "id-lPSOs to the

Beginning of the 1970s

At the time of mid-1950 decision the construction of light

and heavy cruisers had already ceased, the construction of the

last new conventional Kotlin-class Soviet destroyer was well

underway, and the production of submarines, accelerated.

Approximately between 1955 and 1957 the Soviet shipbuilding

program was shifted partially from the construction of

conventional submarines and destroyers to the construction

of submarines capable of launching ballistic missiles and to

destroyers equipped with cruise missiles. A prototype of a

nuclear submarine was already under construction and, as stated

previously, a ballistic missile of approximately 350-nautical

mile range had already been tested in 1955 (surface launch)

The construction of the post-war second Soviet long-range

diesel-electric F-class submarines was started.

In 1956 and 1957 the situation was probably considered

promising by the Soviets. They started to get the first,

primitive, ballistic missile delivery system placed on their

Z-V-class submarines, later to be placed on the nuclear H-1-class

158
submarines. Construction of the first surface ship armed with

1 r o
Congressional Records, July 1, 1971, p..E6854

110
 cruise missiles, a modified Kotlin-class destroyer, was
well
underway. Naval aviation which already had a
substantial
number of TU-16 (Badger) aircraft, was about to receive a

longer-range TU-95 (Bear). m short, it looked as though the

Soviets were acquiring forces which would be

able to deal with
aircraft carriers successfully. But they were 'not alone in

enjoying the fruits of the "revolution in

military affairs" 'they
so loudly glorified.

Towards the end of the 1950s the emphasis on

nuclear
delivery capabilities was growing steadily in
the United States.

Aircraft primarily designed for nuclear strikes,

the A-3
(A3D Douglas Sky Warrior) , were introduced in quantity in

aircraft carrier strike forces. 159 Larger planes, larger carriers

and smaller nuclear weaponry made the US Navy a powerful

strategic offensive force. The increased range of US carrier

borne aircraft permitted launching farther

from the Soviet shores
and deeper penetration inside the Soviet territory, thus
making
defense against them of strategic significance.

The next problem which became strategic from the

beginning
was the Polaris program launched in the US during the second

half of the 1950s. In the case of the Polaris submarines, the

159
U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, November 1964,
PP. 29-30.

M -* ^
 necessity to destroy the ballistic missile carrier, the "platform"

from which the nuclear missiles are launched, became even more

important than the anti-carrier tasks. A carrier does not

launch the weapon but only the weapon carrier, the aircraft..

There was a well-developed country air defense program (PVO)

disposed in depth which could intercept at least the majority

of the aircraft and prevent them from delivering the nuclear

weapons. In the case of the Polaris submarines, if the weapons

were launched, the only defense would be an anti-ballistic

missile system (ABM) defensive capability, which, even if "fully

developed, would have to be distributed between ICMBs and SLBMs.

Because of the strong possibility that the SLBM would be

launched after the ICBM, the available ABM's would be few in

number at best or even lacking. The situation might be even

more complicated in case of a coordinated attack by ICBMs,

SLBMs, SAC (Strategic Air Command) and carrier borne aviation,

when each previously -launched system would considerably reduce

or nullify the defense against the next offensive system. All

this made the task of countering the Polaris submarines of

utmost importance. However, this extremely complex task

compounds an already complex ASW (anti-submarine warfare) problem

and would have to be performed in the remote areas of the

oceans, where ail kinds of opposition to. the ASW "forces had to be

11?
expected. The rapidly increasing ranges of Polaris missiles

(A-l, 1,200; A-2, 1,500; A-3 , 2,500 nautical miles) would draw the

ASW forces farther and farther into the open sea. It was also

important to establish an optimum package of ASW forces, i.e.

a combination of surface forces, airborne forces, and killer

submarines. Thus, the announced Polaris program, even more

than the increased potentials of carrier-borne aircraft,

contributed to the necessity of forward deployment of the Soviet

161
Navy.

The third factor forcing the Soviet Navy's forward

deployment was the necessity to assure the deployment of their

own submarines. Because of the geography, the deployment of

Soviet long-range submarines would often if not always have

to be accompanied by protective forces which would minimize, if

not eliminate, the effectiveness of enemy ASW efforts. This is

a complex and very intensive operation in which a considerable

portion of the Soviet fleets, primarily the Northern and Pacific,

would have to participate. When a growing number of Soviet

-

submarines armed with ballistic missiles became an integral

t en
Jane's Weapon Systems , 1970-1971, pp. 135-137.
161
It must be realized that any program is announced or
detected by intelligence long before its practical realization,
thus generating the need for counter measures.

•«

113
 part of the Soviet strategic forces, their deployment assumed

correspondingly greater importance. Thus, the threat initiated

by the opponent and the growing participation of Soviet naval

forces in nuclear delivery generated a number of specific tasks

which, in turn, determined the development and the mode of

operation of the Soviet navy^ during the decade »of the 1960s and

the beginning of the 1970s. 162

As previously stated, toward the end of the 1950s Soviet

military theory rejected strategic defense as a predominant

type of warfare, and started to emphasize the strategic offensive.

Such an emphasis, however, while being treated as an important

shift in the Soviet military policy, could not and did not

eliminate the necessity of having various forces capable of

both offensive and defensive operation. This was particularly

true, more than in any other services, in the case of the Soviet

navy. For this reason, considerable resources and production

An analysis of factors influencing Soviet naval

development can be found in John Erickson, " Soviet Military Power ",
Royal United, Services Institute for Defense Studies, London, 1971,
pp. 52-61, and Michael McGuire, " Soviet Naval Capabilities and
Indentions" Congressional Record, July 1, 1971, pp. E6850-E6S65.
,

While it would be wrong to underestimate the influence of

American naval development on generating a corresponding Soviet
reaction, it would be equally wrong to treat it as asole factor.
The Soviets have had their own plans and programs, but the threat
as they see it could not be ignored and hence, it obviously
played
an important role in necessitating a speedy reaction and thus
interfering somewhat with what otherwise would be a much smoother,
planned development.

in*
capacities were allocated for naval development. In addition

to the construction of the first ballistic missile submarines

both nuclear and conventionally powered, and the conversion of

the first diesel submarine into long-range cruise-missile

submarines, a search for a new type of surface ships corresponding

to the newly emerged tasks was underway in 1957-1958. The

new types of surface ships armed with various missiles were"

widely discussed during special conferences called for this

purpose in late 1957 and early 1958. Commander-in-Chief of the

Soviet Navy Fleet Admiral Gorshkov himself used every occasion

to find different opinions and arguments concerning the type

of ships needed. 'As a result, the basic designs of such missile

ships as the Kynda and the Kashin were proposed by the Navy

in the spring of 1958 and were soon approved by the Soviet

government. Considerable resources were allocated for research

and development, apparently in excess of what could be absorbed.

All the foregoing permitted Admiral Gorshkov to state, "The Navy,

having always been the focus of the latest achievements in

science and technology, was the first of the branches of the

armed forces to see the large-scale and general introduction

In the fall of 1957 Admiral Gorshkov bitterly complained

about the underutilization of allocated resources for research
and development and demanded a drastic improvement in the
situation.

'
i
lib
 of nuclear missiles, radio electronics equipment,
and nuclear
i • ,,164
propulsion.'

In February 1959, addressing the 21st Party 'congress,

Soviet Defense Minister Marshall of
the Soviet Union R. Ya

Malinovskiy stated, "Our Navy has become

in full a modern navy,
capable of resolving any strategic
mission in its area of
responsibility. Overseas, they quite frequently
speak and write
that the U. S. Navy is capable of delivering an
attack and
landing at any point along our coastline.
But as the saying
goes, 'It is easy to boast, but it is also easy to fall.
'- It
seems to me that the people overseas should be thinking
about
the fate of their own coasts and their extended
lines of
communication, whose vulnerability is
now monstrously bared,
and about the traditional
invulnerability of America which
has forever been eliminated." 165

But in spite of the gradual introduction

of some new
types of missile carrying surface
ships, the end of the decade
of the 1950s and the beginning of 1960s witnessed
the main
emphasis placed on submarines and
naval aviation in the Soviet
Navy development. For example, an editorial in the Soviet'
Navy

164
Gorshkov in Morskoy Sbornik No. 10,
j

S.
1967, p. 7.
165 T
Izvestiya , February 4, 1959.

•T

116
 newspaper emphasized the "nrnfn,.^
profound qualitative
^ ^
-,

change which have

recently been made and are beinz
mid^" in
in " made +u
<« the
composition of
the Soviet Navy, stressing
l

e^smg tnat
that " +the
}-,« ^ v
submarine force armed with
•

modern weapons has become the

basis for the combat force"
of
the Navy. Naval aviation was named
as a second most important
arm
of the Soviet Navy. 166

That attitude was understandable,

for the main stress-
up
to the beginning of- the
196 0s had been placed
on anti-oarrier
operations and the necessity
of assuring the deployment
of Soviet
submarines in the face of
opposition by those attack
carriers
and their supporting-
vv img xorces.
forcpc ti,» u
The ,.
submarines and naval aviation
were viewed as the main
forces for anti-carrier
operations, and
the leading role of
submarines armed with cruise
missiles in
aati-carrier operations was
supplemented by the "sophistication
ot naval aviation". 167

The role assigned to the

naval aviation, particularly
in
mti-carrier operations, can
be seen from the following
statement
>/ Chief of soviet Main
Navy Staff Admiral ». D . Sergeyev,
"The
diking power of the Soviet
submarine fleet is successfully

^
!
166
t6d ith th6
" *™
Sovetskiy Flot
«**at capabilities of missile carrying

r
July 20, I960.
167- - .,
S. Gorshkov in Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1963, p. 16.

'»

111
naval aviation, which is equipped with fast, long-range

aircraft and armed with long-range missiles for various

purposes. Even the most modern of surface ships cannot oppose

this aviation successfully, because nowadays it is not the

aircraft themselves which must be repelled, as was the case

previously, but rather the homing missiles they release from

long ranges."

Rejecting the attack aircraft carriers as a main force

for their own navy, the Soviets did not lose respect for them,

and were not ignoring the threat they posed. In the middle

and late 1960s they still viewed aircraft carriers as an

16 ^
"extremely powerful enemy at sea".

The Soviet Navy's confidence in its ability to counter

attack carriers force in the pre-launch zone and hence reducing

the danger to the ships operating in coastal waters, was

reflected in a decision to remove fighters from naval aviation

and to transfer them 'to the PVO and the Air Force. Since 1960

the Soviet naval aviation has been divided into three major

types: missile carrying (strike) aviation, reconnaisance

Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1965, pp. 89-93; I. M. Korotkin,

Z. ?. Slepenkov, B. A. Kolyzaye, " Avianostsy " (Aircraft Carriers),
Voenizdat, 1964, pp. 280. In 1967 S. Gorsakov, Morskoy Sbornik
No. 2, 1967, while denigrating the aircraft carrier as a main
combatant, nonetheless confirmed its residual value for
strategic delivery.
•r
aviation, and anti-submarine aviation. The Soviet Long Range

aviation (LRA) subordinated to the Air Force, was intended for

use against naval targets since the mid 1950s. With the'

development of Soviet ICBMs and ballistic missile submarines,

the LRA role in delivering strategic strikes was gradually

diminishing while its naval role, particularly .against carriers

and large grouping of ships and convoys, increased. The LRA

role in anti-ship operations was clearly emphasized by the

authors of Military Strategy ,

particularly in its second, revised,
-

edition, where they stated that "long-range bombing aviation

armed with long-range missiles retains the capability to launch

attacks on enemy targets, especially at sea and in the oceans,

and also on those along the shore."

"Attack carrier units can also be successfully combated

by bothnaval and long-range aviation." 169

This role of Soviet long-range aviation v/as confirmed

by the commander-in-ohief of the Soviet Air Force: "Long' range

aviation armed with air-to-surface missiles can attack important

/
strategic objects at a great distance on land and fulfill
!

missions at sea in annihilating naval forces of the enemy

l

Thus our aviation in close cooperation with other armed forces

169 !

Voennaya Strategiya (Military Strategy) , 2nd Revised

Edition, 1963, p. 312 and 398. !

;
/

119
 .

of the country is called upon to perform a sizeable number

170
of tasks in modern warfare.'

Early in the 1960s, the Soviet military planners probably

realized that the growing nuclear strike capability of the US

Navy had started to shift in favor of the Polaris system.

With the announced forthcoming increase in the 'Polaris missile

ranges, it became evident that countermeasures, preferably in

the form of the permanent presence of naval forces in the

remote areas were the Polaris submarines were most likely to

operate, were needed. Such an awareness was clearly expressed

by Admiral S. Gorshkov, when he emphasized the necessity for

the Soviet Navy to have, in addition to the long range striking

forces, "other forces which are necessary for the active

struggle against any type of enemy". Such forces, in the

opinion of admiral, should be represented by "missile ships

171
and boats, ships and aviation to fight enemy submarines".

To a certain degree, dual forces had been under development

since the late 1950s. However, except for the long-range

i

striking forces, that is, submarines and naval aviation, the

170 Marshal X. Vershinin, "Contemporary Aviation and War",

Av iatsiya i Kosinonavtika No. 6, 1963, p. 14.
, See also Lt Gen. .

S. A. Gulyayev, The Role of Aviation in Combat Operations, Morskoy

Sbornik No. 6, 1965, pp. 36-43.
i 7]
S. Gorshkov, The Party's Care of the Navy, Morskoy
Sbornik No. 7, 1963, p. 16. ..
,

120
rest of the Soviet Navy forces, had been handicapped by the

lack of air cover, and their effective operating range was

limited to that of shore-based air cover plus the range of their

missiles. At the beginning of the 1960s that was obviously .

not enough, particularly if the Soviets wanted to seek out

Polaris submarines. Any forward deployment of .the Soviet naval

forces, even for a short period of time, would require a

considerable increase in air defense armament. This is precisely

the end toward which the Soviet Navy started working from the

beginning of the 1960s. Not only ship constructions received

drastically increased and improved air defense armament, but

some older units were modernized and equipped with surface-to-air

instead of surface-to-surface missiles.

Historically, the Soviet Navy approach to antisubmarine

warfare (ASW) was quite specific. Up to the mid 1950s very

little attention was paid to the problem, and anti-submarine

defense was centered -around self-protection of individual'

units underway and protection of convoys in the pre-coastal

zone. To a certain degree, it was probably a rational approach,

for there was neither a need for extensive efforts in anti-

submarine defense, i.e. there were not many submarines to oppose,

nor was there any requirement for protection of convoys on the

high seas.

121
 During World War II, most submarines were
detected and
located because they had to expose themselves at
the surface

(while underway to an operations area, to change or take'

position for an attack, to charge their batteries).

Strictly
speaking, the World War II and first post-war generation
of
submarines were merely diving boats; only nuclear propulsion

made them true submarines. In addition, high speed ceased to

be advantage of the" surface ships. Thus, advances in science

and technology clearly benefited submarines more than

they did
the surface ships, and made ASW an even more complex problem.

Since the first Polaris submarine started its patrol, the

existing ASW forces of the Soviet Navy, mainly oriented

toward
the defense of the fleet operational zone, were straightway

found inadequate. Built primarily around the surface search

strike group (PUG-poiskovo-udarnaya gruppa) supported by

mainly independent efforts of submarines and in

cooperation
with the shore-based *ASW aviation (helicopters and not very
numerous BE-6 aircraft) , the Soviet Navy ASW forces were forced

to operate in new zones which had become oceanic and of vast

dimension. Obviously, a complete reorientation of ASW efforts,

and more importantly, an accelerated build-up of forces in

different proportions was needed.

Contrary to a widespread belief (mainly as a result of

 Krushchev pronouncements) concerning the Soviet Union
purported
condemnation of surface ships, their construction ^and, what
is

more important, efforts at their improvement and sophistication

never ceased. What the ASW problem did for the Soviet Navy

surface fleet was to create conditions which helped accelerate

its development. It was obvious that the forces needed to

combat modern submarines, particularly the Polaris type,

had
to be a combination of submarines, aviation, surface ships, and

various fixed and/or floating detection sensors. The main

problem remains that of detection and classification, for'as

soon as a submarine is reliably tracked, the available weaponry,

particularly those which would be employed in a nuclear conflict,

can destroy it. In short, what was needed was a massive effort

combining heterogeneous naval forces and representing "a case

i no
of assembling quantity to counter quality."

Despite the considerable research and development efforts

to employ the other physical fields in submarine detection such as

thermal, electromagnetic, hydrodynamic, turbulent, radioactive,

the acoustic field continues to be most widely used. Shore

based ASW aircraft have been charged with the initial
detection
of submarines in most of the remote areas. The concept of the
i

172
L. Martin, p. 103

. 123
 .

combined, systematic
employment of1 all ov *
existing forces and
means for ASW has
been
n ad
irin«+ *
° Pted as a major "3
principle .

Correspondingly, all
three e main.
major *^Pes of AS17
forces
submarines, aviflti^
tl0U aQd SUrfa0e
3
'

S "P3, were
improved,
particular duriag the
secoud me 1960s when new
classes of submarines
„„* -
new and
'
1MPrOVed ve "i°"s of
long-range
-craft, and a nuraber
..
Qf _
ciasges iiace ships entered
the service.
The s'ovi + v
° Vlet
^^
C ° nSide
-
". new Moskva-class
AW cruiser with helicopters
.

'

aboard in commission
aooard,
since 1967
as "a fundamentally
new ASff shipP t0to fi- V submarines
fl S h
ht .
in the
remote areas." -174

«°skva, a sophisticated
combination of detection
^^cixon se sensors
ana weapons system
to n +
" '
P1 eSent
**»»•*
«- best Soviet ASV,
ship and probably
one of the best it *
lf ° 0t the b ^t, ASff
ship in the
'
""ace
surface
M. But
World

—
n»t +h-
this does not mean
,

that Moskva meets

re<,UirementS
*~ »»
riy the Polaris
4-1 by nuclear submarines
type, and.it ,s hardly possible
'
that
«f surface ship would,
m cert- in .areaS
° P^icularly
' such' in
o»«»ed
onf1 ,
basins as Mediterranean
(where th. h u •

" USht
have * certain
__
marginal
" al ant pm
antii-Polans
capability. ia
173
^HassaLSbojnik »»,. 10 , 1970< .
pp> 16 _ 23
4
i!arskoy_aorniiLNo. 11,
1971j p> 24 _

1 9ii
addition, this type of ship might be deployed to provide the

ASV/ capability of a task force underway or during .a fleet

operation assuring deployment of the submarines.

As is the case with any major navy in the world, the

problems associated with the anti-submarine warfare have become,

during the decade of the 1960s, one of the majdr preoccupations

of the Soviet Navy, and a combination of forces have been

under development. Moreover, ASW was a factor necessitating

175
the forward deployment of the Soviet Navy forces.

The new tasks of the navy and the new armament of its forces

generated the necessity for the revision of theoretical

principles of the naval art. There was an initial application

in the late 1950s of the first types of new armament and ships

to the "provisions of the operational art and tactics", but as

the latter were based on past experience, it was of relatively

short duration. The Soviets most likely realized that the

existing theory of the deployment of naval forces (with the

exception of submarines) was a naval variant of the Maginot

Line, while the capability of their opponents could produce

the effect similar to Ludendorf 's maneuver. But this was just

175
Vice-Admiral A. Sorokin and Capt. V. Krasnov, Anti-
submarine Defense, Nauka i zhizn (Science and Life), No. 1,
*

1972, pp. 48-55.

1 O '
'

1^0
 .

one more proof that history teaches

what should he avoided
rather than what must be done,
and a prolonged debate
and a
vigorous seareh for "new,
original and extremely '

effective
nethods for conducting the armed
struggle with a powerful
*T/^ "J

enemy at sea" was needed.

The debates, initiated in

.the early 1960s,
continued for
several years and resulted in
a considerable revision
of the
naval art and a reexamination
of naval missions. The
content
of such well known
principles as concentration,
cooperation,
and maneuver was adjusted -
to the new conditions
of missile
nu clear war .
^ Aocordingly) ±t ^ ^^ ^ ^^.^
should be achieved not by
concentration of weapon carriers
(ships,submarines, aircraft) but by
the concentration of
«re through the manuever of
trojectories. The power of the
force
should he achieved not
by the number of missiles
fired, but by
the yield of the
nuclear warheads used.

S. Gorshkov in Horskoy Sbornik No.'

2, 1967, p. 17.
Ie
Stalbo"article "On
eS

L
'Contemporary ••^"ifes.ation",
1 if^°"'?-
^ anitiated *y *•»* Admiral K. A.
Ca * eg ieS f NaVal Art in
r ° «•**
be f oVi™ 7
«• xollowed by a
Morskoy Sbornik No. 1 ~1961 to
number of articles.
articTSS T h n „iost
:,Iot
articles written >„ -n ,
Ihe important were
*ear A ch ;11 ral V. Lisyutin, Morsko
*>! 3, 19 C
'<>• 4
T
lltl and U
"
T4 _22 R
'. ? ar Admi ^l V.
y Sbornik
SysoevTlio^i koy sborni k
Z n artiCle '° V Ad= iral
Fwt **• ^teleyevT
"Some Q L'stions
™^y
'

of A f
a££2il So! 2 itte pp 27 IT" " COat »«". ^rskoy

l*»o
 While recognizing the desirability of cooperation

between homogeneous forces at the tactical level, the cooperation

of heterogeneous forces has not been considered necessarily

obligatory and in certain cases not even desirable. It

was claimed that the power of nuclear warheads permits the

solution of various tasks independently by a limited number

of homogeneous carriers. Cooperation on the operational

level, under the condition that the vital principle "nobody

waits for anybody" be observed was found desirable and necessary.

A high degree of operational and strategic cooperation among

various Soviet fleets was found obligatory.

Under certain conditions of c^mb^t, .-^.rouvctr was also

found of limited value; hence, the maneuvering of forces could

often be replaced by the maneuvering of trojectories thanks

to the increased range of missiles. The role of the various

naval missions has been also revised. For example, such a

traditional mission eff the Soviet Navy as the support of the

maritime flank of the army has been reduced in importance and

has acquired a different meaning, to include the situation when

the navy has to exclude an attack from the sea by the enemy's

naval forces. In short, when supporting the Army, the Navy

would be involved in purely naval operations far from the

shore and therefore the Army "will not see the naval units

127
 involvoil in its support". * '

The importance of action against sea lines

of

communications was said to be diminished, although the

necessity
to be ready for such action under certain conditions
was
stressed. A new approach was taken in regard to
amphibious
operations. Previous claims that the role of amphibious

operations in a nuclear war has diminished was dropped,

and the
necessity to have specialized forces appropriately
equipped
and supported, emphasized. In this regard, the first edition

of Military Strategy, 1962, which negated the role of

amphibious
operations conducted by the Navy, was strongly attacked
by a
leading Soviet admiral for such an oversight. 179
Admiral
Alafuzov strongly critized practically the whole
treatment
of naval matters by the authors of Military Strategy
, but he was
in complete agreement withthe authors in their recognition

of an "independent type of strategic operations conducted by

the Navy" and the potentially decisive importance of

naval:
forces in local wars.

/
lhe overwhelming importance of nuclear strikes
•n. '
I
*

launched

17<
°Vu. Panteleyev, p. 31.
179
Admiral V. A. Alafuzov "O n the Appearance of the Y/ork
,
military strategy ", Morskoy Sboraik
January 1953, pp. S3-95.
,

: /

15.2.
by naval forces against enemy territory has been constantly

emphasized. While recognizing the diminishing role of the main

force in combating the enemy naval counterpart, that role

has been found even more important for the remaining naval

forces, because of the enemy's ability to launch strategic

strikes against Soviet territory and hence the .necessity for

180
the Soviet Navy to prevent it. In this respect, combating

enemy ballistic missile nuclear submarines and attack aircraft

carriers was found to be of utmost importance for the reasons

previously discussed, and the necessity for forward deployment

of naval forces, recognized. ^

Continuing to recognize submarines and naval aviation

as the main striking forces of the Navy, the Soviets developed

renewed interest in surface ships equipped with new armament,

particularly for air defense, and capable of operating without

air cover in remote areas. It was emphasized that the new

ships armed with SAM -complexes and automated rapid-fire guns

would shift the previously extremely unfavorable odds between the

ship's PVO and attacking aircraft in favor of the former. As

a matter of fact, the necessity for the air defense systems to

combat enemy weapons, i.e. missiles, and not only carriers, i.e.

"I no
°
Admiral N. M. Kharlamov, "Trends in Naval Development",
Morskoy Sbornik No. 1, 1966, pp. 31-36.

129
 181
aircraft, was stressed as predominant. The necessity and

the possibility for even small surface ships to have a reliable

air defense in the form of compact SAMs was emphasized. 'It

is remarkable how closely these theoretical conclusions were

carried on into practice by the consequent development of the

Soviet Navy. On the other hand, it can be assumed that when

these theoretical articles were written, the decision to build

corresponding forces had already been made, and the articles

were just preparing the Navy for such forces and were stimulating

the development of tactics for their deployment.

Now we shall briefly examine the development of various

forces of the Soviet Navy after the mid-1950 decision.

181
Rear Admiral V. Sysoev and Captain V. Smirnov, Ant i -Air
Defense of Formations of Surface Ships Morskoy Sbornik No. 3,
,

1966, pp. 32-38.

/
130 •
 Development of Forces

Submarines ;

As was noted previously, Soviet naval construction' started

in the late twenties with submarines. In spite of considerable

economic and particularly industrial difficulties, the serial

construction of L, Shch, M, S, P, and K classes" of submarines

was mastered in the decade of the 1930s. Particularly productive

was the year 1936, when the Soviet shipbuilding industry

delivered to the navy the largest number of submarines. The

tempo of submarine construction was such that, once in the

summer of 1936, the Soviet Navy commissioned a whole brigade

182
of submarines (6 to 8 units) . The development and alleged

construction of submarines with closed-cycle engines was started

183
prior to World War II. During the decade of the 1930s, the

182
Podvodnye Lodki v Russkom i Sovetskom Flote
G. M." Trusov,
(Submarines in the Russian and the Soviet Navy, 2nd Edition,
revised and enlarged. Shipbuilding Industry Publishing House,
1963, pp. 440; See also Captain 1st Rank V- S. Bakov, "History
of Soviet Submarines", Morsk oy Sbornik No. 11, 1964, pp. 90-93;
and Rear Admiral M. A. Rudnitskiy, "Soviet Submarines", Morskoy
Sbornik , No. 7, 1967, pp. 29-34.

Trusov, p. 338. Except for the source, no

G. M.
confirmation or denial concerning the closed-cycle Soviet submarines
during p re-World War II period could be found. However, during the
first three post-war years, an intensive test of closed-cycle
submarine No. 401 was conducted in the Baltic. This, however, coiild
be result of Soviet knowledge of work by the German designer
Walt her.

131
 .

Soviet shipbuilding industry delivered 206 submarines to the

Soviet Navy and 52 more were commissioned during £he war. 184

The World War II experience of foreign and Soviet

submarine operations were carefully studied in the Soviet

Union. As a result it became clear that submarines were in

need of serious improvement in greater range and submerged

speed, submerged depths and in secrecy. During the second

half of the 1940s, the Soviet Union constructed a considerable .

number of small modernized M-class submarines, while maintaining

basically the submarine fleet of pre-war construction. However,

starting with end of the 1940s, a new series of submarines of

improved quality, the W-class (Project 6137 ana Z-cIass (Project

611), were built. The diesel-powered W-class submarine was

originally produced as an attack submarine armed with torpedoes

184
Morskoy Sbornik No. 9, 1971, p. 29
185
See for example L. M. Yeremeyev and A. P. Shergin,
"The Submarines of the Foreign Fleets- in World War II. Operational
and Statistical Materials Based on the Experience of World War
II ( Podvodnyye lodki inostrannykh flotov vo vtoroy mirovoy voyne
O perativno-statisticheskiye materialy po opytu vtoroy mirovoy
voyny) (Voyenizdat, 1962); I. S. Isakov and L. il. Yeremeyev,
"Transport Operations of Submarines" ( Transportnaya deyatel nost '
\

podvodnykh lodok ) (Voyenizdat, 1959); S. A. Sherr, "Warships of the

Sea Depths", (Ko rabli morskikh glubin) (3rd ed., revised and
enlarged, Voyenizdat, 1964); The lead article of Pravda of
10 July 1942, "Submarine Fleet —
Pride of the Soviet People"
( Podvodniy —
flot gordost' sovetskogo naroda) .

1 r 9
*** O K-
and eouipped with dock-mounted guns which were later removed.

Close to 200 units were built altogether; many were transferred

to other countries but most, although aging, still remain, in

commission in the Soviet Navy. As is the case with all Soviet

torpedo submarines, the W-class is capable of minelaying.

Through various types of changes a true familyof classes has

emerged from the W-class. Apart from various conning tower

shapes (of which there are at least five) , the most important

modifications of the W-class were in 1956 or 1957, when the

first submarine of that class was converted into a guided-missile

submarine. An erectable cylindrical housing for a guided

missile was installed on the upper deck, and the new class
183
received the NATO designation of W single-cylinder class.

In 1958-1959 several other Y/-class submarines were outfitted

with twin launchers for guided missiles, resulting in the

socalled Twin-Cylinder-class guided missile submarines. Another

major conversion of W-class submarine produced the Long Bin class,

a guided missile submarine carrying four missiles in its modified

tower. A few units were converted to radar early waring submarines

designated the Canvas Bag class.

n Of!
Siegfried Breyer, Die Sow jetischen U-Boo t e der "W"-
Klass als Typfamilie (The Soviet Submarines of the W-Class as
a Family of Classes)", Soldat Und Technik, No. 1, 1971, pp. 10-15.

'

/
1 OQ
 ,

The Z-class dicscl powered submarine, of which a few

dozen units were built, was originally built as an ocean going

long-range torpedo attack submarine. Although several modifications

of this class are known, the most important was a conversion

to ballistic missile submarines known as the Z-5 class. It

was undoubtedly a modified Z-class submarine from which the

first surface launching of a ballistic missile occurred in

September 1955 , Somewhat later, between 1956 and 1957,^ several

units, each carrying a pair of surface-launched Sark ballistic

187
missiles with a range of 300-350 nautical miles, were produced.

Starting in 1954 a few dozen diesel powered, closed-cycle

propulsion system submarines, Q-class (Project 615) were built.

This small (around 700 tons displacement) short-range submarine

was intended primarily for anti-submarine warfare and carries

four bow-mounted torpedo tubes. The closed-cycle propulsion

system, at least during the first three to four years of operation,

was less than satisfactory and dangerous to operate.

The second half of the 1950s and the beginning of the

1960s produced considerable changes in Soviet submarine

construction. In contrast to the first post-World-War-II decade,

187 Lt. Com. Robert D. Wells, USN, The Soviet Submarine

Force, IT. S. Naval Ins t itute Proceeding s, August 1971, and S.
Breyer, Noue and modernisierte Kriogsschi f f typen. der Sow jet-
Flotto. (New and Modernized Warship Classes of the Soviet Navy)
Soldat und Tcchnik, No. 11-, 1970, pp. 628-635. .

1 1l\
 when, despite considerable
qualitative improvements in the
W, Z, and Q classes, emphasis
.as still on quantity the
second
,

generation of vpost-war
war Soviet
soviet Soviet
<^-,,-i~4- t. .
submarines was narked *

by drastic qualitative chances

%yfa both
DOtn ln
'
in }^o+
boats performance and
the armament systems installed.
Recognizing the considerable
improvements in conventionally
powered submarines, the two
most
important factors were the beginning
of construction of nuclear
powered submarines and the wide
introduction of both ballistic
and guided missiles. Construction of nuclear powered
submarines
.which was initiated in 1953
on an experimental basis, was"
authorized sometime in late 1955
or early 1956. It was obviously
part of a program which
visualized the construction of nuclear
powered torpedo attack N-class
and ballistic missile H-class
submarines. A nuclear warhead for torpedoes
was successfully
tested in i 95 7. Conventionally-powered ballistic missile
G-class and torpedo attack
F-class submarines were built
simultaneously. Later the program was augmented and '

the
construction of diesel-powered
torpedo attack R-class submarines,
nuclear powered guided missile
E-class, and diesel powered
guided missile J-class,
submarines was authorized. It should
be noted that the Soviets first
built ballistic missile
submarines (G and H classes),
and two or three years later, they
built cruise missile submarines ( J and E classes) , after the

T5C
concept has boon tested on V/-class conversions. Technological

problems, possibly associated with the development of submarine

launch cruise missile system, notwithstanding, the strategic

importance attached to the ballistic missile submarines armed

even with a short range (originally 350 n.m.) missiles is obvious.

Construction of conventionally powered oceangoing torpedo

attack F-class submarines displacing over 2,000 tons (submerged)

and carrying 20-24 torpedos started in 1956. The submarines of

which 45 units were built have been assigned ASW and anti-shipping.,

role.

Between 1958 and 1961 about 20 conventionally-powered l

medium-range R-class torpedo submarines were built. As an

improved W-class design, the R-class most likely has been used
188
primarily for ASW.

Nuclear powered N-class hunter-killer and attack submarines

were built about 1957 and the early 1960s. More than a dozen

units were constructed, making the N-class the first Soviet

nuclear powered submarine to be produced in series.

Conventionally-powered ballistic-missile G-class

submarines were constructed during approximately the same period

138-p or
characteristics of Soviet submarines see Jane ' s
Fight ing Ships 1971-1972 and earlier editions; U.S. Nava l
,

Ins titute Proceedings August 1971; Soldat und Tec hn.tk No.
, 7,
1969, pp. 376-382; Congres sional Records July 1, 1971, pp.
E-6360 - E6386.

lob
 .

as the X-class. Originally armed with three surface-launched

SS-N-4 Sark ballistic missiles (350 mautical mile range) , many,

i

if not all, G-class submarines were later refitted with three

underwater launched SS-N-5 Sark ballistic missiles (650 nautical'

nile range) . Close to two dozen units were built.

Nuclear-powered ballistic-missile H-class submarines

were constructed during approximately the same period as the

N and G classes, and were originally outfitted with the same

Sark missiles as the G-class (a variant known as the H-l)

Later, H-2 class submarines carrying three Serb missiles were

produced. Less than a dozen H-class units were built.

During the last two days of February 1972, a US Navy

plane spotted a disabled Soviet nuclear H-class submarine

surfaced about 600 miles northeast of Newfoundland. A photo

appearing in the Washington Post shows an unusally long sail

with five or six hatches clearly visible on the top of the sail.

This would represent a third modification of the class and would

be designated H-3. The type of missile carried by these

submarines, conversion of which was said to have been accomplished

just a few years ago, is the object of conjecture.

After the engineering feasibility of submarine launched

cruise missiles had been tested and approved by the conversion of

a few W-class submarines, the Soviet Union in 1960 or 1961

137
 initiated the construction of a new type
of nuclear-powered

guided-missile submarine, the E-1-class,

which car.ries six
Shaddock surface-to-surface cruise
missiles with a range 'of
between 300 and 400 nautical miles In 1962, the construction
of E-2-class submarines each carrying eight
Shaddock missiles
,and a number of torpedoes was initiated.
A total of about
30 E-class submarines were built.

Practically simultaneously with E-class

was initiated
the construction of the conventionally-powered
guided-missile
J-class submarine. About 16 units were built, each carrying

four Shaddock missiles.

Similarities in basic designs of hulls and

propulsion
between nuclear powered N-class and
H-class as well as between
conventionally powered F-class and G-class
are considerable,
and testify to the Soviet utilization
of basic concept designs
and serial production methods
to build a multi-purpose submarine

fleet. Also, characteristic of Soviet naval

development has
been the practically simultaneous
outfitting of the submarines
with radically different propulsion
systems with the same
armament package (G and H, F and N,
J and E) and with consequent

modernization upon the availability of better

systems.
Utilization of existing submarines to
test new concepts and
armament systems (Z-5 for ballistic
missiles, W-class for cruise

13fl
 missiles) has also been characteristic.

Somewhere in the mid 1960s,

possibly in 1963, a new
program for the construction
of at least four, and
perhaps five,
classes of new submarines was "~
authorized. The submarines
built under this program
started to enter service
toward the
late 1960s, and represent
a powerful addition to
the Soviet
submarine fleet designed for
multiple tasks, ranging from "

strategic deliveries of nuclear

weaponry to AS1V and patrol in
coastal waters. Three out of
four new known submarines
are
nuclear powered and one is
conventional. The most important
have been the Y-class
ballistic missile nuclear-powered
submarines,
*«^o, which C Am «,v, n
iq somewhat
wuACH is 4. .

Uldr to
similar
• -,

zo tho
tne ttc v+u
US Etnan a-,-,
Alien SSBN".
They are equipped with
16 missiles which reportedly
have a range
of 1500 nautical miles.
The construction of Y-B-class
submarines
which carry 16 missiles
with a 2,400 - 3,000 nautical
mile
range was reported. 189
The annual rate of production
originally
estimated at 6 to 8 units was
recently corrected upward, to
8
to 10 units. By April 1971, 17 units were
operational and 15
".ore under construction.
Even with an annual rate of
construction
of 8 units, the Soviet
Navy would have more than 40
Y-class

^oldat un d Technik. Wo. 7 '

1971, p . 415.

2£L
 submarines by the beginning of 1974. 190 The subraari).ne
displacing over 8,000 tons (submerged) has somewhait greater

horsepower than American Polaris submarines and

its submerged
speed is reportedly close to 36 knots.

Another new submarine which appeared in the late

1960s
is the nuclear powered cruise missile C-class. *
This fast
submarine is armed with eight underwater launched
short-range
cruise missiles of a new generation. The range of C-class
missiles eliminates the necessity for target
acquisition by
other sources and permits quick response based
on the submarine's
own sensors. Both an anti-shipping and an ASW capability of

C-class submarines and the possibility of a mixed

package of
missiles, i.e. against surface ships and submarines,
have to
be assumed.

The third is the V-class nuclear-powered torpedo armed

submarine, the apparent successor to the aging N-class.

The
submarine most likely' has both ASW and anti-shipping
capabilities.
The fourth new submarine, the B-class, is conventionally

powered and is apparently intended for operation in

coastal
waters. The possibility of a closed cycle propulsion plant

190 At
the beginning of 1972, Secretary Laird stated that
there are 25 operational Y-class submarines
and 17 more under
construction. Washington Post February 16, 1972-.
,

•
?

•"^
 should not be excluded.

Presently there are 350-360 submarines in the

Soviet
l

order of battle of which 85-90 are nuclear powered.

It i's by
far the largest and most diversified submarine
fleet in the world.
Approximately 15% of the Soviet submarines carry ballistic

missiles. In spite of the growing number of the

Y-class SSBN's,
the majority of the operational units are still represented
by
the H class and G class, although the Y-class submarines
are
already carrying more missiles than the total of the
others.'

Cruise-missile submarines comprise approximately 20% of

the total, and play a very important role in the Soviet

concept
of submarine operations, particularly against surface
forces.
The residual role of cruise-missile submarines
against land
targets located along the shore line and in support
of amphibious

operations should not be overlooked.

The remaining Soviet submarines, approximately 65% of

the total force, are torpedo attack type. Armed with long-range
homing torpedos against surface targets and
anti-submarines
/' -
I

torpedos, these submarines are also capable of minelaying. A

considerable portion of this group is undoubtedly employed
in ASW.

Thus, in two decades of post-war submarine fleet development,

the Soviet Union has built several hundred boats of at least

14 classes (W, Z, Q, F, N, II, G, R, J, E, Y, C, V, B) of submarines

I

I
•
f h 1
J.T1
If the numerous modifications and conversions (such
as Z-5,

twin cylinder, Long Bin, Canvas Bag, H-l, H-2, G-l,

G-3 , E-l,

E-2, etc.) were added, the number of classes built would 'exceed

25.

The Soviet submarines are designed to perform a multiple

number of tasks some of which, such as cruise-missile attacks,

are capabilities which so far are unique to the Soviet Navy.

In addition to construction of new submarines with improved

characteristics and armament, the Soviet Navy had to solve

another problem, that of training its submarines crews. Soviet

submariners had to master not only new hardware in its

oualitatively different performance (speed, depths, armament)

but during the decade of 1950s they had to cross the psychological

barrier of cruise duration. As has been openly admitted by the

Soviets, during the decade of 1950s "the technology was basically

ready for long cruises, but the men turned out to be insufficiently

ready psychologically" . Submarine commanders in making off-shore

cruises light heartedly run down their batteries on a simple

maneuver, navigators lost their skill in celestial navigation,

and the proximity of the bases had an effect on the careless

191
Good examples are provided in an article by Rear Admiral
A. Gontayev, "The Path to the Ocean", Morskoy Sbornik No. 10,
Wl, pp. 47-52.

•*

142
 attitude toward fuel consumption. Such deficiencies in training

were basically overcome during the decade

of the 1950s when
considerable emphasis was placed on not only
prolonged cruises,
but snorkeling technique. The task was set to stay on snorkel

days and weeks and to cover thousands of

miles.
Arctic and under-the-ice navigation of
Soviet nuclear
powered submarines assumed importance
immediately after
commissioning of first SSBN. During the 22nd Party Congress

(23 October 1961) it was reported that Soviet

missile submarines
had mastered under-the-ice navigation
and could reliably reach
their launching position. 192 m July 1962 the nuclear powered

submarine Leninskiy Komsomol made a voyage

to the North Pole.
On 29 September 1963 another Soviet nuclear powered
submarine
surfaced exactly at the North Pole and hoisted
the flag of the
Soviet Union and the flag of the Navy there. 193
Both were N-class
submarines, and their cruises were undoubtedly
generated by ASW
interest. A claim was made that "underwater combat,
including
combat under the Arctic ice is becoming
an imminently practical
194
matter".

192
Pravda , 24 October 1961.
193
Morskoy Sbornik Mo. 2, 1964, pp. 30-31.
194
Collection of articles, Podvodniki (Submariners),
Moscow, 1962, p. 97. '.

143
 . .

During the first carter of 1966,

a group of nuclear-powered

missile submarines under the command

of Rear Admiral A.I.
Sorokin made a submerged cruise around
the world; in 45 days
the submarines covered almost 25,000 miles
without once surfacing 195
Soviet submarines are now often observed
at various remote areas

of the world ocean, and reports on very

prolonged cruises of
some of them are common phenomena.
It appears that the praise

heaped on them by the Russian media is

well deserved.
Soviet submarine development during the
post World War II
period, and especially since the mid 1950s,
seems to testify
to an acute awareness, even a conviction,
of the Soviets that
the balance between surface ships and submarines
has shifted
in favor of the latter. 196 The size of the
Soviet submarine
fleet, the multiplicity of missions and tasks,
the variety of
submarine types and armament packages all
make it a major threat
in practically any confrontation. Further technological progress
would seem to benefit- submarines
even more than other naval
forces, and the gap between ASW
forces and submarines, despite
the considerable progress of both, would be widened in
the

195 VIZ
(Military Historical Journal), No. 7, 1970 31-
aad p
Morskoy Sbornik No 9 1971, p 29
. , .

196
For an interesting discussion of this problem see
Coh Q "^e Erosion of Surface Naval Power",
!:" f >

H£^i£s, January 1971, pp. 330-341.

Foreign
'
~

m
foreseeable future even more in favor of submarines. Even a
major breakthrough in ASW, and it would to come in the problem

of detection first of all, would not nullify the many advantages

possessed by the submarines, which are benefitting from

technological progress much more than their hunters. This

fact seems to be well understood in the Soviet Union and the

further development and sophistication of their submarine

forces is proof to it.

Recognizing the fact that they do not possess either a

monopoly on technology nor are they necessarily far ahead Tn

its application to submarine construction, the Soviet Navy has

maintained a respectable number of boats in commission, obviously

utilizing the advantage of numbers. In this respect, it is

interesting to note not only the Soviet Navy's maintenance of a

considerable number and an even larger percentage of conventionally

powered submarines, but their continued construction. For

certain tasks and regions there is no pressing need for nuclear

submarines. A number of tasks, including ASW in areas where

/ i

enemy anti-submarine surface and air forces can be reliably

excluded or their effectiveness greatly reduced, protection of

convoys in restricted areas and coastal patrols can still

successfully be performed by conventionally powered submarines.

The moderate consumption of energy required for such tasks

i

7
/

l!r5
coupled with the increased capacities of batteries, not to

mention closed-cycle engines, permit their presence in the patrol

area for a considerable time.

'
The cost of conventional

submarines compared with nuclear powered is considerably lower,

several conventional boats can be constructed for the price

of one nuclear powered submarine. *

Greater emphasis on the forward deployment of Soviet naval

forces should force them to increase the ratio of nuclear

submarines, but this does not mean the gradual elimination of

conventional submarines for the immediate future. The fact

that the Soviet submarine construction program presently

underway initiated an obvious reevaluation of their submarine

force requirements for the current decade seems to warrant such

a conclusion.

While it is relatively safe to predict that current and

future submarines will be quieter and deeper-diving than their

predecessors, speed is another matter. While certainly needed

and beneficial, for the attack submarines (both torpedo and cruise

missiles) ,
/
it might not be essential (especially under optimum
!

selection of propulsion plants and tasks) for other types,;

i

including some hunter-killer submarines. The first generation

of Soviet nuclear submarines, particularly the first mass

i

produced N-class, is credited with a submerged speed of 25 to

-,

1U6
 30 knots. Even at 25 knots they are faster than
the early US
nuclear submarines. 197 However, there is a price for speed,

and most Soviet nuclear submarines are reported

to be noisier

than their American counterparts.

The practically simultaneous construction of

3 (N, H, E)

classes of nuclear submarines in the late 1950s* and

early 1960s
and of 4 conventional (F, G, J, R) classes seems to testify to
the Soviet confidence in the existing technology
and that the
time from 1953 to 1957-1958 had not been wasted.
Soviet
nuclear submarines of the second generation built since
the'

mid 1960s have even better characteristics. In that regard '

Admiral Rickover stated, "From what we~ haw been able to learn
during the past year, the Soviets have attained equality in a

number of these characteristics (weapons, speed, depth,

sonar,
quietness, and crew performance) and superiority in some". 198

It was reported that the number of submarines launched

per year with the initiation of construction of more

sophisticated
boats appeared to have dropped, but a one-shift annual
capacity to

197
Norman Polmar, "Soviet Navy Pulls Even in Nuclear
Sub Might", Washington Post October 4, 1970,
, pp. Dl and B4;
I zvestiya October 9, 1971, claiming the existence of "quite a
,

few" nuclear powered Soviet submarines had also called

them the
fastest in the world.

19 Washington Post
, October 4, 1970.

•?

/ •
 built up to 20 nuclear powered submarines
exists. 199 Due to
the retirement of older classes of submarines
built in great
number, the total Soviet submarine order of
battle might 'decline
to 250-300, but numerically they would still
be far ahead of

any other navy in the world and greater even than the combined

submarine force of NATO. In overall balance, the present

potentials of Soviet submarine force are

considerably greater
compared with that of a decade ago, a trend
most likely to
>

continue.

Surface Ships

At the time of fateful decision of the mid

1950s
concerning the development of the Soviet Navy
which emphasized
the submarine - aviation nature of its main striking
forces,
the complex problem associated with surface ships
(i.e. does
the modern navy need surface ships and if so what kind;
what
missions should be assigned theisuand what place
in general
should they occupy in the navy) remained to a large degree
unsolved. Two aspects of the problem should be emphasized.

The first is connected with the role of surface ships, especially

capital ships, as the main strike forces of

the navy. By

199
Naval Institute Proceedings . August 1971, pp. 60-62.

_L 43
delegating this role to the submarine and naval aviation, the

decision automatically solved this aspect of the problem.

The Soviets arrived at this decision through a careful examination

of the past, present, and future role of capital ships in a big

war. The big, world war of the future was seen only as a

nuclear one. Past experience had been projected into the

future, and the fate of battleships compared with the aircraft

carriers. The continuing preoccupation of Western navies,

particularly the American, with aircraft carriers, was compared

with the outdated Japanese approach during the preparation and

execution of attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It

has been claimed by the Soviet specialists, including leading

admirals, that the Pearl Harbor attack aimed mainly against

American battleships, viewed by the Japanese as a main striking

force, and launched not by the Japanese battleships but by

aircraft carriers, which then were viewed as supporting forces,

was a major mistake demonstrating an absence of foresight and

dialectical considerations on the part of the Japanese naval

command. It was concluded that, as the era of battleships was

replaced by the era of aircraft carriers during World War II

and the first post-war decade, the role of the latter as a main

strike force is on the decline and the future belongs to the

submarine-aviation forces armed with missiles as their main

149
armament. It should be repeated that all these considerations

are applied by the Soviets only in respect to the large war,

the nuclear war, and to attack aircraft carriers, (CVA) .

'
In

relation to the small local wars where major powers are not

opposing each other and which are conducted with conventional

armament, the continued role of attack aircraft carriers has

never been questioned. If one separates the propagandists

rhetoric concerning the underdeveloped and small countries'

lack of modern means of armed conflict to repel the attackers,

the attack carrier role as the main naval force in such wars

has been recognized by the Soviets. It should be also stressed

that at the time of rejection of attack aircraft carriers as

the main striking force, the Soviet Navy had neither a single

carrier in commission nor any experience on how to build or

operate them. The economic and technological feasibility to

build aircraft carriers were clearly present in the mid 1950s,

but it would require V to 8 years before the first group of

those ships and the aircraft for them would be developed, built,
/
and initial operation experience acquired. However, the early

and mid 1960s were seen by the Soviets as a period when various

sophisticated missiles tipped with nuclear warheads would

dominate the naval armament and, coupled with greatly improved

electronics and means of reconnaissance, a huge aircraft carrier

"«

1 En
would have no chance to survive an attack against her. The
tragic experience with the battleship Novorossiysk, formerly

the Italian Guilio Cesare, sunk by a conventional World Y.'ar II

mine with the loss of over 600 men in the middle of Sevastopol

Harbor in October 1955 soon after expensive modernization, was

a painful example in the minds of the Soviet leadership of how

easy a large ship can be sunk. The loss of Novorossiysk was

a hard blow to the Soviet Navy, and it gave to its opponents

one more argument on how vulnerable ships are.

The second aspect of the above problem dealing with other

classes of surface ships was resolved differently. It has always

been well understood in the Soviet Union,, in. spite of some

loud pronouncements in favor of submarines and aviation, that

surface ships of various displacement acting independently or

in cooperation with other combat arms of the navy are irreplaceable

for a variety of missions. Because of the changing conditions

under which those missions would-be accomplished, the problem

arose of the compatibility of armament and the tasks to be

solved. The majority of the surface combatants of the Soviet

Navy during the second half of the 1950s were, owing to the

nature of their opponent and by the type of their armament,

ill suited for their assigned missions. Moreover, the missions

themselves had been gradually changing, and a degree of

51
 .

uncertainty about them most likely existed toward the

end of
the 1950s. In this respect, Khrushchev's denigrating remarks

about surface ships made during his trips to England in 1956

and
to the United States in 1959 were aimed at large conventionally

armed ships, Svedlov-class cruisers included, and obviously

did
not mean the negation of the surface ship's rol-e, particularly
in the future. The construction of surface ships has never

ceased in the Soviet Union. The greater or lesser intensity of

construction during the second half of the 1950s and beginning

of the 1960s can easily be explained by the availability of

the armament, uncertainty in the regard of operational concept

due to changing requirements, and the search for an optimum

armament package

K
What is unmistakenly clear was the Soviet decision in late

1950s to concentrate practically exclusively on the missile

armament of the surface ships. This truly revolutionary concept

did not compete with but rather supplemented, in a variety of

ways, the Soviet main naval striking forces, submarines and

naval aviation. The Soviets became convinced that missile

ships of any displacement, including missile boats, can

successfully engage any surface ship at sea as soon as it comes

within the range of their missiles and that many advantages

previously enjoyed by large-displacement ships armed with

152
 conventional weapons have been nullified
by the missile-anr.od
ships. Not all missile ships built by the
Soviets in last
fifteen years turned out to be unouestionable
successes.' The
first few classes were built on the
basis of old operational
concepts and did not produce drastic
qualitative improvements
in the Soviet surface forces. However, the great majority of
the newly created ships had been laying
down the foundation "for
the oualitatively new surface fleet forces which
started to
emerge toward the end of the 1960s.
Moreover, Soviet missile
ships have started to produce
corresponding, but unfortunately
belated, reactions in the Western navies. It took a relatively
minor (compared with the potential of
missile ships) engagement,
the sinking of the Israeli destroyer, Elath by
the Egyptian
Navy using Soviet built missile
boats, to speed up the process

of the realization that to measurethe naval strength of

a country,
and sea power in general, by the number of stacks above the

surface and the amount of smoke they

are producing is to live
i

dangerously in, the past and to overlook the

1

present, and
especially future, realities.
|

The immediate result of the mid 1950

decision was the
cancellation of further construction of
Sverdlov-ciass cruisers
(out of 20 ships laid down only 14 were completed)
, and the
gradual reduction of ICotl in-class
destroyer construction.

1 ^Q
The Sverdlov class was the last conventionally armed cruiser

auilt by the Soviets. While continuing the construction of

Skory-class destroyers, 71 units of which were built during

the 1948-1952 period, a single unit of the first Soviet

:lush-deck destroyer of the Tallin-class (Neustrashimyi) was

milt and tested during the 1950-1952 period. .'The class was

lever put into serial production, but served as a prototype

;or a large family of hulls, the Kotlin, Kildin, and Krupnyi

dasses and their modifications. It was found necessary to

:orrect the design by augmenting the anti-aircraft armament and

•educing the displacement. The resulting Kotlin-class destroyer

as put into serial production in 1952, and about two dozen

nits were built. The Kotlin class turned out to be the last

onventionally armed destroyer built by the Soviets. 200

.

After construction of 6 to 8 units of the 1,900-ton

ola-class destroyer escort, production was switched in 1952

o the somewhat reduced tonnage (1,600 tons) and armament

3 100 mm guns instead of 4) of the Riga-class, of which close

o 50 units were built. The further development of this type of

hip by the Soviet Navy resulted in a stronger

tendency toward

2 °0„
ivlorskoySbornik No. 12, 1966, pp. 16-21; No. 3, 1967,
p. 18-22; and Jane's, 1971-1972 edition.

151.1
 SW ship. The construction of the Pctya class in the
late
ijs and early 1960s in two modification:; war;
followed by the

itruction of the Mirka class, also in two modifications,

t during the first half of 1960. Both classes are propelled

ombined diesel and gas turbine propulsion plants. 201

The following other conventionally armed Soviet ships

should
rmtioned: PT-boats of the P-6, P-8, and Shershen classes;

weepers of the T-43, T-58, Yurka and Vanya classes; a

br of classes of patrol boats, auxiliary ships, and support

[i. The total number of all these types and classes runs
202
1 into the many hundreds of units.

Toward the spring of 1958 L.:e ilrst Soviet missile-armed

E.ce ship, the Kildin-class destroyer built on the basis

islightly modified Kotlin-class hull and equipped with one

iher for the Strela surface-to-surface guided missile, was

1. Four units were built. From 1958 to 1960, 8 units of

rupny-class surf ace-to-su-rSace guided-missile destroyers

ped with two launchers were constructed. The construction

3e two classes might be viewed as a classical example of

pplication of new weaponry to an old operational concept,

201
See Jane's , 1971-1972, p. 631.
202„
For details see latest editions of Jane's Fighting Ships.

'
.
:
IjJ
 -

ater denounced by Gorskhov. As both ships had only conventional

;
uns for anti-aircraft defense, they were poorly suited for

.istant operations at sea requiring fighter support which could

e provided only by shore-based aviation. Yet, the availability

f missiles increases the striking power of surface units by

00 to 150 miles - a quite respectable distance" particularly

mportant in closed seas, which would include the Mediterranean.

n the late 1950s the Soviet Navy developed the Komar-class

issile boats armed with two short-range (about 20 miles)

tyx cruise missiles. In the early sixties, Osa-class missile

Dats armed with four Styx missiles were built. Three

edifications of the Osa are known.

During the decade of 1960, the Soviet Navy was reinforced

Lth variety of missile armed ships. Four Kynda-class guided

issile cruisers were built between 1960 and 1964. The Kynda

is the first surface ship armed with both surface-to-surface

laddock missiles (2quadruple launchers) and surface-to-air

>a missiles (one twin launcher) . Additional armament includes

:
(2 twin) 76-mm guns, 6 (2 triple) ASY/ torpedo tubes and 2

H-barreled ASW rocket launchers. There is a helicopter platform

i the stern. Construction of the Kashin-class guided-missile

•stroyer, which the Soviets call a large ASW ship, also started

the early sixties A total of sixteen units have been built

|

:
'
•
/ .

1 en
 so far. The Kashin class is armed with 2 (twin GOA) surface-
tO-air-(SAM) missile launchers, 4 (2 twin)
76 ma guns, 4 ASW
rocket launchers and ASW torpedo tubes.
The Kashin was the' •

world's first gas-turbine-propelled ship

of its size.
As a result of the Soviet concern
J
for the anti-aircraft
defense of their surface units, certain
classes of ships were
converted during the decade of 1960s and
armed with surface-to-air
nissiles (SAM). Dzerzhinskiy a
, Sverdlov-class cruiser, was
inverted around 1960-1961. The third 152-mm triple gun turret

us removed and in its place installed a twin

SAM launcher for
hiide-line missiles, used by the Soviet
air defense troops. -

.ong-range but heavy missiles did not

prove to be well suited
:or naval purposes, and the experiment did not
continue.
Hiring the 1962-1968 period a number of Kotlin-class
destroyers
'ere converted into SAM ships. One surface-to-air missile
auncher was installed instead of the main
twin 130 mm tureet.
During the second half of the 1960s at least
three
i

rupnyi-class ships were armed with SAM launchers

instead of'
/ "

|
"

&• originally installed surface-to-surface

launchers, and j

ere given the NATO designation of Kanin class.

|

In the mid 1960s a new class of Soviet

guided missile
i

raisers, the Kresta, emerged, and a total of 4 units

were
Wleted. The ships' armament includes everything except

/
allistic missiles: 2 twin Shaddock surface-to-surface missile

aunchers, 2 twin Goa SAM launchers, four 57 mm (two twin)

ati-aircraft guns, 4 ASW rocket launchers (2 12-barrel and

6-barrel) , and 10 torpedo tubes (2 cuintuple) . The ship

Lso has a helicopter hangar, the first Soviet ship so equipped.

lis 7,000-ton multi-purpose ship has no counterpart in

astern navies as of the early 1970s.

Toward the end of the 1960s at least 2 modified Kresta-

lass ships, designated Kresta II, were built, with the following

;ianges from the Xresta I: Instead of 2 twin Shaddock

irf ace-to-surf ace missile launchers, two quadruple new short-

imge surface-to-surface missile launchers (possible suited for

:>me long-range ASW weapons as well) were installed: 2 twin

aunchers for GOA SAMs were replaced by 2 twin launchers for

:>w surface-to-air missiles; 8 (four twin) highly automated

:)mm guns were added. The remaining armament is the same as

i

203
ii Kresta I.

In 1967 the existence of a large ship variously described

k
/
the West as a helicopter carrier or a combination helicopter
I
"

203
For the further details on the described ships, see
f
Fighting Ship s, 1971-1972 ed., pp. 615-620; and earlier
ine's
Editions; "New and Modernized Ships of the Soviet Navy" are !

ISO described in Soldat und Technik No. 10, 1970, pp. 566-570.
,

/
:

/
'

158
 .

guided missile cruiser was revealed. The Moskva class,

hich two units, Moskva and Leningrad, are presently in

:ission, is designated as an anti-submarine cruiser in the

204
ret Navy and that undoubtedly is what she is. Displacing

>t IS, 000 tons, the ship is exceptionally well armed for its

-ose and fit with extensive electronic equipment, including

•e-dimensional (three-D) surveillance radar (also installed

resta II) and variable depth sonar (VDS) , both firsts aboard-

r
et ships. The ship armament includes one twin. launcher for

'missiles (which might be intended for surface-to-surface

;iles as well) , a new Soviet weapon; 2 twin launchers for new

-3 surface-to-air missiles, 2 250-mm ASW rocket launchers,

ubes each; four (2 twin) ASW torpedo tubes, 4 (2 twin)

•a guns. The ship also carried about 20 XA-25 ASW helicopters

'Moskva class is the world's largest warship designed for

Towards the end of 1960s, Soviet Navy efforts to have

slip with as .small displacement as possible for a given

/ !

iliaent and mission resulted in the development of Nanuchka-class

i

^lacing about 300 tons, the Nanuchka is armed with six (2 triple)

'ace-to-surface missiles, which seem to represent a new-vintage

i

204
TRTJD, 25 July 1963.

•?

TS9
—\j kj
;jipon. In addition, a photograph published
in the Soviet
|ss reveals provision for the installation
of a SAM launcher
„< the existence of a retractable one)
which would have to be
.small dimensions (smaller than the GOA SAM or SA-N-3) . The
^P most likely is a successor to the
Osa class and is considerably
iter suited for operations in a more remote areas:

Soviet development of ships with new

propulsion principles
armament have accelerated during the
| deoade of the 1960s. After.
:ensive tests in the late 1950s of
hydrofoil, -gas turbine/ and
sel propelled boats, were developed
and placed in service in" the
1960s. Toward the end of the 1960s, there were
approximately

boats. 206 The same approach

Dzen Pchela-class hydrofoil patrol

been taken with xthe air-cushion ships.

:

At least four, obviously

Omental types, one of which was armedwith a
Styx-like SSM, were
207
va. One class of air-cushion boat has been
used by the naval
mtry since at least the spring of 1971. 2 ° 8

A greater role for ships with uem

propulsion principles

Krasnaya Zuezda , 6 August 1971.

206
ERXBNNUNGSBLATTER , May 1970, p. 135.
207
SudostroyeniyeN o. 2, 1959 and No. 8, 1969.
203 c .

See Chapter Shipbuilding.

I . ISO
/
 . ,

their combat employment were

d
theoretically justified by the
>viet Navy in mid-1960' s 20D

in June 1971 a brand new

Soviet missile ship, the Kri vale-class
Ued the Atlantic via the Danish
Straits after tests in the Baltic.
::h a displacement of only 3,500 - 3,S00 tons the ship's armament
eludes: four surface-to-surface (and
probably long-range ASW
"
epons as well) missile launchers;
reserve space (or concealed
OW the deck) for two installations of new
SAM launchers similar
the Nanuchka class; 4 76-mm
automatic guns (2 twin turrets); '
-. -
l ASW rocket launchers, 8 ASW torpedo
tubes (in 2 4-tube installations)
Krivak-class is equipped with
.
sophisticated electronics and has
It is obviously a multipurpose
.
ship with a strong ASW inclination,
is possible that after extensive tests
this class of shi P will
produced in considerable number.
With no counterpart among the rest
world's navies, the ship surprises
:he
with a variety of armament
called on a platform of such a
modest displacement. 210
Thus, the decade of the 1960s
witnessed a gradual increase
eviet Navy interest in surface
ships, sophistication of tiJir
"
=ment, with practically exclusive
emphasis on missiles as the

2 °9 i

TU "
Surface s "es Are Really Becoming
Shi'o^.n
ice Ships
•ice
,
^J?' f
Morskoy Sbornik No. 10, 1936, pp. 22-25.
' ,

210
Soldat und Technik No. 7, 1971, o. 373- a-d v„ in ta-ri '

>S4-^oQ- vv>" v^v^T.^r-;;:',-,-,;- ' ** ^'•-'i a..a .NO. 10, 1971,

'
"J J -"^^-W.ObB+.AyTat
' October 1971, p. 152.

/
161 *
 hip's main weaponry. A number of classes of
Soviet built ships so
ar have no equals among the major
naval powers. Many, newly-built
urface ships were eouipped with gas
turbines, thereby eliminating
oiler rooms, providing more space
and provisions for the automation,'
ad reducing maintenance requirements. Other navies of the world
tarted to emphasize the advantages
of gas turbine propulsion towards
jl* end of the 1960s; in fact, all new
British surface ships will bo
„ 211
;) ecuipped.

Starting with the 1957 installation of

an after helicopter
jatform aboard a Xotlin-class destroyer, the
Soviet Navy has
~
continued this practice which resulted
in a permanent hangar for one

two helicopters aboard Kresta-class ships.

Cf
The employment of
hlicopters by many Soviet surface ships for ASW,
extended over the
Sjrizon target detection and classification, cruise missile
course
:rrection, relay stations and perhaps future anti-ship
missile
ifense has represented to a large degree
the light airborne
ilti-purposo system (LAMPS) presently being evaluated by the US Navy. 212

Toward the end of the 1950s, when they started to arm

their
/ '
r
^face units first with surface-to-surface missiles
and to employ
•km within the framework of an already outdated
operational concept,

211
Naval Institute Proceedings , October 1971 '
p->. 111-112.
212
US Naval Institute Proceedings , December 1971, pp. 27-29.

i S9
ilts realized the need for improved anti-aircraft defense of

;le ships and undertook appropriate remedial action, eruipping

,'units, starting with the Kynda, with SAM missiles as well,

uch as the Kashin-class) were built with predominantly

missile armament and more were converted into SAM ships,

a class and probably the Krivak class represent the ships

balanced armament, the ships which so far have not been

213
by any other navy. Admiral S. Gorskhov words about

issile ships being the pride of the Navy" seem to be

m J 214
y justified.

Naval Aviation

rhe birth of Russian naval aviation dates back to the year

b the first seaplanes arrived in the Black Sea Fleet. Up

he naval aviation units were equipped primarily with foreign-

planes. During World War I most of the aircraft were Russian

he M-5 and M-9 designed by D. Grigorovich, the Sikorskiy-10

l'ya Moromets designed by I. Sikorskiy, who after the

n left Russia and continued his work in the United States.

Muromets, which was the first multi-engined aircraft was

213
See Admiral Xharlamov, "Ships and Their Armament", Ncdelya
?68, p. 8.

214
S. Gorshkov in Pray da, 14 February 1963.

163
 .

iicularly well suited to meet the

requirements of naval
•nuaissance. In 1915 the Baltic and Black Sea
fleets aeouired
raft earriers. They served as a base for 6 to 10
seaplanes, which
• lowered to the water by special cranes. At the beginning of .^ '

10 seaplanes from two Black Sea Fleet aircraft

,
carriers made a
essful attack against the Turkish port
of Zonguldak. Dropping
ombs, the planes sank one steamship and
several small vessels. 215
js the October 1917 revolution, the Soviet Navy has always had an

grated naval aviation. By the mid 1930s, aircraft designed

by -

irigorovich (flying boats M-24, ROM) and

Tupolev (MDR-2, MIC-i,
design bureaus were delivered. During the secondhalf of 1930
|tly modified aircraft built for the
Soviet Air Force, P-5, TB-1,
DB-3, reinforced naval aviation. When the war started (June
the Soviet Navy had 2,581 aircraft
,
distributed among its
'fleets of which 10% were torpedo carriers,
14%, bombers, 45%,
ers, 25%, reconnaisance, and 6% miscellaneous. During the war the
aviation received considerable number of fighter
aircraft and
rs (particularly PE-2 and TU-2) 216

The post-World-Y/ar-II period witnessed the

steady growth
val aviation. But this growth up to 1955 followed the familiar

kt and wartime pattern, exclusively land-based

aircraft with

215
Berdnikov, "How Naval Aviation was Born"
S.
2fc>r<?kov
*' V
fJCNo. 10, 1970, pp. 59-55. ;
"

216
Morskoy Sbornik No.' S, 1971, pp. 18-23. " r
 ,

aV y emphasis upon fighters and the virtual absence (with the

cc ption of a few TU-4s) of long-range aircraft. la addition to

rious types of MIGs, IL-28s in light bomber, torpedo carrie'r, and

:onnaisance versions were delivered. In 1955 the first regiments

TU-16 Badger medium-range bombers were transferred to the Navy

>m Long Range Aviation. During the second half of the 1950s, the

/y received a number of long-range TU-95, Bears. In 1960 all

'

;hters were taken away from naval aviation and transferred to the

lutry air defense (PVO) , which became the sole provider of air

ev for Soviet naval units in the coastal zone. This step reduced

numerical strength of Soviet naval aviation from about 3,500

217
craft to 800.

The removal of fighters from the Navy simplified the

ining and maintenance problem and did not handicap the effectiveness

ship and convoy protection in the coastal zone. The Soviet Navy

a well developed system of shipboard fighter control (KPUNIA)

ch, in close cooperation with the shore based units of the PVO, has

a charged with the responsiblity of providing fighter cover for

218
p units and convoys at sea.

217 S.
Breyer, Guide to the Soviet Navy , United States Naval
titute, 1970, p. 181.
218
See lor example, D. Fomin, "Covering Single Ships at Sea
fust Enemy Air Strikes", :,lorskoy Sbornik, No. 5, 1967, pp. 29-32.

1 CM~
-i. uu
 The decade of the 1960s represented the
most interesting
nd important period in the development
of Soviet naval aviation,
hich, organizationally is divided among
the 4 Soviet fleets,
t is also centrally controlled from
Moscow by the Office of the
3 mmander of Soviet Naval Aviation. There are three major combat
ranches: Reconnaissance, Missile-Carrying (Strike),
and
iti-Submarme. The number. of aircraft incorporated into "

;ese three branches exceeds 1,000 (including helicopters).

iere are also naval transport and training

aviation, which total
'veral hundreds of aircraft. 220

Also of extreme importance in any

consideration of the *

le of Soviet aviation at sea is the close cooperation

between
e Navy and Long Range Aviation (LRA) discussed
previously,
ch cooperation provides the Navy with a considerable
number of
ag-range aircraft under the operational
control of the Navy for
honnaissance and strike missions. The principal aircraft of
t LRA participating in the maritime role,
are: the 4-engine
rboprop TU-95 Bear; the 4-engine jet Miasishehev Bison; and

i 2-engine supersonic jet TU-22 Blinder. All can be refueled

the air. The aircraft of the naval missile carrying aviation

010
Morskoy Sbornik No. 10, 1966, p. IS.

Jane's Fi^htin^ Ships , 1971-1972, -p. 593..

••?

10Sb
-^
 include the 2-cn-ino jet TU-1G, llacltfur; Lhu TU-OS,
1

TH-aa, iuh1

perhaps the Bison. During the first hall of the }960a all Navy

3adgers were modified for in-flight rofuoling. '

Naval reconnaissance aviation employs the TU-95, TU-16 and

possibly a M-4 modification. A small number of AN-12 Cub, a

modified version of a 2-engine -turboprop 'transport aircraft, and

the IL-18 May, a 4-engiue turboprop commercial aircraft modified

for patrol and ASW are also employed. The anti-submarine

aircraft are: The BE-6 Madge, which are being rapidly replaced by^,

2-engine turboprop flying boats; the BE-12, Mail; MIL-4 Hound

helicopters; and KA-25 Hormone helicopters. The old IL-2S s

Beagle twin- jet has been used to carry ASW torpedoes. It was

reported that some TU-95 and Bisons (M-4A) were converted to the
221
ASW role. Modified Bisons and TU-16 aircraft are used as tankers

for air refueling. The TU-16 tankers are an integral part of

•missile carrying aircraft units. For example, an air regiment

has two squadrons of strike aircraft and one squadron of tankers. 222

The TU-95 Bear is known in several modifications from Bear-A

/ i

221 '

Armee Rundshau No. 1, 1971, pp. 29-31. For characteristics

,

of aircraft see also Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1969-1970 ,

and 1971-1972 editions'] :

222
OXFAN - Manue vers of the USSR Navy Condu cted in April -
May, 1970 , Moscow, Military Publishing House 1970, pp. 203.
,

i /

'•*
/
"
\
/

lft 7
 to Boar-D. It is the longest range
Soviet aircraft and l.'wldoly
used for various naval roles. The TU-22 Blinder so far has been
;

the only supersonic aircraft in naval

aviation delivered cfuring
the second half of 1960. After its first showing in the
1961
soviet Air Show, the aircraft electronics was
considerably
.ap roved and an in-flight refueling
capability, added. A
*

portion of the Blinders in naval

aviation, however, are still"
ithout an air refueling capability.
The Blinder is the most
ogical aircraft to replace the aging
Badger. If the development
t wing-wing Backfire is as advanced as
has been claimed, delivery
o naval aviation should be expected. 223

The Soviet practice of the last 15

|
years of concentrating
heavier, long-range aircraft in the
j* development of their '

aval aviation can be only

partically explained by the absence '

t aircraft carriers. That absence was definitely a factor '

jring the post-World-War-II period

up to the end of the 1950s,
jring the decade of the 1960s,
however, the development was j

ictated by the, conscious rejection

of the attack carrier concept
|r the reason discussed earlier, and
in turn, the conscious
'cognition of the great maneuverability
and striking power of
avy aircraft armed with
missiles in naval warfare. At least

US News and World Report . September 27, 1971, p

i /

d Qa
 initially, the combination-
of issues
missile .

with nuclear
,

Bl , H warbeacis
Played an important rolo
in th,m
the ^development.
The Soviet Navv full,,
y fUlly ^cognized
the PQ^on.ial
potential n-r -
of surface •

locations,
for-atir.no
especially those with
lth ° arriers f
defense.
They had also were
anti-aircraft ^
aware
e of diff ic „•
01 difficulties for bombers
using free-fall
bombs, even tha,
those armed with
a nuclear
>o penetrate
charge
the defense and
Q so
to nit
hit a maneuverable
tar-et As
1 result ' ^ssile carrying aviation •
u-
wnich
, is immeasurably
more

missiles which can

hit
nit surf
S11 , f ^ce
,
and shore target-
tti t>^ts W it hrt *
without even N
atering the

«•»
anti-aircraft *«+
Colander of Baltic
^^ *° M '
Was b °-
^ developed.
Fleet A vi,f
Avaataon wrote in 1S55;
ssxle
"&val
- carrying aviation armed with
lth n-s^
siles
ra - s
with nuclear
^ads can use its
powerful weaponu uutsiae
¥ outside th.
the operational
Q Se of
shipboard surfo^
surfacc-to-a.r
+
missiles and almost
beyond
POt ° ntial
^'
e Of •«.„*.„
direct6d d&ainot
S PenaitS
"
miSSile
^
miSSiOQ ° f destroying
— against these aircraft
^n s aviation to effectived
exxecxively carry but
.

1 enemy warships1PS and *^ansports '

"

at sea,
-ardless of their
anti-aircraft
aircraft *defense
*
systems. Modern
'
al aviat ion
has great possibilities
iDilities for
f«, conducting
«
!

° at ^^tions
successful
not only a
/ a-ains-
e ainst large
ia
surface warships but
a S"inst
T submarines, including « i
. nuclear-powered ones
and . . .

j
/
i

. 163
 - "

in many instances aircraft' have advantages over surface combatant

ships and even over modern submarines. With their great rango

and speed they can strike quickly against enemy forces found at

sea. Aviation units and forces can be transferred to other

operational areas quickly (for example, large groups of aircraft

can be redeployed from one continent to another in less than a

224
day, without any loss in combat capability)."

Air refueling, widely practiced since the mid 1960s gave

'

Long Range Aviation and many types of naval aircraft a practically

unlimited range within the framework of naval tasks. During the'

large-scale Soviet naval maneuvers Sever-1968 and particularly

Okean - April-May 1970, it was claimed that air refueling

resulted in "substantial qualitative change converting long-range

aviation into global range aviation which mastered all the world's

oceans". During the Okean maneuvers alone, more than 500 Soviet

long and medium-range aircraft were observed in the Atlantic and

Pacific. In a period of 24 hours alone, 200 sorties were recorded.

Close cooperation between ASW aviation and other ASW forces

/ i

have been widely practiced. Of great interest is a Soviet claim

22^
Lieutenant General S. A. Gulyayev, "The Role of Aviation
in Combat Operations at Sea Under Contemporary Conditions",
Morakoy Sbornik No. 6, 1965, pp. 36-43.
225 ,
Soldat und Tochnik No. S, 1970, pp. 423-431.

;
/

. i7'n"
 -t cooperation not on ly
betweea Afflf ^^ ^ ^^
,t between long-range

,as
recomuissaace
been established ia action .
n aSainSt Various
^^ ^ '

kind- of ouWy
aval forces. 6 ' "*-^

It appears that all

three co.bat branches
of land-based
-let naval aviation have been
developed into
operative and emotive
Soviet shiphorne aviation
a™. the Soviet Nayy . ^ ^.^
is an interesting
j subject,
- safe to clai-n that no
attack aircraft carriers '

j .ill he
bUt, that Soviets have no
great nee d for the,, an
d hence/no
-rait for such ships are require.,
the nee d for other
types
shiphorne aviation is
>
another matter. There has
been a
:-ving nunber of tasks
which might be assigned
to either
jc-wing aircraft or
helicopters. The most
attractive type of
-craft for shiphorne
aviation seems to be the
VTOL (vertical
off an d landing) Aa0 ng possible tasks
.
assigned to such
J. of
<* shiphorne aviation are
participation in air defense
of
surface units, primarily
in duu
j A.i anti-crui«>
cruise „<<,=.• „
missile defense* .,

Set acquisition, classification

and, if necessarv niri
potion of cruise missiles;
support of an amphibious
landing;
•^cipation in anti-sub.arino
defense of surface force.
The
226.,
...orskoy
Sbornik >T o in iacr, ^, ,

"
=!£' "^-+^cy Publishing House, I970~ "

1 "71
possibility of such future use of shipborno aviation by the Soviet

Navy should not be excluded.

The development of reliable VTOL aircraft and further

sophistication of helicopters might serve that purpose. The

experimental VTOL aircraft Freehand shown at Demodedovo in 1967

»

was the beginning, and the work has undoubtedly been continue_d

since that time. During the celebration of Soviet Army -Navy Day,

February 23, 1972, it was claimed that VTOL aircraft had 'been

developed and there is no reason to doubt the Soviet technological

capability to do so. Assuming, however, the availability of VTOL

aircraft, their most probably employment a t. sea would be from a

-

relatively small carrier, accommodating just a dozen or so VTOL

alone or together with helicopters. It seems that the possibility

of development of shipborne aviation by the Soviet Navy along

this line should not be excluded, but again this is far from the

attack-carrier concept for which Soviet skepticism, if viewed

within the framework of a military conflict involving major

naval power, seems to be largely justified. Some specialists in

the West share the Soviet skepticism concerning the aircraft

carrier, and see its declining role. The importance of shore-based

maritime aircraft, particularly in reconnaissance and missile

/ '
172
 striking roles, is viewed as growing. 227

Secretary Laird in his annual defense report

to Congress

in February 1972 mentioned the possible use of the 3-52

to help

the U.S. Navy control the sea lanes, for minelaying,

ocean
surveillance, or for dropping listening devices to
detect
228
submarines. Whether this is an attempt to utilize surplus

heavy aircraft or the beginning of something similar

to what the

Soviet Navy has been doing for over 15 years remains

to be seen.

Shore Defense Forces and Naval Infantry

The Russian Navy and later the Soviet Navy have

traditionally
had sizable and well-organized shore defense forces. The major
element of this force was represented by gunnery
units deployed
along the extensive Soviet shore line with heavier
concentrations
around naval bases. Some areas, particularly the approaches to

Leningrad, Vladivostok, and Sevastopol, had been protected

by the
system of forts with heavy caliber long-range guns
since long-
before the Revolution. The Soviet Navy, while improving the
°
/ :

hardware, changed little up to the late 1950s, when the gradual

227
An interesting book analyzing the problem and claiming
'

the shift turn of naval aviation uc the shore-based long-range

maritime aircraft was written by Vice Admiral Sir Arthur
Hezler,
Aircraft and Sea Power ", New York:
Stein and Day, 1970, 370pp.
228,
Washington Post, February 24, 1372.

173
 :

introduction of shore-based fixed and

mobile surfaco-to-surfaco
missiles started. At present, the Missile-Gunnery
Troops, as
they are called, are still in existence, although
the majority
>f naval heavy guns were replaced by the
missiles and the total
lumber of conventional medium and small
caliber guns were reduced
Another major element of the shore defense,
|
force had
een the infantry. Historically, there have been -
3 distinct
ypes of units often simplistically grouped
under the term
aval infantry (fcprskaya Pekhota)

(1) rifle units, incorporated in to the shore

defense"
:Drce and used often together with units of the
army in defense
(f naval bases and shore installations, on land
fronts and
ati-amphibious defense;

(2) units formed only during a war from the crews of

sunk
c- damaged ships and naval shore installations (like
training
enters, armament test grounds, etc.) and called naval battalions,
aval brigades, or just naval rifle units;
I

(3) Naval Infantry proper, the exact equivalent to the

/ ';

J S. Marines-, specially organized and trained units whose

!

Umarily missions are amphibious landings, defense of

naval:
I

*jses and other special assignments.

i

The Naval Infantry has a long history interrupted by

i

retain periods when it was either reduced

in importance or even

/
, /
1 7 li
deactivated in the Russian or Soviet navies.;. It viuh horn in

1705 when, on the order of Peter the Great of 16 November, the

229
first naval infantry regiment was formed. At the time o*f

Peter's death in 1725, there were 50,000 troops of naval

infantry in the Baltic. During the reigns of Peter's successors

the strength and importance of naval infantry fluctuated.

rlowever, it was extensively and cuite often successfully used"

in numerous wars, particularly against Turkey in Meditermean.

Some students of Russian naval history have found that

'Tsarist Russia conducted a respectable number of assaults

md landings from the sea against fortified positions. For

unphibious operations the Tsarist government developed a suitable

230 s
chicle, a lead force and a functioning doctrine."

After the Revolution, a considerable number of rifle

nits were incorporated into shore defense forces. The first

nit of naval infantry, however, the Independent Special Rifle

rigade, was formed in* the summer of 1939 on the basis of the

ronstadt Rifle Regiment. In June 1940 the brigade was renamed

s First Special Brigade of Naval Infantry, thus reactivating

231
hese special troops in the Soviet Navy.
"

229
Xh. Kamalov and others, Morskaya Poxhota -(Naval Infantry),
ilitary P. H. , Moscow, 1957, p. 7.
230
See for example, Dr. R. V. Daly ,. "Russian Combat Landings",
arino Corp Gazette, June 19.39, pp. 39-42.
••»

231
Xh. Kamalov, p. 53.
 During World War IX, the. total number of porsonnol cn-acod

in the land fronts was close to half a million, but, only a small
part of this was represented by actual naval infantry.
Trio

others were units organized from ship's personnel, coastal

defense
units, and other naval establishments. They were formed into

naval infantry brigades, special regiments, battalions and

detachments, subordinated to the respective army commanders in

the area of operations. Most of these units were called naval

rifle units as distinguished from naval infantry units, but the

term commonly used in' reference to them by army commanders and

the press was "naval infantry". This fact was probably responsible

for the widespread belief of the existence of a large Soviet naval

infantry corps. All these naval units were extensively used in

nost critical battles of World War II, and took part in the

iefense of Moscow, Leningrad, and Stalingrad.

Towards the end of the war, all naval infantry units and

:ost naval rifle units 'were given the guards designation.

)uring the course of the war, the Soviet Navy conducted four

mphibious operations and 110 tactical landings. The distribution

'f landings among Soviet fleets can be seen from the following

able
 '/> i ,' -

Dim I
UMll
North Baltic •
1
!'<<.

Xinber of landings 13 36 38 21

L tided troops (thousands) 16.5 89.5 200 21 3.5

Xniber of participating
orabatant ships 196 340 1700 260 70

Nmber of participating
ransports and landing
;raft 50 300 1000 50

5»urce Rear Admiral K. A. Stalbo "Naval Art in Amphibious

,

Landings of Great Patriotic War", Morskoy Sbornik

No. 3, 1970, pp. 23-30.

(Lose to ouarter of ail Soviet amphibious landings were under

232
ie command of Admiral Gorshkov. Soon after the World War II,
233
,ie Soviet naval infantry was abolished.

The period of Soviet Navy development since the mid

950s produced a new interest in the naval infantry. A number

f published works refer to the uneven development of naval

nfantry throughout history and its' abolition during certain

leriods in peace time, necessitating its reactivation during war.

Imphasizing the specialized nature of these troops, the need for

232
Rear Admiral X. A. Stalbo, "Naval Art in Amphibious Landings
it Great Patriotic War", Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1970, pp. 23-30.
233 :,Iorskoy Slov ar (Naval Dictionary), Military P.K. ,

loscow, 1959, Vol. II, p. 6.

1 / 7
i.-olonged training and special landing equipment, these works'

;idircctly indicated that the army alone would not be able

D conduct successful amphibious landing. 234 In the fail of '

]>57, the final Baltic Fleet exercises were joined with a

j.rge amphibious training exercise conducted by the units of

5»viet Army. A number of top military men, including Admiral

Grshkov and Marshall Bagramyan, were present. Analyses of

lose exercises have 'shown that army units could not

sccessfully conduct such operations, and that particular

dfficulties were observed in the advanced party and in the",

frst waves. It is probably from that time that the Soviet

nlitary began to consider reactivation, of the naval infantry.

3fore the decade of the 1950s was over, the first two "classes

d amphibious landings ships, the MP-2 and MP-4 were built.

3 course, the Soviet military was not alone in its skepticism

lout the importance and even the possibility of amphibious

ladings in the nuclear age. However, after the initial

"nthusiasm" over nuclear weapons as a panacea to all military

tsks disippated and the discovery was made that the Soviet Army

culd not do everything alone" with the help of missile-nuclear

vaponry, the attitude towards the naval infantry changed. It

2°^
See for example, KH. Kamalov, pp. 106-109.

/
173
as quietly reactivated somewhere in 1962 or 1963 and, starting

ith 1964, after its existence was officially rovoa^lod, tho

lorification campaign was begun. Soviet naval specialized .^

iterature produced a number of important articles theoretically

ustifying the need for naval infantry and the importance of

235
mphibious operations.

During the decade of the 1960s a number of classes of

mphibious ships were built and placed in service. The >\IP-6,

olnochny, Vydra, and Alligator classes of amphibious ships

ere produced in considerable number. The largest of them, the

.lligator class, has a full load displacement of close to

;,000 tons and has been used in all major Soviet naval exercises

if the late 1960s and 1970s, and is often seen in Mediterraean

+ 236
.nd,
.

otner areas.

In spite of the frequent claims by the Soviet leading

idmirals that the naval infantry is armed with specially created

235
The existence of Soviet naval infantry for the first
;ime was reported in the July 24, 1964 issue of
Krasnaya Zuezda.
:he Soviet Navy periodical, Morskoy Sbornik has devoted increased
,

ittention to the problem, printing in September 1963 ".Modern

"Special
\mphibious Operations'* by Captain Vyunenko; March 1964,
Captain Sveislov
features of Contemporary Amphibious Operations" by
md Skimkevich; and the June 1964 "Role of Amphibious Operations
in a Nuclear War", by Rear Admiral Tuz

236 For the characteristic of Soviet amphibious ships

see Jane 1969-1970 to 1971-1972 editions; and Sol da t und
'

rechnik No. 12, 1971, pp. 696-699. _

173
anient, with tho exception of a slightly modified PT-76

pibious tank, nothing different from the standard army

tiiaent can be found in the material published by the Soviet

.;s. Recently the supplying of the naval infantry with

i-cushioned vehicles (ACV) started, and during the Navy Day

nde in Moscow one such vehicle with naval infantry men aboard

i;icipated in the landings. A claim was also made that there

237
emore in the Baltic Fleet.

The naval infantry basic landing tactics, which is a

actional first wave assault, seems to be quite similar to

e tactics used by Western navies, including the US Marine

r>s. The absence of carrier-born:? aviation in the Soviet

v is definitely a limiting factor, for the air assault

port in most cases has to be provided and is being provided

;hore-based Soviet Air Force aircraft. However, the Soviets

e convinced that aviation alone supporting landings cannot

er ent missile strikes by the beach defenders, and thus "it is,

e-efore, expedient to include submarines, aviation, surface

t>s, and even land missile units, in the attempt to destroy and

uralize missile installations, air defense means, and airfields,

237
Industrie a (Socialist Industry)
S otsialisticheskay a ,

Tuly,
1970. It is still impose- 'jlo to say either ACVs are
ig used on an experimental basis or have become a standard
I'.pment.

180
 o
00 *"*
o
i the beach defense zone.""

The wide use of missile firing submarines and surface

sips in preparing a beachhead for an amphibious landing, as

dscussed previously, has been viewed as essential. Usually,

te amphibious landing by Soviet naval infantry is accompanied

fcj
parachute and helicopter landings of Soviet airborne or

amy units in the rear of the landing areas to capture key

psitions on the avenues of approach of enemy reserves, and to

envelop the defenders.

All present naval infantry units are guard's units

ad most likely maintain their traditional brigade organizations,

/brigade consists of 3 to 4 battalions, one of which is tank

Uttalion. The basic assault unit is the battalion reinforced

ath tanks (most likely a tank company) . There probably are 7 to

\
brigades distributed among four Soviet fleets: 2 or 3 in

he Baltic, about 2 in the Black Sea, one or 2 in the Pacific,

ad one or 2 in the North. The total strength of the naval i

afantr y is 13-15,000 men.

The Soviet naval infantry is an elite, highly specialized

orce with high espirit. The mottoes, "Remember, the fundamental

aw of him who makes the assault is advance, advance, advance,

here is your victory.", is printed in the walls of naval infantry

238
Morskoy Sbornik No. 8, 1966, pp. 92-94.

181
 arracks and recreation rooms. There is even a Ballad of the

lack Beret, an official sons, of the naval infantry. 239

.Major
i

eneral P. Mel'nikov, in charge of the combat training of the

aval infantry, emphasized that future naval infantry officers

selected from among "best graduates from the army military

re

, 240
chools (academies)". Another general from the main naval

eadquarters, after being asked "What kind of troops

are our
aval infantry men?", andwered, "They are a special kind of

roops. Emphasize this! Our marines can do everything. They

an blow up bridges and remove mines from harbors. If necessary,

ast two of them can disrupt an entire platoon in the rear

of
be enemy. They can also jump from parachutes. They can climb
Duntains like mountaineers. And they make excellent snipers." 241

Obviously offensive-oriented, the Soviet naval infantry

5 certainly capable of conducting small-scale landing operations

/ themselves and assuring small to medium landings of army units

l seizing the beachhead and holding., it until the army units

ive landed. There is strong emphasis on the high degree of

239
See Lt. Col. F. C. Turner, USMC, "The Resurgent
>viet Marines", Marine Corp Gazette June 1969, pp. 29-32.
,

240
Ncticlya, No. 46, 1968.
241
Komsomo 1 ska y a Pra yd a IS September 1966.

'

/ 182
ability of naval infantry and the necessity for the
wide
itroduction of new means of transportation. Air-cushion
»

chicles and skimmers have been mentioned in particular. 242 '

\ addition to its employment in a classical amphibious role,

[;e Soviet Navy capability to use naval infantry as a reaction

Erce or in the role of interposition should not be excluded.

;e rapid growth of this relatively small force in the immediate

jture is unlikely because it has to be in conjunction with a

^responding development of the Navy's surface forces, and '

irticularly its landing ships. A gradual increase in the"*

irength of the Soviet naval infantry up to a level of

243
:;-30,000 men during the decade of 1970s is quite possible.

Science and Armament

The close dependence of armament, especially its quality

rl modernity, upon the science, technology, and general level

i industrial development is well known. However, traditionally,

I

nRussia and the Soviet Union, at least up to the recent past

/ |

a maybe even up to the present, there has been a gap between

J achievements of science in the field of basic and applied

242
Morskoy Sbo rnik No. 3, 1971, p. 29.
243
For a detailed analyses of the subject see Charles G,
rjtchard "The Soviet Marines", US Naval last:, cute Proceedings ,

afch 1072, pp. 19-30.

'.

•
183
 research, inventions or discoveries, and the ability
oX the
existing technology, industrial base, to implement
them. It
is not to say that the Soviet Union has been unique in
this
aspecx, but that gap has been wider, compared
with e.g., the
United States, because of the lower Soviet technological
level.
The number of Soviet scientists employed in defense
work and
correspondingly their role in the development of Soviet

armament have been substantial, and probably

proportionally
have exceeded those in most other countries.
Defense research
and development and allocation of industrial
capacities for-
the production of armament have always been items
of first

priority in the minds of the Soviet leadership, and that

attitude goes back to the first years of Soviet power..

The
Soviet Navy has been receiving its share of both.

In 1923 and later, the naval research and development

efforts were directed by the Scientific Technical

Committee
>f the Navy (NTKM) created by a special decree of the Revolutionary

Iilitary Council. In 1032 the departments and sections of the

ITKM were organized into independent Scientific Research

•nstitutes of the Navy (gunnery, mine-torpedo, navigation,

Communications, etc.). The Soviet Academy of Sciences and its

•umerous institutes have been working in close cooperation

with
•he naval scientific research organizations. Tor example, welding

84
 methods for ships and
particular!,,
rticularly submarine
,

construction were
developed at the beginning
g U.Os m
1930s *« *the
h
welding institute
now named after the
P™*
then head Professor
Patton. A crucial
role
was played in the
development of aeiense M
defense measures
against
magnetic mines, including
includ-ino- degaussing
,*«
methods by the institute
headed by academicians
V S..
V. S ^ulebalun
ffni^v
- •

and A. P.. Aleksandrov

in

-chatov. a future leading

-ticipated in this wo* and

ith the Black Sea
Fleet.

Since 1 925 the

Soviet nuclear soieatist)
acwveiy
beaded a speoial group
^
development of
scientific-technological
prs associated with radio
electronic, including
tele-
pnics (remote controX) and Xater
cybernetics, was Xed by '

^ician, Xater Sngineer-AdmiraX,

and Assistant .Minister
of
3'fense **•
A. a.
I a P « CT
xsoxg. T +
it was «c
.

Ao who
Ber°- wr.o as f,„ v
o<= tar
back as 1923
i

•kexoped a theoretics
analysis of the probXem
associated with
jUo communications with
submerged, submarines
, eM p aasi2ing
necessity of developing
} Xonger-wave transmitters
to increase
-ge and depth of underwater
J
reception. Since the late
,0s the scientific
group headed by Professor
A. P. Shorin
jrfd to develop
remote-controlled aircraft-torpedo
boat
j*». After successful research during
1930-1035, the first
'"PS of remote-controlled '
torpedo boats and aircraft
(one
 aircraft per pair of boats) were delivered to the
Baltic and the
Pacific Fleets.
>

The mathematical apparatus has been widely employed

by the Soviet scientists, and, in a number of cases, they

were literally ahead of their time in its application. Tor

example, the works of L. V. Kantorovich "Mathematical Methods

of Organizing and Planning Production" (1939) and "Further

Development of Mathematical Methods and Prospects of Their

Application in Planning and Economics" (1943) actually already

contained the basic ideas of the mathematical theory now widely

known as linear programming. Methods for the approximate

solution of non-linear problems were developed in the works of

Academicians N. M. Xrylov and N. N. Bogolyubov. A leading

contribution to the development of the theory of random processes

was made by Academician A. N. Kolmogorov.

The application of the mathematical apparatus to the naval

art has been considerable. The work of Professor Vice Admiral

L. G. Goncharov, "The Beginning of the Theory of Probability

in an Application to Questions of Naval Tactics" published in 1921,

expounded on certain methods of operational research.

When World Y/ar II broke out, special defense committees

headed by leading scientists were organized in the Soviet Academy

of Sciences. The Naval Scientific Technical Committee, headed by

186
Lcademician A. F. Ioffe, made substantial contributions to' the

;olution of various problems, and the organization .served as an

mportant coordinating body between the Navy and the scientific

ommunity

The theoretical works of Nobel Prize winners N. G. Basov

nd A. M. Prokhorov were important to the development of lasers,

oth scientists were named as" participants in the solution of

arious radioelectronics and communications problems.

The story of Soviet naval armament starts in 1321, when

he Special Technical Bureau (Ostekhbyuro) charged with the

evelopment of naval weapons was established. Following the s

:ussian tradition and the dictates of a purely defensive naval

olicy, considerable attention was devoted to the development of

lines and torpedos. Special decisions of the Soviet Government

.ssued in 1937, 1938, and 1940 called for the accelerated

244
more on the subject of Soviet scientists and the
.tor
kvy, see (1) Vice Admiral G. G. Tolstolutskiy "50 Years of
,

Omraunications in the Navy", Morskoy Sbornik No. 5, 1S67, pp.

5-22, and "Communications in the Okean Maneuvers", No. 11, '1970,
p. 22-25; (2) Rear Admiral B. V. Nikitin, From the History of
Iblemechanics Development in the Navy", Morskoy Sbornik No. |4,
t>69, pp. 80-83; (3) V. Volodkovskiy "Scientific Technical
, I

f ogress and the Navy", Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1971, pp. 88-73;
]0 Yu. Skorokhod, "The Soviet Navy and Cybernetics", Morskoy
jjornik No. 7, 1965, pp. 62-68; (5) Rear Admiral N. Boravenkov,
'Scientific Organizations for the Development of Naval Armament",
brskoy Sbornik No. 5, I9 60, pp. 69-73; (5) Professor Engineer -
fee-Admiral it. A. Krupskiy, "The Development of Communication
i the Navy", Morskoy Sbornik No. 5, 1971, pp. 81-85.

•
."" '
i

, 187
development of nine and torpedo armament and considerably increased

the production base. Prolonged research and development initiated

in the 1920s resulted in the successful development of the first

Soviet influence mine, which entered service in 1939. When the

war started, the Navy had in service the following 5 types of

nine: M-26, KB-1, Mirab, R-l, M 08/39. During 'the war the

following 6 types were added: AGSB, PLT-G, AMD-500, AMD-1000,

245
XPAB, EP-G.

In the post War period, the Soviet Navy continued to make

its mine armament more sophisticated. Particular attention was

devoted to the development of influence mines, both bottom and

moored, and, according to principle on wfrxcrB rhe ^ines- operated,

whether magnetic, acoustic, or pressure. Various combinations

such as magnetic-acoustic mines, as well as multi-channel mines

were also developed. From the predominantly defensive employment

of mines, a gradual shift toward utilization of the offensive

characteristics of the* weapon has -been observed, and submarines

and aircraft started to be considered as the main mine carriers.

The development of a deep-water mining capability has been a long

time preoccupation of the Soviet Navy.

5
A. B. Geyro, "Naval Mines", Morskoy Sbornik No. 5, 1971,
pp. 83-91; and Vice Admiral B. D. Xostygov, "Mine-Torpedo Weapons
during the Years of Soviet Power", :.;orskoy Sbornik No. 9, 1987,
PP. 34-38.

1 nn
loo
 The importance of nine weaponry was clearly demonstrated

during the Korean War, when the North Koreans, using mainly
»

obsolete Soviet nines as well as Soviet technical and tactical

supervision, laid a few minefields off Wonsan. Those fields not

only delayed the American landing for eight days and caused the

loss of a few minesweepers, but were responsible for a message

received in the Pentagon stating, "The US Navy has lost command of

246
the sea in Korean waters".

A continuously exercised' fleet and an all-Navy competition

for minelaying in the combat training of the Soviet Navy are

evidence of the importance attached to the mine warfare.

Advances in science and engineering kave already resulted in new

models of mines which can be planted very deep and are made of

non-magnetic materials, of self-propelled mines, and rapid

propelled surfacing mines. Mines with fuzing mechanisms utilizing

ultrasonic, optical, thermal, and other physical fields have

definitely attracted t-he attention^of. the Soviet Navy, and their

appearance can be expected.

Prior to the war, a variety of 45 cm and 53 cm torpedos

for surface ships, submarines, and aircraft were developed. All

246
0. V. Shulman and B. A. Stlimanyuk, "The Mine as a
Weapon under Contemporary Conditions", Morsk oy Sb ornik No. 12,
1937, pp. 39-43; and Cagle and Sanson, The Sea War in Korea ,

1957, p. 142 ;Soldat und Technik No 4 1972, pp. 191-195.

. ,

1
109
,voro gas-steam torpedos and particularly commonly used wore

53-3S and 53-39 models. The wakeless electric torpedo, 2T-30

successfully used by the Northern Fleet, was introduced in 1942.

L number of aviation torpedos for both parachute and free fall

/ere also developed.

Work on the torpedo self-guidance (homing) system interrupted

>y the war was resumed in 1944. The sinking in July 1944 of the

erman submarine U-250 by a Soviet submarine chaser provided the.

oviet Navy with a rare opportunity to learn about three new ^

erman torpedos, the T-V, G7A , and G72 . Particularly important

ere the homing systems of torpedos and two previously unknown

247
aneuvering devices, FAT and LUT. After the German capitalation,

ractically all her existing arsenal aad research work on torpedos

2came known to the Soviet Navy and made a sizeable contribution

d the further sophistication of Soviet torpedos. Better electric

orpedos, new jet RT torpedos and improved guidance systems were

eveioped soon after the War.

The improved anti-submarine defense and the arming of

>rpedoes with nuclear warheads forced the Soviet Navy to j

-

i:ceierate work on' long-range torpedos. In the second half of

iq 1950s and the beginning of the 1960s, a few types of long-

247
"The 2nd of the U-250", Morskoy Shornik No. 5, ,

31
71, pp. 67-74
•*

1 O
SO
 range homing torpodos v/oro
developed
peu> Darin. approximately
Dur.mj;
the
same period, t,o soviet Navy
concents on the UevoXo PWo„t o,
better ASW torpodos, in
Waic h it definitely l
asged belW the
Western navies. It now aDoearq
""^ '

no +v
appears as chough a number of ASY/
.

torpedos for submarines,

surface
ur.acc ships,
,
shin<, a «* *•
and aircraft were developed
and are presently in the
armament of the Soviet 'Navy.
in the missile field 'the
Soviet Navy approach turned
'out
to be different from that of
the «.=+ n
.he rest of-r *>,
.he navies.
A comparison
otwoen the Soviet Navy and
the US Navy in their
approach to the
evelopmcnt of three different
missiles - ballistic, surface-to-
urface (cruise), and
surface-to-air (SAM) - is very
revealing
The development of a naval
ballistic missile system, or
attaer the adaption of
available land ballistic system
to be
pched from submarines started uite
q early in the Soviet Union,
ad in September of
1955 a ballistic missile was
launched from
surfaced submarine. Either for
lack of an innovative approach
'• for reasons of technological
difficulties, the first Soviet
Marine-launched ballistic missile
system with which both
^ventional and nuclear submarines
were armed in the late 1950s,
had
o Shortcomings: it was of short range and had
to be launched
P* the surface. The American goal from the
beginning was
'f*erent, and the Polaris system developed
over a short period
time has been of much
greater range and with a submerged
launch

1S1
 capability. Through three successful
modifications (A-2, A-3,
Poseidon) the initial range of the Polaris
syste* was ra ore than
doubled, and was finally made suitable
for MIRV (Multiple '

independent Reentry Vehicle) ."""

. Moreover, all Polaris missile
submarines carried 16 missiles, while
the Soviet submarines

carried only three, until the Yankee

class made its appearance.
Starting in the early sixties, the original "
Soviet ballistic
missile SS-N-4 Sark was replaced with
the SS-N-5 Serb. The Serb
system has double the range of the Sark
and can be launched from
the submerged position. During the second half of the 1960s,

a new submarine-launched ballistic missile,

the SS-N-6, with a
submerged launch capability and more than
double the range of the
Serb, was developed for the Yankee-class
submarines. It was
also reported that another new ballistic
missile, the SS-NX-S,
with a range of close to 3,500 miles,
has been under development
and may be presently already operational. 248

The shorter range of Soviet submarine-launched

ballistic
missiles compared with those of the US has
not necessarily been
as much of a drawback as might appear at first
glance. The great
concentration of important targets along both US coasts,
the

243
x
^
Characteristics of Missiles can be found in Jrre's Ml
Aircraft, 1970-1971 ed.
5jgl_cl
pp. 565-571; and Weapon S^st e-s,
,

19/0-1971. See also In ter^a^onal^ Defe nse Review v. 5 .\T o 1 '

.

February 1972, p. 20 and Washing ton I-cs;,

March 22". 1972, "US
Analysts Puzzled by Soviet Sub Missile".

Q
2
 A ;,n| »'
f "'
;
"><1 thd I'.W, Fin nnrl 1 •

warfare have presented

tho Soviet's ballistic
missile submarines with th« „
- the opportunity to
inflict no less
damage than tho more
numerous US submarines
number of missiles (prior
arae(J

to MIKV introduction
^ ^^
to Poseidon)
would on the Soviet Union.

The Surf
**aoe
acti -tn-.->"
to .wrtwe
v.-?/ , -,
cruise missiles are a
different
story. The start of the
program in both navies was
in time or perhaps the

missile was launched from

US Navy was evea ahead

a submarine in 1953 and

either close

in mid-1954
_ ^ ^ ^^
the system became
operational. Two submarines,
ten aircraft
carriers, and four- cruiser,

I hy 1957.
were capable q£ ^.^ ^ ^^
Towards mid-1958 a bigger
and faster missile, Regains
H, was developed, but after a
single operational test, the
whole
Program was terminated in
late 1958. It should be emphasized
that the Eegulus system
was intended to be fired
against land
targets, i.e. loP strategio
delivery) and successful ^
development of the Polaris
system, initially tested in
spring of
1959, quite logically
replaced the Regulus.
The Soviet development
of surface-to-surface missiles
has been taking a
different approach. From the
beginning, it
was oriented toward
the development of a primarily
anti-ship,
and originally
anti-aircraft carrier, surface-to-surface
cruise

C
1 oo
tailo. Obviously a system designed to
operate from a moving
itform against another moving
Platform can, if the necessity
rises, be used against land targets
within its range, three
yes of firing platforms have
been adopted for a variety
of
jjiet crnise missiles, the submarine,
surface ships, and
L craft.

The first to be equipped with

air-to-surf ace cruise missiles
aircraft of Soviet naval aviation
j (early 1950s Kennel) in .

;3-1957 two cruise-missile

systems were developed, strela
for
c surface ships and the long-range
Shaddock for submarines,
jla used to be a universal
system employed by aircraft, >

iface ships, and shore missile units,

SUatftfecS? originally
coyed ^oy the submarines, found its first
application on surface
is in the Xynda-class cruiser. Also during the second half
he 1950s, Shchuka, an extremely low-altitude
guided missile
iched from aircraft against
surface targets, was developed.
be late 1950s the" Styx, a missile
system for -the Xomar and
nissile boats, was developed.

Such widespread application of

cruise missiles by the
Navy introduced a qualitatively
j* significant change into
warfare. From the point of view of naval combat
f (ships
-st ships, particularly) the missiles erased the advantages

'large-displacement conventionally-armed, armored

ships,

/ .

/.

-L J L
f
making them to a largo degree obsolete (with the exception of

for shore bombardment tasks under certain condition). The

possibility of delivering a multi-missile salvo, particularly

one fired from various directions with the missile approaching

at different altitudes and homed in by various guidance systems

employing various frequencies, made the defense of major ship

formations an extremely difficult task, even when a considerable

lumber of aircraft and ECM devices are employed. Multi-missile

Launch systems of Soviet surface ships and submarines and the

jroup attack pattern of missile carrying aircraft bear testimony

;o a possible saturation technique by the Soviet Navy.

The original Soviet concentration on a long-range missiles

lictated by the requirement to counter aircraft carriers

;ertainly imposed some limitations, as it demanded target

.cquisition by the support forces and occasional mid-course

orrection, and reduced the space available for the defensive

rmament. Moreover, 'the long ranges of the early Soviet cruise

issiles imposed a certain limitation on their speed, for most

f them have been subsonic. Gradually the above shortcomings-

ere overcome, and shorter, horizon-range missiles with supersonic

peed were developed. '

In the case of the C-class submarines,

submerged launch system has been added. The altitude shimming

rajectories of most Soviet cruise missiles added to the armament

1S5
[luring the decade of 1960s have further improved the missile

penetration capability and further complicated the already

i

difficult problem of defending against them. Early warning for

launched and approaching surface-skimming missiles can in most 1

cases, come only from the air, and hence the role of shipborne

aviation in the anti-cruise missile defense. If a missile carrier

has not been detected and destroyed - not an easy task in case of

a submarine and even a small surface missile carrier and low

flying aircraft - the only defensive means available are those

against the missiles themselves, i.e. disruption, principally

by jamming; deception, by jamming and decoys; destruction, by

anti-missiles and highly automated rapid-fire coventional guns.

The SAM systems presently available to Y/estern as well as

Soviet navies are poorly suited for the anti-cruise missile

defense. 249 Smaller faster SAMs, a sort of "mini SAM", are

needed.

The Soviet Navy., after a decade of employing PVO SAMs

(mainly GOA) , appeared to be turning toward more compact SAM

system which, in addition to an anti-cruise missile capability,

can be installed aboard smaller ships, and/or makes it possible

249 ?or elaborate discussion of the problem,. see Desmond

Scrivener, "Defense Against Anti-Ship Missiles", interna tional
Defense Review No. S, 1971, pp. 539-543; and US Naval
Prcceoclings March 1971, pp. 45-58.
,

••?

1 QO
 250
to carry more missiles aboard. The Soviet Navy's preoccupation

with anti-missile defease has been evident since the summer of

251
1971, when a number of such exercises was reported. '

The development of Soviet naval guns indicates a trend

toward highly automated lighter-caliber systems. Not a single

surface ship built during the decade of the 1960s has been

equipped with guns larger than 76 millimeters. Host of them

have 57 millimeter 'rapid-fire guns, and recently, starting

with Kresta, even larger ships have been equipped with 30-

millimeter guns in twin automatic mounts, a trend indicating

252
an increased awareness of the threat from the air. Unquestionably

the small-caliber guns are ins tallad mace: for defense against

the cruise missile in the terminal stage than for the anti-

aircraft defense. Even recognizing that the angular error

increases rapidly at the ranges where the kill probability

builds up sharply, the guns can still deliver something against

missiles in their final stage of^approach which is better than no

defense at all.

250
The demand for such systems was expressed in the mid
1960s. See for example, Vice Admiral V. Syehev, "Missiles - The
xArmament of Ship", Krasnaya Zvezda April 20, 1966; and Morskoy
,

Sbornik No. 3, 1966, pp. 32-38.

251
Krasnaya Zvezda , 15 June 1971.

Krasnaya Zvezda, 9 October 1971.

1S7
 The wide introduction of cruise missiles by the Soviet

avy undoubtedly aggravated even wore the already complex problems t

f anti-submarine and anti-aircraft defenses with their often

onflicting requirements. Submarines again gained most from the

ruise missile armament, for they received the capability to

ttack surface ships and formations from a 360° circle, while in

he case of torpedo attacks, their firing positions had been much -

ore restrictive. »

It may be surprising, but almost a decade and the sinking ^

f the Israeli destroyer Elath was needed before the potentials

f cruise missiles were recognized by the West. Not until

.967 did the defense ministries ci Germany and France started

. crash program to develop a medium-range ship and air-launched

.nti-ship missile. The French company has developed the Exocet

"Flying Fish") missile while the German company has concentrated

>n the air-launched version of the same weapon, named Cormoran.

l number of short-range cruise missiles were developed in the

late 1960s by other countries (Norway, Israel).

It can be concluded that out of three types of missiles -

ballistic, surface-to-air, and cruise missiles - only in the latter

las the Soviet Navy had almost a monopoly for an over a decade.

)f course, ballistic missiles are a part of a strategic delivery

system, and no navy is going to use them except during a nuclear

138 ——
— -. . .. .
'

„, ,... — .,. . —— —
, . , — . — . —————
i
-
 war, in which case the value
co—
of ou '-j " --
at sea could hard 1

^^ ^
t'
" *-
dc
J
called important. Of course, any Qavy
having
submarines is responsible for
their successful deployment
However, the execution of
the task " »,*,
i+= -ailure
s,t or lts
would depend
,pon the more conventionally
understood naval power, whore
the
»ployment of cruise and
surface-to-air missiles, as well
as
torpedos, mines, and guns,
are crucial. Concentrating on the
fevelopmeut of various cruise
missiles deliverable by submarines,
surface ships, and aircraft,
the Soviet Union built a
qualitatively
•ew navy, powerful
enough to leave its traditional,
mainly"
oastal, zones of operations
and to enter the areas of
the world
cean where it had not been
seen until the recent past.
This
ecame possible thanks to the
coordinated efforts of Soviet
dentists, industry, and the Navy.
The recent testimony of
efeuse research head Dr. John
S. Poster before the
House
jpropriations Committee indicated
that the Soviet Union presently
|s a research effort
larger than that of the United
States, is
ending more and in the^ future
may gain technological superiority
the U.S. military. 203
j« How accurate the estimates have
been
I an open question, but
the innovative nature of the
Soviet
"jval armament and its employment are
beyond any doubt
._ . *

253
Washington Post . 23 August 1971.

/
 Party Control and Personnel Policy

Party control of the Soviet armed forces was established

luring the first days of their existence. '

In the summer of~^^ •

LOIS, political departments started to be organized in the amy

mits. The Eighth Party Congress in March 1919 ordered the

creation of a Political Department headed by a Central Committee

aember as a part of the Revolutionary Council. In May 1919 the

iepartment became the Political Administration (PUR) , and the

mified system of the political organs of the armed forces_was

established.

The naval department of the PUR was organized in March

L922 by a decision of the Party Central Committee. In 1938

the Military Council of the Navy and the Political Administration

pz the Navy were organized. 254

Throughout their history the political organs have undergone

the traditional Soviet shake-ups and reorganizations, but have

invariably maintained their importance and general structure.

The Main Political Administration of the Soviet Army and the Navy,

having rights of the Party Central Committee Department, is in

charge of all political activity in the armed forces. The

Political Administration of the Xavy, subordinated to the Main

254 9-22;
unist of Mi li tary For ces
Co;:-- No.. 7, 1969, p? .

jflorskoy Sbornilc No. 3 197 J, p 11

, , .

c
»— p.
\j
n
<*>
Political Administration, is charged with political work in
the

Navy. In addition, there is the Military Council, of the Navy.

The Chief of Political Administration of the Navy is a member

of the council. Hence, the official title of Admiral Grishanov

is Member of Military Council of the Navy, ChioX o£ Political

Administration. *

Each fleet in its turn has a Fleet Military Council and

Fleet Political Directorate, and the chief of the latter is also

a member of the former. In addition, the local republic, region,

or district First Party Secretary also serves as a member of the

Fleet Military Council. At the top, one of the leading members

of the Party Central Committee, and often a member of Politboro

is a member of the Navy Military Council (historically, such

important figures as Zhdanov were either members of the Military

Council of the Navy or, like Brezhnev in 1955, chiefs of its

Political Administration) . Sub-divisions and units of fleets

such as flotillas, fi'eet aviation, and naval bases have political

departments. Commanders of ships starting at destroyer escort

and larger have a deputy commander for political affairs (Zampolit)

In the case- of smaller ships, such as minesweepers, missile and

'

torpedo boats, the Zampolit is assigned to each division or

aircraft squadron. Commanding officers of large departments of

aajor ships, such as missile-gunnery and engineering departments

901
of cruisers, also have deputies for political affairs.

The Political Administration of the Navy, Political

Directorates of theFleets, and Political Departments are'' in

effect staffs with their own units and sub-units and are manned

by a considerable number of professional political officers, or

political workers in official Soviet terminology. The political

organs of the Navy are in charge of the activity of the Party and

Komsomol (Young Communist League) organizations from the top to.

the bottom. The organizations are created if there are three or

more Party or Komsomol members. Because about 90% of the naval

personnel are either members or candidate-members of the

Communist Party or members of Komsomol, such organizations exist

practically in all navy units down to the smallest. .The crews

of the nuclear submarines which made the submerged round-the-world

voyage in 1966 consisted completely of members of the Communist

255
Party or of Koms omo 1
i

In a like maimer, Navy leaders, admirals and officers, are

elected to the, bureaus of local civilian Party organizations,

/
republican Party central committees and even the Central Committee

of CPSU. Thus, a sort of interweaving of military and party

leaders is taking place where, of course, the Party leadership is

preserved.

255
Soyetskiy Voir, No. 13, 1966.

^r. 9
 The Party leadership considers
the moral-political and
spiritual potential as being the
most important element of the
state military power, and its significance has
grown immeasurably
under contemporary conditions.
The .Marxist-Leninist ideology^
being viewed as the foundation of
thispotential, and the Party
leadership directly and through
political organs of the Array and
the Navy is trying to increase the political
awareness and a
fommunist world outlook of the servicemen.
The indoctrination
>f the armed forces personnel in a
spirit of patriotism and
preparedness for the defense of the
fatherland under the ~
condition of modern warfare is among
the major goals of political
/ork in the Soviet armed forces. The Party obviously considers
/ell presented Party and political work as one
of the most
•nportant ways to influence the
development of the Army and Navy.
'he daily activities of the military
councils, political organs,
ommanders, and party organizations are
concrete examples of the
arty control of the -armed forces,
but the bulk of the political
ork is performed by the political
workers, those numerous chiefs
x the political departments, instructors, propagandists, and
articularly the. Zampolits, and Party and Komsomol secretaries.
hey have been labeled 256
"true engineers of the sailors' souls".

256
Admiral
Sakharov, The Autority of the Ship's Politic--
:.l. N.
Sr.1
.«*-, .uorskoy Sbornik Xo.
1, January :.970, pp. "41-46; and krziy
^eral A. A. Yepishcv, The Indispensable
Pounclation cf
^loary Structure, Xrn5:uaya Zvozda November 30, 1967. the Soviet
,

2C3
Of all those "engineers" the Zampolit is, of course, the most

important figure. Strictly speaking, even Army General Yepisbev

is the Zampolit of Minister of Defense Marshall Grechko and

Admiral Grishanov is the Zampolit of Navy Commander-in Chief

Fleet Admiral Gorshkov.

These so called Institute of Zampolits has a complex history

in the development of the Soviet armed forces and even more so

in the development of the Navy. Before the Institute of Zampolit

was finally established, there were three periods during which

the Institute of Political Commissars existed. When the Soviet

armed forces were organized, and the need for political control

arose, trusted Party members were assigned- as political commissars

to each unit. They were responsible not only for political work,

but were required to countersign each order given oy the commanders

y

If a commissar considered an order counter-revolutionary, he had

the right to negate it. Thus, in effect, a duel command system

existed. The first introduction o£ system of one-man command

(Sdinonachaliye) occurred during the second half of the 1920s.

In the Navy, the introduction of the system was delayed for the

reasons discussed previously by at least two or three years. Under

the Edinonachaliye system, the Zampolit (Deputy Commander for

Political Affairs) was introduced, and replaced the commissar.

But if the commissar had ee,ual rights with the

C \J T"
commander, the Zampolit was his subordinate, and the
commander
was fully responsible for the units condition, including its
socalled moral-political and spiritual potential, not
to'mention
combat readiness. The Institute of Political Commissars, however,

was introduced twice again, first during Stalin's purges

in 1938,

to be replaced again by the Institute of Zampolit in 1940 right

after Finnish - Soviet War; and in 1941, right after the German

attack on the Soviet Union, to be replaced, this time definitely

in 1942, when it proved to be unworkable.

While officially proclaimed, the Edinonachaliye was "not

immediately exercised in all services and units. In the Navy,

particularly in submarines, the commissars survived longer than

in any other service or branch. However, the post-war period

witnessed a genuine strengthing of the system of Edinonachaliye

without weakening neither party control nor the intensity of

party-political work. Marshall Zhukov, while Minister of Defense,

went a step further in the implementation of the Edinonachaliye

system. The number of political workers in the units was reduced,

criticism of military commanders during the Party meetings,

prohibited, and the political workers were made responsible not

only for the state of affairs in the area of their immediate

responsibility, i.e. party-political work, but for the state of

discipline and even combat readiness of the units. When removed

Op £T
 from his post in October 1957, Marshall Zfaukov was
particularly
severely criticized for the above steps and accused
of attempting
to undermine Party political work in the armed forces. '

Until recently, and to some degree even today,

the gap
between line naval officers and political officers
in general

education, professional knowledge and popularity among

enlisted
personnel was considerable and in favor of the line
officers.
Even in the ability to explain purely political and
ideological
matters, the line officers often have been more capable
and
effective than the political officers, who frequently had
"to limit

themselves to dogmatic repetition of slogans and citations.

Moreover, contemporary Soviet professional naval officers,

who
represent a privileged group in Soviet society and are a
sort
of elite compared with other services, having been brought up under
the Communist form of government and being themselves
members of
the Communist Party or of Komsomol (junior officers)
, have
accepted the regime and are unquestionably devoted to- the

fatherland. Party and Komsomol membership are necessary

prerequisites for advancement in the ranks and for promotions.

In the Soviet Navy, command of a unit cannot be given to an

officer who is not a Party member. Moreover, all naval officers

know that fitness report includes considerations of his

participation in party-political work, ideological maturity in

/ •

I ' nop
firxism-Lcninism and the political-moral state of the unit he

onimands . Thus, the commanders themselves, under; the system of

iinonachaliye, at least in part, represent those channels through

tiich Party control is being exercised.

Although recognizing the loyalty of the officers, the Party

till finds it necessary to maintain the separate channel of

ommunication represented by the political organs, via which any

eviation from the "True line" can be reported up to the Central

ommittee. The importance of political organs of the Navy is ^-

een by the Party leaders also in the necessity to improve the

ffectiveness and increase the intensity of party-political work

rider conditions of the socalled intensified ideological struggle

etween two opposing systems. The expanded scope of navy operations,

hereby its personnel are more exposed to possible subversive

nfluences of alien ideology and non-Soviet ways of life, create

dditional demands upon political work which are openly recognized

y the Soviets. As was recently^dmphasized by member of the

Military Council and Chief of the Political Administration of the

;avy Admiral Grishanov, the situation "makes it incumbent upon

.11 Communists to be tireless carriers of our Party's line. Not

•inging phrases but business-like work is needed so that every

'arty organization and every Party member fulfills to the fullest

legree the duties outlined in the CPSU Rules, in the Instructions

2C7
 ctho CPSU Organizations in the Soviet Army and
Navy, and in the
iree of the CPSU Central Committee of 21 January 1967
"On
i
i

proving the Party-political work in the Soviet Array 257

and Navy."
The 1967 decision was an important one for the
political^
rans. First, the position of company and equivalent
Zampolits,
Iminated under Zhukov, was restored thus increasing
considerably
h number of political officers in the units. Second, the -stature
fall schools training political officers has been elevated

>higher schools with a four-year period of training. The

:viously unsuccessful efforts to elevate the prestige of
the

)itical officers, to improve the quality of their work were

lensified. Army General Yepishev wrote, "In accordance with

i
Central Committee demands steps were taken recently to further

trove Party work in all sectors of the armed forces, to raise

ij activeness and militancy of party organizations and to

rease their influence in all aspects of troop life and

• ,,258
Ining."
•

The necessity for the political officers in the Navy to

f naval matters was emphasized by Admiral Zakharov in the

•Lowing way: "It is unthinkable today that a political worker

i have authority without deep knowledge of the equipment and

257
Morskoy Sbornik , No. 9, 1971, p. 7.
258,,
.\rasnaya Zvozda , November 30, 19S7.
aponry with which our submarines, modern surface ships and

;?et air units are outfitted. This is well understood by deputy

comanders for political affairs. Many of them arc qualified to

(imand a ship. They stand undex'way watches and fly in the

nacity of pilots and navigators in combat aircraft. Constant

:Litary training permits them to work better With the men, and

(influence them more effectively."

The Admiral, however, warned political officers against

o much involvement with professional naval work: "While

csistently raising the level of their military-technical

nwledge, political officers must not under any circumstances

cget about their basic duty. They need first-rate military

uining in order to better educate the men more concretely,

cbe able to speak out together with party bureaus, committees,

i the bureaus of the Komsomol as military organizers of Party

c.itical work. It is necessary to speak about this because,

fortunately , certain deputy commanders for political affairs

cisider the standing of underway watches or good qualifications

sof paramount importance and forget about their primary

e;ponsibilities. Usually party political work suffers in such

259
a;es, sometimes even becoming a mere formality."

259
Morskoy Sbomik No. 1, 1970, pp. 44-45.

20 uc
 Oa the other hand, the political training of Soviet line

fleers is never completed, and the political officers must

sjre that standards are met. Groups of Marxists-Leninist

uation are organized, and lectures and seminars,

conducted,
tndance is obligatory, although the officer may decide
for
nklf which group he prefers. Each officer must attend 50

iijs. of service time each year for Marxist-Leninist

studies alone..
as studies are supplemented by theoretical conferences,

)jtes, and lectures conducted after regular duty hours.

Listed personnel must attend three hours of political instruction

Jl week in addition to two or three socalled "political

icmations" of 20 minutes duration each.

Thus, the Party's desire for a sort of conversion in the

« of ideology, knowledge, and professionalism between the

iiical and line officers while they maintain their main efforts

ne areas of primary responsiblity is being gradually

exercised.
-J political officers and line officers may disagree over the

at of political control, as was evident in the past, there is

evidence that the latter are seeking disengagement from it,

mder the Soviet regime, they could not even if they wished.

riction between the two revolves around the large amount

f-me party-political work consumes, often to the detriment

imbat training. Many line officers see the positive results

91 n
__ _____
w indoctrination produced by party-political work upon ship

ompanies; good morale and stronger discipline can and do result

rora skillful indoctrination, and the occ.^ional disputes over

uplementation of party-political work methods and time allocated

) it do not testify either against the loyalty of the Soviet

avy or the firmness of the Party control. Along the line of

ommand, the top military leadership have constantly stressed

fie necessity for effective political indoctrination. Marshall

(rechko stated recently that "one of the most important

onditions for successfully solving the tasks confronting the

;rmed forces is to raisethe ideological maturity and Marxist-

260
]jninist conviction of all our servicemen." It may be

oncluded that in general Party control is accepted, and many

ine officers even might find it beneficial for their career and,

bing themselves Communists, skillfully use it in command.

While Party control and ideological indoctrination of

^rvicemen by a system of political organs, may keep the Navy

a a desirable political track, they will not, however, maintain

ne Navy as a combat entity, for regardless of Communist claims of

:;s universality, Marxism-Leninism will not control propulsion

^/sterns, navigate the ships, or keep the armament ready for the

260
Marshall Grechko "On Guard for Pea ce an d t he BirJ I'-icy; of
Ommunism" Military Publishing House 1971, p. 109.
, ,

211
4nbat use. To that end are needed professionally trained and

>perienced personnel, and first of all the officers corps, the

:dre, appropriately educated and trained, a fact recognized

L the early years of Soviet power. The Revolution destroyed

iny things in Russia, but not the naval officer educational

sstem, which, after the years of revolutionary and civil war

;rmoil, resumed its functions with the majority of teaching

jrsonnel, buildings, and laboratories inherited from the

!perial Navy.

The contingent of cadets had obviously changed. V/hile

;(e former Naval Cadet Corps, presently the Frunze Higher Naval

ihool (the equivalent of the United States Naval Academy at

>;aapolis) , accepted only sons of nobility, the Soviet version

..itially accepted only workers and peasants. The education

I Soviet naval officers started in September 1913 with accelerated

imrses for the fleet command personnel. In July 1919 the

;urses were converted into the Fleet Command School with a

;lree-year course of training. In 1922, the Fleet Command School

m renamed the Naval School (present Frunze Higher Naval School)

ill the Naval Engineering School (present Dzex*zhinskiy Higher

f;/al Engineering School) was opened. The leaders and professors

>: both naval schools were former Imperial naval officers and

>ch a counterrevolutionary term of address as "Gentlemen" instead

-.
212
of "Tovarishch" (Comrade) was common to the great confusion of
261
the cadets. In 1939 by decree of the Council of People's

Commissars of the USSR both naval schools were elevated to

institutions of higher learning.

The accelerated expansion of the Soviet Navy prior to Y.'orld

War II and the growing demand for officers produced a corresponding

expansion of naval schools. The Pacific Higher Naval School,

the Baku Higher Naval School, the Naval Communications

>

Schools, and the Gunnery School were established. The curriculum ^

,-. 262
in all naval schools was extended to four years.

After graduation from higher naval schools, officers N

received one year of additional training- in higher special officer

classes, to which they were sent after having completed from two

to three years in their first assignments. Graduates of the

classes were assigned as heads of departments. Thus, training

of shipboard officers took five years (four years in school and

one year in the classes), but tha-re was a break of from two to

three years in that training.

DX Kuznetsov, Nakanune 10-12.

, pp.
262
For the details of Naval Training Development, see
Admiral N. I. Vinogradov, Training Officers Cadres for the Navy ,

Morskoy Sbornik No. 8, 1967, pp. 25-31; Vice Admiral V. A. Krenov,

F orge of Naval Officer Cadres Morskoy Sbornik No. 1, 1971, pp.
,

17-24; and K PSS i stroitol stvo Sovetskikh Vooruzaonykh Si l

'

(The CPSU and Development of the Soviet Armed Forces) Second ,

Revised Edition, Moscow, Voyenizdat, 1967, 464 pp.

213
 Also in 1939 several Special Naval Schools were organized

vhich served as preparatory schools, graduating cadets at the

ligh school level. In the summer of 1944 these Special Naval

Schools were merged into the newly organized Leningrad Naval

Preparatory School with a three-year high school curriculum,

'he special and preparatory schools were similar to Valley Forge

[ilitary Academy with the significant difference that the

raduates of the Soviet Naval Special and Preparatory Schools

ere guaranteed continuation of their studies in higher naval

chools. Also, in 1944, the Nakhomov School, an extended "type

f preparatory naval school with up to a seven-year curriculum,

as organized.

The post-war Soviet naval construction generated an additional

emand for naval officers and a number of new naval schools were

rganized in Leningrad, Sevastopol, and Kaliningrad. In 1967

ill of the higher naval command schools as well as some of the

i

agineering schools (ordinance and radio-engineering) were;

inverted into higher

•to naval command and engineering schools with
/

:ive and five and a half years curriculum. Today's young Soviet

uval officers in the shipboard complements are graduates of

"iese schools. They all hold diplomas as engineers with full

i

uion c-ualif ications. The longer duration of training has been

explained by the sharp increase in the volume of information in

-r /
!
/

'214
general scientific, technical, and special fields and the 1

necessity not only to maintain, but to improve, the quality of

aaval and command training. 263 Under the present system;'

significantly more time has been set aside for the practical

training of midshipmen. During his five years of training

the cadet spends almost ten months on board ships and in units

)f the Navy.

The Soviet Navy has at least ten higher naval schools,

:ive of them in Leningrad, two in Sevastopol, one in Kaliningrad,

me in Baku, and one in Vladivostok. In addition, there is a

{aval Higher Political School in Kiev, an Auxiliary Fleet

laritime School in Lomonosov, a Naval Department in Volk'sk,

i Rear and Supplies School, a Naval Department of the Medical

.cademy , and the Nakhimov Preparatory School. The curriculum of

'akhimov school was reduced to two years of study. Selected

;enior officers (line officers, engineers, and naval aviators)

•eceive advance training in the Naval Academy. A small percentage

£ naval officers from the positions of commanding officers of

estroyers, submarines, and their equivalent and higher are

ppointed to the Academy. Senior political officers are trained

y the Naval Department of the Lenin Political Academy.

The officers for naval aviation are educated in the Air

2S3 17-24.
Morskoy Sbornik No. 1, 1371, pp.

L. 10
--
orce higher schools and appointed to the Navy, where, after

.dditional training in special centers, they are assigned to the

nits of naval aviation. Officers for the Naval Infantry are

elected from the best graduates of the ground forces higher

264
chools

All Soviet naval officers are volunteers.- Since the

id-1950s preference in admission to the higher naval schools,

ithin the framework of competitive entrance examinations, have

een given to qualified servicemen. Civilian candidates and

raduates of high schools, after satisfying academic requirements

or admission, are sent for extensive shipboard training, where

inal judgment on their fitness.to.be aavs.! officers is made.

he third source of naval school enrollment is the Nakhimov

chool, graduates of which are assured entrance to one of the

igher naval schools, often of their choice, without an entrance

xamination.
-

The quality of 'education ire naval schools, is generally

od. The cadets receive broad knowledge in mathematics, physics,

hemistry, and a large dose of engineering, ordnance, and

lectronics. Despite all efforts to graduate well trained"

rofessional naval officers, while the graduates of Soviet naval

Xrasna ya Zvozda, 18 February 1972; Morskoy Sbornik No. 3,

'369, pp. 69-72; and Komsomol skaya Pravda, ],l+rch 1, 1972.

/ 216
ihools possess a good academic knowledge, they are obviously

Icking in practical experience This shortcoming in wo.U

i

^cognized, and corresponding measures are provided for tho

neediest training of young officers aboard ships Accelerated

jiientif ic-technical progress, which produces the most rapid

cianges in armament and equipment, probably justifies the Soviet

Hvy s accent on broad academic knowledge for young officers

'

viich provides with relatively fast mastering of practical

jjquirements of the billets they are assigned. The important

Jict is that the great majority of Soviet naval officers are

^aduates of naval schools and holders of professional diplomas.

Practically all graduates of Soviet naval schools are

assigned to shipboard duty, and, in general, sea duty is

eiphasized and encouraged. The natural selection process

hs been the standard practice, whereby the best fitted are

f'ovided with a continuous opportunity to serve in fleet operational

uits, and cases of an officer spending twenty out of thirty

yars of service aboard a ship are quite common A recent Pravda

E'ticle stated that in spite of all hardships of sea duty it

i; difficult to find enough naval officers for the shore duty,

265
bcause prevailing desire to be assigned to ship billets.

265
Pravda, March 30, 1972

•v- .1. i
Moreover, sea duty provides the Soviet naval officer with

better promotion opportunities and faster advancement in rank in

addition to considerable higher pay than in shore billets. For

example, all personnel aboard operational ships receive a 30%

bonus above basic pay; submariners receive 20% more, for a total

of 50% above basic pay The pay of e.g. an average Soviet

lieutenant commander is four to five times greater than that of

the average worker. In addition, they are supplied with free

uniforms, free food, paid transportation during their leave,

rest homes and sanitoriums. The retirement system is quite

similar to the United States Navy system. However, quite often

sea duty and service in the remote areas provide officers with a

bonus calculation for retirement; for example one calendar year

is counted as a year and a half, or even two.

Shipboard duty billets, particularly for the leading

officers, represent a relatively prolonged assignment. For

example, the recommended duration of a tour for the head of the

department of a destroyer or a cruiser is three years, the

commanding officer of third rank ships (destroyer escort, large

minesweepers, etc.), three years, the commanding officer of

second-rank ships (destroyers, most submarines) , four years, and

the commanding officer of first-rank ships (cruisers and nuclear

submarines), five years. The billet an .officer occupies and not

18
the rank is wore important in the Soviet Navy. Cases where a

commanding officer is a lieutenant commander and his executive

i

officer a commander, or a vice-admiral commands a fleet where

a member of the Military Council is a full admiral, or both,

esr a commanding officer and his subordinates are equal in rank are

quite common. The position of commanding officer in the Soviet

Navy is the most respected. Considerable attention is devoted

to the selection of future commanding officers and to their

training

The total number of young naval officers graduating annually

from the Soviet naval schools probably exceed the sum total of

all graduates from naval academies, of NATO countries, including

the United States. For the greatest majority of the graduates

the naval service becomes a lifetime career and there is practically

no officer retention problem. The naval reserve has been in

existence for a long time in the Soviet Navy. Graduates from the

maritime schools of the Soviet merchant marine, fishing and river

fleets, certain engineers and scientists, are kept in the naval

reserve with occasional short tours of active duty for training.

However, since 1968, when the new Universal Military Service Law

became effective, young naval reservists who were formerly

excused from military service while in school are now obligated

to serve two years. The present policy is to select best and to

219
drsuade them to enter the regular navy. Ju o <
rii

pblished in the Soviet press an unknown number of reserve officers

d just that. Article 61B of the Universal Military Service

L\v, which entered into effect on January 1, 1963, provides that

te Council of Ministers can call up reserve officers to active

dty in peacetime for periods of 2 or 3 years if the officer's

secialty is required. In short, it seems that while the Soviet

Nvy educational system is capable of providing the Navy with

rasonably well trained professional officers capable of employing

te latest in naval weapons and equipment, the service itself

povides the officer with substantial material and other benefits

t create not only a privileged group in the Soviet society,

r.ich the naval officers definitely are, but an elite within

te framework of the Soviet armed forces.

All enlisted personnel of the Soviet Navy, sailors as well

a; petty officers, are draftees. Up to the mid-1950s, the

ctration of service was for 5 years, and between January 1955 and

3)68, 4 years. In compliance with Article 132 of the Soviet

/
(institution, Article I of the Universal Military Service Law
i

£)ecifies that "military service in the Soviet armed forces is

lie honorable' duty of citizens of the USSR." Further, Article

::i states, "All male citizens of the U.S.S.R., irrespective of

uce or nationality, religion, education, domicile, social and

.
'
•
' 220 -

^
-__ •
 iiporty status must undergo active service in the runkM of Lii

iiied Forces of the U.S.S.R." The new law reduced the draft age

j>ia 19 to 18, and established new terms for active service, i.e.

; /ears for navy personnel, with the exception of naval aviation,

- 266
/fere service is for 2 years.

Pre-draft training requirements for all young men has been

iitablished. That training begins at age 15 at school and special

iurs are reserved for it. The law also obligates the leaders

(•enterprises, educational establishments, collective farms,

:2. to create conditions for such pre-draft training and be

(Sponsible for its quality. One-year pre-draft training of

lacialists for the armed forces is provided by the Voluntary

i'Ciety for Assisting the Army, Air Force, and Navy (DOSAAF) .

'e DOSAAF is assisted by the corresponding services of the

iviet armed forces in this training, which starts at age 17.

After completion of service, all service men are placed

. the reserve. Afte.r completion of active duty, qualified

i listed men, upon passing a special examination, can be promoted

; reserve officer status. A twice-a-year draft has been

;tablished by the new law.

26S
For a comprehensive analysis of new law see, Capt.
jorge Grkovic, U3N, Soviet Ur.i versa". Milit ary Service US Naval ,

istitute Proceedings, April- 1969, pp. 55-63.

221
 The shortened duration of service forced
the Soviet Navy

to reexamine and reduce from 9 to approximately 6 .months the

training of Navy specialists in a number of '

training detachments.
There are two types of training centers, one
is Moscow controlled,

and the second, controlled by the fleets. Future Navy specialists

trained in such centers, under revised programs
which place
greater emphasis upon practical 'training and
programmed teaching *,

methods, are sent upon graduation to shipboard »

duties, where, after
one or two months, they have to pass an examination and are then
^ ::_

appointed to the billets. It has been claimed that the higher

educational level of draftees, the good quality of

pre-draft
training and improved methods of aavjr- training nave made
it
possible to obtain good specialists even with the shorter
term
of service. The Soviet Navy has traditionally received better

quality draftees, and continues to be selective in accepting

personnel. An article in the official Soviet Navy magazine,

.lorskoy Sbornik , opened with the-.- follow-ing statement: "Even a

person who holds to the opinion that 'even hares can be
taught to
Light matches' will hardly deny that not every person
can become
*. good navyman."

°'Capt. First Rank R. B. Radushkevich T he -Selection of

,

Specialists in the Navy - On A Scientific Basis Morskoy Sbornik, ,

Jo. 8, 1970, pp 53-55; see also Capt. First Rank 0. L. Kufarev,

In der New Conditions -
A New Training Method Morskoy Sbornik No. S,
,

-970, pp. 34-37; and Rear Admiral A. F. Nadezhdin, Results of

Work
Jnder New Conditions Morskoy Sbornik No 2, 1971, pp 13-19
,'
.

222
 Potty officers of the Soviet Navy •

repn d

,y two categories of sorvicomon, potty oi'l'ieoi'H i- n. wi i ...i r,

.he enlisted ranks and reenlisted potty officers. Au a matter

if fact, practically all reenlisted personnel of the Soviet Navy

lad petty-officer rank. Two methods of training petty officers,

>n duty and in special schools, have been widely exercised.

The November 1971 decree of the Supreme Soviet abolished

;he Institute of Reenlisted Personnel and, accordingly, there

vill no longer be any reenlisted petty officers in the Soviet

favy after completion of their present terms. The same decree

introduced the Institute of Michman , a grade practically exactly

268
equivalent to US warrant officers. rhus~, in the future all

Soviet petty officers will be from enlisted personnel selected

from the best sailors and will serve the same three years of

active duty

Judging from the numerous articles in Soviet military

press, which even seems to try to high-light the shortcomings, as

well as from the extensive operations of the Soviet Navy, it

appears that the personnel problem has found a satisfactory

solution, and a degree of professionalism has been achieved.

Moreover, through an increased number of calls at foreign ports

268 and Trur\, December 1971

Izvestiya, December 1, 1971; 1,

223
jtnd official visits of Soviet ships to foreign countries, the

Soviet Navy can demonstrate not only its advance hardware, but

the good behavior and disclipine of its crews which, in ;he final

malysis, are no small asset to the Soviet government's foreign

policy in the area concerned.

Forward Deployment

As indicated previously, the initial forward deployment

vas literally imposed upon the Soviet Navy by the nature and

:haractor of potential opponent forces, and the strategic

situation therefor existed at the end of the 1950s and beginning

3f the 1960s. It was necessary to go forward, to the high seas

in the areas of the most probable combat employment of aircraft

carriers and later of the original Polaris submarines in order

to strike the former before they reached their launching positions

ind at least try to handicap, if not prevent the latter from the

unopposed launching o'f ballistic missiles. With the further

sophistication of Soviet naval hardware and considerable revision

r£ naval theory, including the strategic use of the Navy, in the

framework of the latest versions of Soviet military doctrine and

strategy, the meaning and nature of forward deployment has been

changing and acquiring more important significance far exceeding

the original, generally defensive, measures. Starting in the

224
 f^weigaix and Mediterranean Seas and selected areas in the

>:ific, Soviet naval units later appeared in the Indian Ocean.

?:)longed cruises and foreign visits have become a common

p^nomenon. The logistic supply of the Soviet Navy, a must for

sustained operations in the remote areas, initially primitive, ha^

aen improving. Sophisticated combat training and large scale

' »

i;/al exercises in the remote areas of world ocean are becoming

.-utine in Soviet Navy life. Both the Sever and Okean naval

)})rcises, during which the Navy demonstrated its muscle, are

HJLte illustrative.

i diterranean

In 1948 Stalin reportedly demanded that the Yugoslav

Jmmunists stop their support of the Communist led uprising in

niece on the basis "that Great Britain and the United States,

;b United States the most powerful state in the world, will not

icmit a break of thdir line of communication in the Mediterranean

269
!u, and the Soviet Union has no navy". The first deployment

>: Soviet naval forces in the Mediterranean on a permanent basis

:ok place in 1958, when a brigade of W-class submarines was

;ansferred to a newly established submarine base in Vlone , Albania

2 wC 9
Milovan Djiias, Conver sations "" gt :

'

j
1:. •' (New York
ifcourt, Brace and World, 1962), p. 181-182.

225
The permanent presence in the Mediterratiean of Soviet intelligence

collection ships started approximately at the same time. The

submarines were based in Ylone until 1361, when the Soviet break

vith Albania occurred. Since 1963-1954 Soviet navy surface

units have been deployed primarily from the Black Sea Fleet, and

thesubmarines, from the Northern Fleet. Thus, the newly formed

'

270 .

lediterraneanean eskadra whose strength was gradually built

ip has become an important element in the mediterranean,

Particularly in the eastern part. Originally, the Soviet Navy

.sed to withdraw a considerable portion of its forces from" the

.editerranean during winter months, reinforcing them again in

he spring. While the seasonal fluctuation of forces seems to

e continuing, after the Sixth Day War a considerable higher

inimum level of forces was established, and the average strength

f the eskadra, increased. An improved system of logistic supply

oupled with the availability of ports in some Arab countries have

ade it easier to maintain the increased number of Soviet ships,

'he Soviet Mediterranean eskadra does not make extensive use of

bore bases/
/ Instead, .

a supply train of oilers,

!

tenders, and

ther auxiliary ships have been replenishing the combatants. The

otion of using Soviet merchant ships in addition to the Navy's

270 just a step

Eskadra - a combined naval forces unit,
blow a fleet: The common translation, s^ua^cn, is not accurate
'

OOP
lib
 auxiliaries is available nnH ~
ailablo and occasionally has boon
exercised.
The present average strength „* *u „
° Stren £ th of the Soviet
Jjcditerraneau
£2^ is about 50-60 ships,

2 or 3 are nudear. Not onl y submarines,

including 12 . 14 ButaaplBO

but surface snips as

, ; Qf ^
well from the Northern
Fleet ana the Baltic
Fleet are deployed
together with the Black
Sea units. 271
While the defensiveve role
rote of +h« c
the Soviet .Mediterranean eskadra
i.e. ASW and anti-carrier,
which has been particularly
strongly
emphasised by the Western
specialists, has definitely
remained
the composition of the
eskadra and the nature of
its employment
nave clearly indicated

^^
the eskadra role in
support of Soviet
foreign policy. Since the six Day fcr rf
has been demonstrating
1967 ^
"n„ to its a^^v. clients
ii-o Arab i •

that it could offer more

than moral support, and
the Soviet ships in
Egyptian ports during
the conflict were
definitely an inhibiting factor
against the
continuation of Israeli air
strikes The Soviets themselves like
to emphasize this
point. F or example, Admiral.
Sysoyev, the Commander
of the Black sea Fleet,
in his recent speech to the
Ukranian
C~s^arty Congress discussing the growing
role of the Soviet

271

lo ^ e ^ aia £ s March 1967) Admiral

Isaac C. ^
Kidd
xaa Jr^->
J rrcw
View
Jfetf, v •

from the Bridge

> j

wi. u
lan-jjhi n fix
>

Val TInstlt
v.,.., i —
— —J^_L ^__>-^e
of thp fit'-,
ota vi oa *
^ ieet

—
i' ~Z~r~.

iaUrr 2 =;
"te Proceedings j£brS5Tl972~'~s£
i w
'

1 3); and Washi ngton Post November .

30, 1970

227
I
Wy in international events and repeating a Soviet standard

ciim that "imperialist domination of the high seas has ended

firever" , stated that "Israeli aggression in the Middle East

.iated and supported by the USA could be even more impudent

272
1: there were no Soviet combat ships present in the .Mediterranean".

\lhen the Y/estern press emphasized the growth of Soviet

ir/al power in the Mediterranean and its maturity from a presence

t< a challenge, the challenge directed first of all toward

educing the influence of the US 6th Fleet and to ending the

^dominance of American power in the area, Soviet propaganda

iswered with an array of articles. It was emphasized that the

5(/iet Union as "a Black Sea power and consequently a Mediterranean

Kver is closely connected with all problems" in the area, and has

u "irrefutable right" to keep naval forces there, "to promote

rxbility and peace in the area which is in direct proximity

t<j the Soviet southern borders", and "not allow the American

3,i Fleet to carry ou*t the aggressive ideas of the Pentagon with
273
Lipunity" .

272 Pravda Ukrainy March 20, IS 71.

,

273
Kolosov, Me di te r ran ean P ro blems
L. (Izvestiya, November
I, 1968); Vice Admiral N. I. Smirnov, Soviet F leet in the
Waiter ranean, (Krasnaya Zvezda, November 12, 1968); V. Ermakov in
> avda November 27, 1963; and V. Kudryavtsev in Pray da December
, ,

I 1963.

22?o
 The Soviets obviously were irritated by the NATO decision

o establish coordinated aerial surveillance of the Soviet fleet

n the Mediterranean and the creation of a new NATO command,

aritime Air Forces Mediterranean, effective November 21, 196S.

he permament deployment of the eskadra produced the emergence

f the Soviet Union as a true Mediterranean power, producing the

ituation where since the late 1960's there can be no single

laimant to the control of the Mediterranean. By maintaining an

npressive number of missile armed ships which can be rapidly

Binforced from the Black Sea Fleet, and with numerical

;jperiority of submarines over the::6th Sleet, all th.?.t the Soviets

jxck is the carrier-borne air power which is the backbone of the

th Fleet. With no point in the Mediterranean more than 200

iiles from land and the availability of air bases in a number of

-rab countries for the Soviet aircraft, the overwhelming dependence

<£ the 16th Fleet upon its carrier,, aviation for its "combat

inability" are not very convincing. The rapid redeployment of

;:>viet aircraft to the network of air bases in Arab countries as

fell as direct employment of Soviet aviation from the south-

astern regions of the Soviet Uniou and Warsaw Pact members, at

^ast to the eastern part of the Mediterranean, has to be viewed

?23
-- i~. vj
 s a distinct Soviet capability. 274
'*
Admiral Kidd, former

:ommander of the 6th Fleet, recently wrote that "the growing

loviet naval strength in this area has caused many to question

he capability of the US 6th Fleet to perform its stated mission".

he admiral continued, "the fact is that under existing pressures,

e are walking a tightrope of adequacy; at some points, the rope

s beginning to fray. Our still formidable fleet is being forced

o accommodate to a new environment far different from the one

hich it dominated for almost a. quarter century."

275
The

dmiral also described the Soviet naval forces in the Mediterranean

.s "a have fleet" which has new ships, modern weapon systems,

ell trained and highly motivated personnel. Staling "that there

s no longer a permissive enviroment where once the 6th Fleet

loved at will" the admiral described the situation during the

"ordan crisis in October, 1970, during which the Soviet naval

'orces in Mediterranean were quickly reinforced and appropriately

lositioned. From the chart accompanying the article showing

listribution of forces of both fleets, it is impossible to tell

'ho surrounded v;hom. Soviet ships followed all major 6th Fleet

274
John Marriot, The Air Situation in the Mediterranean ,

'International Defensive View, Vol. 4, No. 5, October 1971,

"
>p. 429-432); also see the New York Times, May 13, 1370, US 6th
'leet Concerned Over Sovie t Nav y in the Med ", and Time, June
IB, 1971, " Soviet Thrust in the Mediterranean .

275
'
US Naval Institute Procecdj , February 1972, p. 19.

230
 ips and as the 6th Fleet watched and
waited, the Soviets
.so watched and waited, giving no evidence
of stress but a
trmal and restrained behavior which Admiral
Kidd described
follows: "There was none of the nonsense of their
ships
nning in and around our men-of-war at close
range. It was
Ident the Soviets were under the direction of
a seasoned

aman who not only knew well the capabilities

and limitations
ihis equipment, but also was sensitive to the
potential
276
Piousness of the situation."

When King Idris of Libya was overthrown in a coup

in"

Member of 1969 the behavior of the Soviet Mediterranean

;adra was very similar to that during Jordan

crisis. While some
)iet ships took positions along the Libyan Coast,
others
idowed the 6th Fleet units. It was a sort of indirect warning

to attempt a repetition of 1958 Lebanon landing,

)
which for

• practical purposes cannot now be repeated. Such actions are

.ling political capital for the Soviets and the new Libyan

imminent publicly expressed gratitude to the Soviet navy

for
/
Is support". The reported presence of amphibious ships and

Ks of naval infantry with the Soviet naval forces in the

cterranean and occasional landing exercises performed under the

vr of submarines, surface ships, and aircraft "as a buffer

276
Ibid . , p. 27.

231
I
tgainst any attempt at intervention from outside" raises the

luestion as to whether the Soviet forces themselves might not one

lay be involved in the situation similar to the 195S Lebanon

ole of the US 6th Fleet.

As a significant commercial and maritime power, the Soviet

nterest in the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal is under-

tandable. The closure of the Canal seriously hurt Soviet merchant.

flipping, including its supply routes to North Vietnam, The

importance of the Middle East and Mediterranean region as a route

) the Indian Ocean and Far East is obvious. Most of the Soviet

ati-Chinese moves in Asia should be supported by maritime power,

ad the Mediterranean-Suez Canal route—is saast convenient.

Emphasizing the Soviet naval presence in the Mediterranean

, a "necessity" because of the presence of the US 6th Fleet

tere, theSoviet Union expressed its readiness to consider the

r'moval of these forces. A widely propagandized June 1971 speech

bi Brezhnev during the Soviet ele-ction campaign-emphasized the

anormality of the situation when great powers keep their navies

fir from their shores, and expressed the readiness "to solve
277
tfe problem but on the equal basis", i.e. the mutual withdrawal.

lanwhile, the Soviet Union is very sensitive to any change in

277
See Krasnaya Zvezda, July 25, 1971, Mediterranean
adr'a

232
 he status quo in the Ltorranoan. A roccnl

»ii the new naval base lor the 6th PL prod cud : ill .• vt i
I

;n addition to the Soviet government statement with the warning

>f "appropriate counter-action", a number of articles sharply

criticizing "Pentagon bases strategy" and the US and NATO efforts

'to widen and strengthen their position" in the Mediterranean,

278
;ere published.

In the realm of international politics, the Soviet naval

presence in the Mediterranean definitely altered the balance

t>f forces in the region and increased Soviet influence in 'many

Mediterranean countries. By projecting a major military,

political, and economic presence -..txtCv/tho- ..'Mediterranean basin,

the present Soviet leadership has accomplished what the Czars

and Stalin failed to do.

Indian Ocean

In the spring of 1968 the. first detachment of Soviet Navy,

headed by the cruiser Dmitriy Pozharskiy , appeared in the Indian

Ocean. The cruise lasted 80 days, and the Soviet ships visited

ports in India, Somalia, Iraq, Pakistan, Iran and Ceylon. In

addition to interest of combat training, the stated purpose of the

273
See for example, an article by Deputy Chief of Staff of
the Soviet Navy, Admiral Alekseyev, in Izvestiya March 8, 1372; ,

and Krasnaya Zvezda

-
International Military Review.
,

/
cbise was to make "friendly contacts" and to produce "favorable
279
jpressions". Since that time, the frequency of Soviet naval

aits appearing in the Indian Ocean increased, and at the beginning

o the 1970s the more or less permanent presence of rather modest

fjree has been established.

The vacuum and balance of power theories ^originally tied

u the Soviet appearance in the area with the British government's -

dcision to withdraw from east of the Suez. It looked as though

te Soviet Navy was just waiting for such a withdrawal, and soon ^

t|e decision was announced to fill "the vacuum". Such arguments

i not warrant a lengthy analysis, and the British might in the

scond half of I960 could hardly be given such a deterrent role.

Ydely rumored Soviet attempts to acquire bases in the Indian

Dean were categorically denied by the local governments allegedly

ivolved in such deals, and at the present, there is no Soviet

ose in the Indian Ocean. Soviet naval units in the area nave

teir own supply ships, and the use of local facilities has

aparently been minimal.

The previous absence of Soviet naval forces in the Indian

Gean could probably be explained not by the lack of interest,

wich was strong even in pre-revolutionary Russia (allegedly one

279 June 17, 1968.

Admiral V. Alekseyev in TRUP ,

234
 of the naval projects of Peter the Great involved the
annexation
of Madagascar)?
80
but by the luck of opportunity
and, more
important, the means. Post-war political development in
'the area
and disintegration of the colonial
system resulting in the
creation of numerous newly formed
independent states, many with
unstable regimes, presented the
opportunity. The economic
development of the Soviet Union, the
growth of its foreign trade,
economic and military dlu
' aid intpneifior) ,?„..
lQtensiiiea development of its
-,
«

merchant marine paralleled by the

naval development, produced
the means and elevated the
importance of the Indian Oceanic the
Soviet Union. A sizeable Soviet fishing fleet has
been operating
in the Indian Ocean since the decaxle o^tbe 1950s-
and the annual
catch toward the end of the 1960s
was about 2 million tons.
Soviet commercial shipping via the
Cape in 1970 was represented
by 3,900 transits or more than 25% of the total.
In addition
to a permanent presence of alarge fishing fleet,
there are
^proximately 100 Soviet me rchan^anips- in the-
Indian Ocean at
281
my given time. Soviet oceanographic and space support

ictivities in the Indian Ocean have been

considerable. Thus,
the Soviet Union is simultaneously involved in a
multiplicity
~ _
Orbis, V. XIV, No. 1, Spring 197O. These
alleged Russian
imbitions were recently "massaged" by
the Chinese - see Washington
lost, December 30, 1971. fe

281
Geoffrey Jukes, The Soviet Union and the I ndian
Ocean
Survival, November 1971, pp. 370-375) '

SLii:
i maritime activities in the Indian Ocean: in showing the flag

hich, at least chronologically, confirms a case of the flag

ollowing trade; it is involved in active shipping, fishing,

ilitary assistance, political support, and economic aid to the

2 S2
on-allied nations of the area.

Military, particularly naval, aspects of the situation in

,

tie Indian Ocean are still in the embroyonic stage of development

ad in spite of the' fact that during last couple of years, a number

c: new steps have been initiated by both the United States and

tie Soviet Union, the outcome is not clear. When an agreement

btween the US and Australia concerning the installation of a

;ry Low
T
Frequency (VLF) station on Northwest Cape was disclosed

i. the mid-1960s, the Soviets probably concluded that the Indian

2 S3
Cean would become an area of operations for Polaris submarines

Een before A-3 Polaris and Poseidon missiles became operational,

te Arabian Sea could already provide Polaris submarines with

;od coverage of targets in the southern part of the Soviet

J ion. The introduction of longer-range (2,500 n.m.) missiles

ito US submarines brought target areas from the Soviet western

orders to Central Siberia and as far as Moscow within range.

p pp
For a view on the Soviet activity in the- Indian Ocean,
sc i T. B. Millar, Soviet Pol-' Jos, South and Zast oi Suez ,

ign Affairs, October 1970, pp. 70-31.)

233
Marine Rundschau, Vol. V, October 1969, pp. 312-316.

loo
Vhethcr US Polaris submarines arc- deployed at present in the

Indian Ocean or not makes no difference to the Soviet Union,

for the major factor to be considered in the Soviet naval plans

is the possibility of Polaris missile submarine deployment.

Regardless of what type of ASW forces are selected by the

Soviet Navy (major emphasis on submarines supported by the surface

forces seems- to be obvious) a standing naval force for the Indian

Ocean would be required. The degree of effectiveness of ASW

forces against Polaris missiles submarines is to a certain degree

irrelevant here, for the choice has to be made between unopposed

and opposed operations.

The rejection of the Soviet proposal of December 1964 co

make the Indian Ocean a nuclear - free zone probably made the

Soviets even more convinced that the deployment of Polaris

submarines was under consideration. Of course, the Soviet

proposal represented an attempt to get something for nothing, i.e.

to close an area for 'the U.S. strategic employment which has no

value to the Soviet Union. The deployment of Soviet naval units

in the Indian Ocean might be viewed also as an attempt to show

Soviet determination to meet the potential threat by force, and

to create pressure for the reconsideration of the Soviet proposal

which, together with vaguely defined security measures for Asia,

continues to be mentioned by the Soviet -press. It was reported

.hat, at the end of April 1971, a committee of the US National

;ecurity Council was considering proposing an agreement with the

oviet Union to neutralize the Indian Ocean by abstaining from

234
^~
aval deployment there.

Meanwhile, the Soviet naval presence in the Indian Ocean

as continued, and the US has stepped up its naval activities in

he area as well. In addition to the construction of a naval

ommunication center and air strip on the strategically located

sland of Diego Garcia and the agreement of December 1371 to take

ver from the British the naval base at Kahrain in the Persian

ulf, a Pentagon spokesman emphasized the 7th Fleet capability

p operate more in the Indian Ocean, particularly as the

"ietnamese War is being wound down.

When the Indian-Pakistani War broke out, the Soviet naval

:>rces in the Indian Ocean which comprised approximately 10

nits were quickly reinforced to about 15 ships. The US sent

task force headed )5y the nuclear carrier Enterprise to the Bay

: Bengal. Thus, a variant of a Mediterranean situation was

upeated in the Indian Ocean, although on a smaller scale.

284 Survival, November

1971, p. 372.
2S5
Navy Extern.-:, Operation in Iv^ ia- Ocea n, Washington
f'St, January 7, 1972.

/~* s*s ,-\

L. O KJ
 Prolonjo d cruises and foreign vi
:; J^ of the Coviet Navy
during the decade of 1960s have become a
common phenomenon.
The Atlantic cruises, particularly in the Card >bean strea', have
been of special interest and have produced
controversial publicity
It was reported that the Soviet naval detachment which
visited
Cuba in the summer of 1969 conducted unprecedented
ASW exercises
in the Gulf of Mexico with the participation of ono tf«ol;\sa
286
submarine. At the end of 1970 Defense Secretary Laird

emphasized the Soviet Navy's continuous operation in or near the .

Caribbean. Pie added "I think that this is further evidence of

the Soviet's determination to expand their naval interests into

the Western Hemisphere, just as they nave in other parts of the

2S7
world". The U.S. Defense Department announcement concerning

the construction of new Soviet naval facilities at Cienfuegos and

the Soviet government's denial of this by Tass, October 12, 1970,

were generated by the presence of a submarine tender and the

suspicion that the Soviets may be' developing- facilities similar

to those the United States has at Holy Loch, Scotland, and Rota,
238
Spain, to service the submarines. While the alarm generated

286
US Naval Institute Proceedings Review , May 1970.
287
Washington Post, December 6, 1970.
238
Washington Post September 26, 1971, Cuba Scceor Field
.

Scared US in 7u; and the R eader's Digest Soviet Submarines:

'
New ,

Challenge From Cuba, .May, 1971. •.

/
••;
'. .
 Lit a possible base for submarines in Cuba sei ... to be

_ rounded, the Soviet Navy's familiarization with the area is

significant. From July 1959 to July 1970, the Soviet NaVy visited
2S9
3 countries.

The visits provide the Soviet Navy with an opportunity not

cly for combat training while underway in ofter. unfamiliar

ajeas and for showing the flag, but they are extensively used

fr propaganda purposes. The detachment of ships conducting

fie visit is as a rule accompanied by a fleet theatrical group

c orchestra, selected performers, a team of athletes which

ocasionally incudes a complete soccer team. During the visit,

ie activities of the crews are planned accordingly. As a result

:i most cases visits of Soviet ships to foreign ports have

290
roduced favorable reactions.

Logistics did not represent a serious problem in the Soviet

avy up to the late 1950s due to a nature of employment of the

aval forces. The ships at that time represented forces which

ere occasionally employed from the basesfor a short period of

ime and returned to them to be replenished and repaired. Forward

leployment of the Soviet Navy units, however, in the absence of

289
US Naval Institute Proceedings , Naval Review, 1971, p. 290
290
See for example an article in Krasnaya Zvezda, October
), 1970, Norway, Our Neighbor, describing a recent visit of a
letachment of the Soviet Northern Fleet to Oslo.

> :
n
 joviet bases in the area of their operations, presented anoth c

roblem. It should be emphasized that Soviet combatants were

eady for forward deployment Ions before the Soviet Navy'

ogistic system could cope with it. The main problem was the

bsence of suitable support ships; tankers were very small

nd not fitted for side refueling, and supply and depot ships

ere practically non-existent. Gradually, during the decade of

;he 1960s a considerable number of support ships of the Don, Lama,

iskoi, and Ugra classes were built. Larger tankers and supply

;hips were introduced, permitting a gradual switch to the" side

•efueling and supply method, which is definitely more productive

md expedient. The Boris Chilikiu-class support ship, which

recently entered service, is a good illustration of the progress

>eing achieved by the Soviet Navy in the solution of logistic

291
problems. In addition to the Soviet Navy's own support

mits, the ships of the Soviet merchant marine can be, and are

often, used. When docking facilities are available in a number

Df friendly countries, the use of the merchant ships to bring

supplies to those ports where Navy support ships can be re-

plenished provides the. Soviet Navy with additional advantages and

permits the number of support ships required to be reduced.

291
Erkennungsblatter, FRG Ministry of Defense, No. 154,
De cembe r 19 71

2W
 By developing a supply procedure similar to the
US Navy

leet train system, the Soviet Navy has reduced the requirement
>

or naval bases. Of course, the fleet train system is vulnerable

o enemy attack and requires considerable protection. Naval

ases on the other hand also have become one of the most preferred

argets, and are very vulnerable. Naval bases ^on foreign

erritories, in addition, can cost dearly in material and

olitical terms, and depend to a considerable degree upon the

.evelopment of a political situation in a host country. Despite

;he marked improvement in the Soviet Navy logistics, it is "an

txtremely difficult task to supply a number of naval units v/ith

lodern armament far away from the bases. This matter is openly

-ocognized in the Soviet specialized press, where the great

lifficulties associated with the process are discussed. 292

292
Admiral G. G. Oleynik, Excellent Support to the Sea
Cruises Rear and Supply of Soviet Armed Forces, No. 7, July
,

1971, pp. 26-30; Rear and Combat Readiness of the Navy No. 5, ,

.May 1971, pp. 69-71; The Navy Rear Services Today ('.lorskoy
,-

Sbornik No. 12, 1970, pp. 3-8); Krasnaya Zvczda, July 25, 1971

91;?
 Nay al Exe rci.scs

The recent large-scale Soviet naval exercises, on one

ocasion involving all four Soviet fleets, on the one harld

rs resent a new phenomenon in the Soviet naval development, but

on the other is a logical consequence of the process.

The joint command and staff exercise, code named SEVER

(i\>rth) , took place during the "period of 11-19 July 1968. The

participants in the exercise were the Soviet Baltic and Northern

?:?ets and the Polish and East Germany navies. Involving

i:?as in the Northern Atlantic, the Baltic, the Norweigan

id the Barents Seas, Sever was at once the first major naval

jprcise of the Warsaw Pact and the biggest naval maneuvers

l to that time in Soviet history. While the Polish and East

Jrman navies played a significant role with the Soviet force

L the Baltic, including participation in a joint amphibious

..nding , only Soviet forces were involved in the major events

iich took place in the North. The East Germans, however,

lose to emphasize a much greater scale of cooperation stating

iat "the Sever exercise represented a new level of cooperation

itween the combined (i.e. Soviet Baltic Fleet, Polish and

ist German navies) Baltic sea fleet and the Northern Fleet of

2 1.-3
 ?93
he Soviet Union."
>

Admiral Gorshkov emphasized that it was an ''exercise of

he ocean navy which has everything necessary to conduct

uccessful combat activities far from its bases". While all types

i Soviet naval forces participated in the exorciso, the submarinow

.nd naval infantry were particularly glorifiod. In addition to

.he submarine's role in strategic delivery, demonstrated by an

mderwater launch of missiles, the ASW role of the submarines

-as highlighted: "Battles of submarines with submarines is not

iiction or the imagination of a visionary, but is actual

294
reality". The importance of a second, amphibious landing in

;he North, on Rybachiy Peninsula, executed exclusively by' the

soviet Naval Infantry and being larger than the Baltic landing,

vas an obvious desire of the Soviet Navy to demonstrate mobility

apparently over a considerable distance, for it is most likely

that the naval infantry force participating in the landing came

293
An interview with the Commander of the East German
Mavy, Vice Admiral Ehm, published in Gstsee Zestung, 29 July 1953.
The same interview emphasized Kosygin's evaluation of the political
significance of the exercise. In his 13 Ji\±y press conference
in Stockholm, published in Pravda on 15 July 1963, Xosygin noted
chat "the exercise was an emphatic answer to the intensified
policy of aggression on NATO's northern flank clearly demonstrated
by the Polar Express maneuvers"

294
Izvestiya, July 14, and July 19, 19SS.

/ . 2W
 295
from the Baltic. However, as later became ev ... the Sever
exercise was a rehearsal for the Okcan (Ocean) manouvoru, durliiK

which the major events of the Sever exercise were ro pea Cod on a

larger scale.

The Okean maneuvers were held from 14 April to 5 May 1970

under very adverse weather conditions, particularly in the

North Atlantic. The area of the maneuvers included two oceans,

the Atlantic and Pacific, and several seas including the Barents,

Norwegian, North, Okhotsk, Japan, Phillipine, Mediterranean,

Slack, and Baltic. A detachment of Soviet ships headed by" the

missile cruiser Admiral ITokin was in the Indian Ocean. All four

Soviet fleets participated in those, world-wide maneuvers, which

were called unprecedented by a Pentagon spokesman, "a first for

anyone in the history of the naval art" with the emphasis that

"no navy has had anything like this on this scale and this

scope . Even the maneuvers code name Okean was depicted as

symbolic not only in .referenceto the scale, but also in that it

related to a former Tsarist yacht, renamed Okean during Lenin's

time. The name was seen as an omen and an expression of Lenin's

295
In addition to the hints in the Soviet press, the
independent Norwegian Journal of Commerce and Shippi ng on
19 July 1968 emphasized that a sizeable unit of amphibious forces
moved from the Baltic in two groups, one of which followed the
Norwegian Coast north during the period of the exercise.
296
Vfa^hing ton Post , April 24, 1970.

/
/

24 IJ
 j-sire to have a strong ocean-going navy in 297
the future.

Hundreds of Soviet naval ships and aircraft

^particii .ng

ji the maneuvers were employed in a seemingly

realistic scenerio
isualizing a strong experj need enemy Ln a m , r oX lodon

situations) in which the readiness of the Soviet Navy to fuli'iiJ

tie tasks assigned to it was checked. The following tasks were

onions t rated in the maneuvers:

the deployment of submarines, the main striking force

k the Soviet Navy, and the creation of combat conditions

ssuring their most effective combat use;

extensive ASW against Polaris submarines, and for the n

jrotection of Soviet's own naval forces, including missile-

arrying submarines;

anti-carrier operations in order to prevent carrier

arcraft from attacking naval and shore installations, and to

oduce enemy "combat stability" by eliminating carriers from

arious (including ASW) formations;

operations against enemy lines of communication, including,

/ -

297
All important Soviet newspapers assigned their special
orrespondents to cover the maneuvers and extensive information,
oviously on a selective basis, covering major events of the
uneuvers was published between 14 April and 12 May 1970 in
jravda Izvestiya Krasnaya Zvezda and others. Following the
, , ,

uneuvers a special book, Okc a a-M:. b u yers of the US SI? l-.'av;- Ccr. ducted
a April - May 1970, 20S pp. was published in Moscow by the
lilitary Publishing House.

2kS
J
attacks against its shipping;

to assist the Soviet Army on its maritime i'luiikrj,

including use of amphibious landing and missile strikes from

submarines and surface ships.

Not all these tasks are of equal importance to the all

Soviet fleets, and they vary in the individual theaters. The

major events during the maneuvers took place in the Atlantic

Ocean and the adjoining seas, where more than half of episodes

were played. The Northern Fleet as -well as the Baltic 'and the

Black Sea Fleets were more actively involved in the maneuvers

than the Pacific Fleet.

The maneuvers were conducted in a nuclear enviroment, and

the use of the missile armament of the Soviet Navy included

combined missile strikes of naval aviation, submarines and

surface ships, the launching of ballistic missiles and underwater

and surface launching of cruise missiles by the submarines, and

combat employment of SAMs against both individual and group air

targets. The extensive use of in-flight refueling and the long

duration and long distance of the flights were special

i

characteristics of the air operations. Very extensive air

reconnaissance was conducted and close cooperation of naval

aviation with Longe Range Aviation was evident.

n •

7
 Amphibious landings were conducted by all four Soviet

feets. The Baltic landing against an area "strongly fortified

i -depth" clearly imitated an operation against the Danish Straits.

Te landing in the north on the Rybachiy Peninsula by forces of

Nval Infantry from the Mediterrnean (Black Sea) , Baltic, and the

Nrthern Fleet was of a considerably larger scale and was

oserved by the Minister of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the

Nvy. The Naval Infantry demonstrated improved skill and

sphistication by landing on difficult terrain after a relatively

lng voyage under adverse weather conditions.

The two newest ships of the Soviet navy, the ASW cruiser

Mskva and the sister ship Leningrad, were active participants

i the maneuvers together with many classes of missile and

cnventionally armed ships. The ability of the surface forces

t defend themselves against air attacks was emphasized.

The time of the exercise, the early spring months when a

cnsiderable number of young sailors trained according to provisions

o the new Universal Military Law were aboard Soviet ships, and the

etremely unfavorable weather conditions, can be viewed as testimony

t the satisfactory solution of the personnel problem and the

mturity of the Soviet Navy. In the command and control field,

te wide use of computers in the decision-making process, the

efective and reliable communications during all phases of

248
keuvers (labeled "fantastic") , and the effective work of the

;rious staffs were emphasized. Satellites wore most llkoly

<;d in communications. *

The high degree of combat readiness of the Soviet Navy

il its alleged ability "to go into action at any moment, even

iler the most unfavorable conditions and circumstances" were

tessed. Soviet Navy leaders emohasizedthat the preceeding

cade of combat training was "a process designed to master the

can" and the Okean maneuvers "the final stage of the process,

h Navy's final exam, which it passed successfully" demonstrating

t readiness "to execute strategic missions and to counteract

trong naval foe" in. defense of the "national interests of the

298
oiet Union and other Socialist countries".

To explain the Soviet Navy's forward deployment as dictated

ay by the necessity to counter the strategic nuclear threat

: a the Western, mainly US, naval forces would be an ovcr-

iiolification. Initially this threat played an overwhelming,

vq singular, role and is still important. But, during the second

a'.£ of the 1960's, when the Soviets started to speak about the

•eossity of its navy to protect the "spreading interests" of the

net Union, a nev/ and important element which may be crucial in

298 ,
Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1970, p. 4; and Marshall
,

laJaarov in Sovetskaya Rossiya, 19 June 1971.

249
the future was added. This new mission of the Soviet Navy

required its constant presence in the "remote areas of the world's

oceans previously considered the zone of control" of Western

maritime powers. The presence of substantial Soviet naval forces

does not exclude the support for a friendly regime threatened either

by internal turmoil or foreign intervention or in direct assistance

to newly born regimes more favorable to Soviet interests, as for

example the 1969 Libya revolution illustrates.

What was exercised by the Soviet Navy during the 1968

seizure of the Pueblo by North Korea might be classified as an

299
attempt to employ the strategy of interposition. When it was

unclear what the US would do, and a carrier task force was heading

toward North Korea, a detachment of Soviet ships appeared in the

vicinity. The Jordan Crisis of September-October 1971 provides an

example of another situation, discussed previously, when the

presence of Soviet naval forces in the proximity of the US forces

could be viewed as a restraining factor. j

Finally, showing the flag through frequent foreign visits and

299
The strategy of interposition is employed for the
purpose of denying an objective to an opponent and usually
without actual use of force. Interposition does not necessarily
require superior forces of interposer. By placing his forces
between the opponent and the opponent's object the interposer
increases the opponent's risks and presents him with choice to
drop or change the objective or escalate.

I /

250
 and displaying; muscles by large-scale
maneuvers and exorcises
in remote areas are a demonstration
of po.or and maritime
mobility. At least in their statements,
the Soviet military
ieadersbip appear to be confident
that their navy has "mastered-
tfc. spaciousness of the W orld ocean and
possesses everything which
is required for the simultaneous
and prolon 3 ed conduct of combat
.. .. 300
activity on several oceans and seas."

Toda^, the Soviet navy order of

battle includes the
following

about 360 submarines, nearly 90 of

which are nuclear powered;
J

two ASW cruisers, each with about

20 helicopters;

! 23 cruisers, including at least 9 armed with missiles;

about 100 destroyers and equivalent

ships, many of which
ire missile armed:

about 130 escorts;

about 270 coastal escorts;

about 320 minesweepers;

about 130 missile boats;

over 300 torpedo boats;

about 200 amphibious ships and landing crafts.

Support ships, auxiliaries, and service craft according to Jane's

'run into the thousands". Naval aviation has about SCO combat

300
Marshall Grechko in Pray da , 23 'February 1971

251
aircraft. Numerically, it is the largest navy in the v/orld.

Its personnel strength is about 500,000 officers and cen.

»

Most ships are of recent construction, are fully manned

and operational. The percentage of ships, primarily older ones,

in reserve is small.

B
The main strength of the Soviet Navy, hoy/ever, is not in

number of ships it possesses or in the total displacement, but

in the armament. In addition to the ballistic missile submarine's

contribution to the Soviet strategic delivery, which is close to

600 missiles, there are a variety of surface-to-surface, air-to-

surface, and surface-to-air missiles which constitute the main

armament of the Soviet navy's forces, submarines, naval aviation,

surface ships, and shore defense units. At the present, no one

navy in the world approaches the Soviet Navy in total number of

such missiles, the variety of their carriers, the scope of ranges

they cover (long and horizon range) and methods of launching

(surface, air and submerged) and perhaps even in quality (propulsion

systems and various guidance methods employed) . The latest edition

of Jane's Fighting; Ships started its remarks on the Soviet Navy

with a statement that "by any standards, the Soviet fleets now

represent the super-navy of the super-power" . The continuous

appearances of new classes of missile armed ships, submarines and

boats which are impressing observers by their sophistication and

252
 301
novelty has been emphasized.

Soviet naval power is divided among four fleets, the

Northern, Baltic, Black Sea, and Pacific and one flotilla; the

Caspian. In addition, the deployment of naval forces in tho .

Mediterranean, a main responsibility of the Black Sea Fleet, but

also utilizing ships and particularly submarines from tho Northern

and Baltic Fleets, constitute in effect a fifth Soviet fleet,

although it continues to be called an eskadra . The further

build-up in the Indian Ocean might in the future produce a

situation similar to the Mediterranean, with the bulk of the naval

forces coming from the Pacific Fleet. The size of the Pacific

Fleet, in addition, will also be influenced by general developments

in relations with China and Japan and in turn the subsequent

development of their naval forces. The bulk of ballistic missile

and cruise missile submarines are based in the two most powerful

fleets, the Northern and the Pacific, in order to have easier

302
access to the oceans. •

In addition to a continuing intensive submarine building

program, the construction of new surface ships with an improved

"301
jane's Fighting Ships, 1971-1972 ed., p'p. 80-S2,
590-593; The Military Bala nce, 1971-1972, The International Institute
for Strategic Studies, London.
302
For the details of the distribution of forces see
Erickson, op. cit., ^i?. oe-57 and V/EHR, Politishe Information
No. 37, September 16, 1971.

253
 mainly anti-aircraf t capability, tin huprovort AHW
nse,

(not requiring target

Jability and horizon-range missiles
an outside source) ^is
iuisition and mid-course correction from
gradually.
iBg on. These submarines and surface ships will
and aging units built
luce the remaining conventionally armed

large series in the 1950' s.

Although modernization involved
i

it does not appear

classes of submarines and surface ships,
..
S me

be among the most favored

measures of the Soviet Navy.
t

being reinforced with larger ^

The fleet of support ships is
It is probably still
lips equipped for side replenishment.
of the Soviet merchant-
adequate in size, bnt with the help
Navy operational units with
Mine, it has managed to supply Soviet
.Soviet territory
U the essentials. The system of naval bases on
of the
It was reported that one
ppears to be under expansion.
air force bases in the world
is
iggest complexes of naval and
North, including Novaya
Zemlya.
^
Lder development in the Soviet
Western sense, primarily because
Lough not a balanced navy in the
be not
aircraft carriers, the Soviet Navy appears to
L a lack of
304 naval
After the mid-1950's, Soviet
uch disturbed by the fact.
;1

303 1971.
Vfashinston Post , October 16,
3 °4
The term "balanced navy"
indiscriminately, without a
appears to be
:tempt to define ^f* ^
M*™?^
navy should be in the composition 01 * In 80 000-ton carrier
-

"balanco" seo,, to be «
is surrounded by a
lered acn.
protective sc
a

^ -J^
ng those
> »

^
Wort - *°« "
armed with five-inch guns of
*

displacement of another 80,000 tons.

254
 wory did not embrace cither a traditional eaiplo; . of naval

cer in a quite non-traditional international situation or

ac.erence to the established hardware with the emergence of

qiilitatively new military technology. What ^s seen today in the

vrious areas of the world ocean is an innovatively developing

ttiy which appears to be well aware of its limitations and

strength and which is trying ."in different situations to perfect

tfe methods of combating a strong enemy under the most adverse •

305
conditions"

The role of maritime power in general and naval power in

prticular continued to be debated and analyzed in the Soviet

J ion. An essay "Navies in Wars and Peace" by Commander-in-Chief

d the Soviet Navy Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union S. Gorshkov

:.yturn to be a modern Soviet version of "the influence of sea

306
pwer upon history". Emphasizing the increased importance of

::eans and naval combat, the admiral gives a comprehensive

::ouomic, political, and military analysis of the role of the sea

a historical development and recalls Peter the Great's statement

bich compared a state with only an army to a person with one hand

305
Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy, Fleet
dmiral V. Kasatonov in Soviet Military Review No.. 7, July 1971, p. 4
306
At this writing, only three installments of what appear
o bo a sizeable work have been published in the Soviet Navy
agazine, __ _,v S bornik No. 2, 1972, pp. 20-29; No. 3, pp. 20-32;
ad No. 3, pp. 9-23. •?

255
-
 ad a state with both an army and a navy, to a person with two

b.nds. The historical peacetime use c. . navy as an instrument

c foreign policy, which can demonstrate the "oconomic i Litary

B,gnt of a state beyond its borders" an J. w he fact that "navies

:>r many centuries have been a single service of armed forces

apable of defending the interests of a country far away from its

lorders" were viewed as important features of the naval forces.

.lalyzing "Russia's uneasy path to the sea", the Admiral attacks

alien propaganda inspired and actively conducted by England" which,

llegedly, had been concerned by Russia's drive to the sea

nitiated by Peter the Great. Strong attacks are made against

igh Tsarist officials, who on the eve of the Russo-Japanese War

tried to persuade the Tsar that there was no need for the navy

.n the Pacific". Modern foreign propaganda allegedly inspired by

;he US was said to be using the old British argument that the

Soviet Union is a land power and, hence, its military requirements

ire different. As an 'example, President

'"'
Nixon's speech of August

1, 1970, was cited.

Russia's unfavorable maritime geography, which historically

complicated the development of the navy, is fully recognized. The

Admiral's treatment of "Russians in the Mediterranean Sea" is of

great interest. Analyzing the long history of Russia's naval

appearances and occasional presence in the Mediterranean, the

<

/
'

256
 ^kiral draws several conclusions. Acco~- iorically,

wjsn the threat of attack against Russia's southwestern borders

eerged, the Russian Navy appeared in the sea and "demonstrated

t the whole world that the .Mediterranean is not somebody's forbidden

sace or closed lake and that Russia is a Mediterranean power".

Te current presence of Soviet ships in the Mediterranean in

Grshkov's view is substantiated not ^nly by the geography, but

b many centuries of the presence there of the Russian Navy; it •

i| playing an especially important role in the defense of the

ountry and "blocks the violation of the peaceful atmosphere there

ajid plays a role of containment". If nothing else, this work

c:monstrates that Soviet naval thought is not merely working,

ht is quite active.

?5"7
 i

Soviet naval develops titia half cent 7 ago

us initially accompa.._^ ,. by -cui revolutionary slogans en the

<ie hand and conservative, unrealistic att :s to oronote

<JLassical naval theories en the other. Such dichatomous views

\2re interpreted by seme Western students of Soviet naval

;cfairs as testimony to the e::i.^ jo of uwo c; .;: ;inj schools

:i the Soviet Navy involved in a perpetual struggle to influence

i^viet leadership. In reality, however, without seriously -

ojecting to debates, and occasionally even encouraging them,

.ie Soviet leadership was quite pragmatic in its approach to

:aval construction. It could not be otherwise, I'or the economic

oaditions of the country and the defense requirements as seen

y the Soviet leaders for all practical reasons excluded any

ther approach. This is not to say that the Soviet leadership

xpressed a deep understanding of naval power and skillfully

implemented it, but the available options were very limited.

While World War I , the Revolution and the Civil War

nflicted severe losses on the Russian Navy, resulting in its

isinte^ration, and produced economic dislocation in the country,

number of factors favored t -ehabili .-._.:.... ȣ the Navy:

The Russian naval heritage, which, with the notable

O QO
<_ o u
eception of the Tsusima disaster, was generally glorious;

the remaining ships and personnel, particularly a considerable*

amber of former Imperial Navy officers, who, without necessarily

acepting the Communist ideals, joined the Soviet Navy and,

icved by patriotic feelings, worked hard;

rather extensive naval shipbuilding experience and

considerable shipbuilding capacities, which could be and were

r stored; the Soviet leadership's preoccupation with the defense

c the country. Long before the first Soviet tractor was

fc.ilt, the Soviet shipbuilding industry was gradually restored

a.d the construction of naval ships, and first of all submarines,

s.arted.

The accelerated industrialization of the country, strongly

Lased toward the defense sector, permitted the initiation of

£ number of shipbuilding programs, including the 1937 program

vsualizing the construction of a "mighty high sea navy worthy

c* the Soviet Union". This program was far exceeded what the

ountry could afford. A continuous shortage of metal, of machine

Uilding, and of other industrial capacities created the

onditions wherein the implementation of the program was to the

etrinient of the other services, particularly the. army. As a

onsequence, a minor v/er witl- -7 ~: - revealed the backwardness

ad unpreparedness of the Soviet armed forces, and generated 1

9 r. o
 need for urgent measures to correct
the B <tun^ *bo 1<W
pro-ran was sharply curtailed and the
construction of lar2 e curiae,
ships, stopped. However, reallocated capacities and
resources
did not affect either the —
sub——-.
„, Q ~-
Qjm e «,n surface
small „
combatant
construction. Considering the
»,i*c w^, —
cond 4 «-ion »*
-j.on Oj. **,«
v ^c
c-.,,
Soviet economy
before World War II, the variety of
z^zs t and -particularly
submarines, built and under construction
at the beginning of the
.war was substantial' and no-ate the notion
of the Soviet leader-
ship's neglect of the navy.

The employment of the Soviet Navy during

the war was"
-eiuhor brilliant nor disastrous. The Lund war threatened the I
existence of the Soviet Union as a state.
The composition of
the enemy forces neither created conditions for the application
'

of classical tenets of naval warfare nor was the

Soviet Navy
ready for it or was there any need
for it. On the other hand,
the employment of Soviet naval forces, particularly
during the
initial period of war, was of tea, marked by
not very imaginative
tactics and was handicapped by the lack
of forces, a considerable
portion of which were involved in the land
struggle. The war
revealed a number of serious mistakes made in
the process of
naval development, ^-q Northern Fleet was the weakest, and its

reinforcement was slow. The Soviet Navy had no amphibious snips,

and the formation of naval infantry

was delayed. r
::-.- Soviet Navy

210
 was la-in S behind
the means to combat
in the development
y cng of
0I influence mines
and
—
them. The
*»o anti-aircraft
ant* ,,-„ n defense
of the
Soviet ships was
inadequate due to An ilWH
an insufficient
number of
- •

automated and multi-purpose

guns . The top
w«y .
ecnexon c^ ^g Soviet
.

naval command.
a, eli"-im^^
eliminated during
*
the 1S37-1938 Stalin
purges,
v/as replaced by
young officers w^o W ?° dld „«< faave
id aot , •
,

chance to gain
experience. Moreover
over, ±h« o«-~~
the atmosphere t.
of terror had to
produce
suppression of initiative
and sear
fear o^ o- halt
oold action,
< •

resultin- ia -

reluctance to commitw
-. *^u:
important
^u; fleet
-•»«
we* ups+e <
^^~-«
s uo comoat, i -*-o, jl.

as was
particularly eviaens
/ evident xn +k^
the »-i^
Black Sea Fleet.
, —
After the war war en^-'ended, j-u^ o
the Soviet Union wasted no time in
resuming naval construction,
,
& Qs ^ t
ae^t©~ ~^w ne considerable
destruction
-o the economy
inflicted
j.^x
jr J»j.c»,eu ey <-v~
v>»,
the war. at fi> e + snip
A.t xirst, «u • •>

designs of
-he pre— war a^r xa
w*t a..a 1
"»o »-•> io.i^
4 te 1940 periods were w "* e h»n+
^uii^ ^n ,•«
considerable
mmber, repeating the
- "practice
practice ^-? 01 -*
.ae second half of
the 1930's.
*e orientation of Soviet
naval
V " A theorv
cneory fln ana, practice..
in both"
i* Pre-war period and fi rst

tensive, althou S h a
P0?,,. wai decad& wag
.
^^
-considerable number of
supines and ' "

eUUvoly well developed naval

aviation provided the Soviet '

avy with a limited

offensive c^p^eilivy
caoabilitv i„ +tae peripheralm ,

waters.
•Utical, and particularly
economic, realities for all
practical'
.j-cven^en ne Soviet Zfavy
w
«** // from v--,-^. any other
xrom fOD*,aining
^abilities. Even
- geography,
reop-ranhv although
,hj. ai1w improved ,

as a result of
.

2C1
 Ibrld War II, has continued to be unfavorable, and tho cc'nturi* i

dd problem of the Straj..., remained, Y.'iti; tho oxception oX an

imecessarily large number of conventional cruisers and destroyers

Uilt up to the mid-1950' s, the remaining naval forces developed

uthin the means of the Soviet Union did correspond to the role
*
^signed to the Soviet Navy.

For a few years after Stalin death, overwhelmed by the

ictories of Y/orld Y/ar II and particularly by the consequent

svelopment of nuclear weaponry and missilery, some influential

oviet military leaders, represented by the marshalls whose

xperience and outlook was limited hy army operations, clearly

uderevaluated, and to a certain degree, neglected the role of

he navy. Soviet naval theory, on the contrary, even under the

ondition of severe limitations on the available hardware imposed

iainly by the weakness of the economy and availability of

.llocated resources, continued to be quite active and modern.

Various theoretical groups on the fleets, the academy, and naval

schools encouraged and supported by a more imaginative navy

/
Leadership worked out a number of original and innovative

proposals concerning the further development of the navy under

lew strategic and technological conditions. Strategically, in

the post-war period, the Soviet Union l:as been facing opponents

of which the majority have been traditional maritime nations

262'
 haded by the US and which have possessed
strong navies.
i.reover, military geo S ra P hy has changed, elevating
the importance
& naval warfare.

On the technological side, it was claimed

that the
envelopment of nuclear weaponry, particularly
coupled with the
i.-w means for its delivery — missiles and the 'progress in

c.ectronics, all of which the- Soviets have

termed the "scientif ic-
ichnological revolution in military affairs", made
the.

r.vy particularly suitable for the application of these

new
c.ans of warfare. The mid-lSSO's decision of the Soviet

leadership to drastically alter the course

of -aval development

is testimony to fee success of the Soviet Navy's persuasion

:id probably of the military-political leadership's

understanding
i the problem.

A far looking approach taken in the course of the

.-cision-making process, which rejected any plans to construct

;tack aircraft carriers and to fight the opponent with its own

capons, approved the orientation of further naval development

ward the missile armament and emphasized the prevailing role

: the submarines and naval aviation, seems to have been the.

>st possible under the circumstances for the Soviet Navy. The
slatively rapid adjustment of both t le Soviet Navy and the
;
fense industry to the new course has produced a qualitatively
r

W navy

O0 7
 The first stage of the development of the new navy, lasting

little past the mid-1930' s, revealed its orientation toward a

uclear war. The tasks of the Navy's main striking forces,

uclear delivery, anti-carrier operations, and anti-Polaris ASY/,

dearly required the employment of nuclear weaponry and to a

arge degree were directed against it.

While it is safe to assume that a nuclear war has been

•uled out as an instrument of Soviet policy, a number of factors

iave contributed to the nuclear orientation in the Soviet

lilitary, including the naval build-up. First, with the

ippearance of new weapon system, any military establishment would

iave a tendency to increase its stockpile, and often up to an

mreasonable level. The notion of deterrence has implied a

;endency to promote the armament spiral. Mutual suspicion and

fear of "inferiority" (real, implied, or imagined) , particularly

In the atmosphere of occasional pronouncements of "strategic

superiority" by the adversary vV have, definitely p-layed an

important role. The fact that, above a certain level, superiority

in numbers ceased to produce strategic superiority, but is

capable only of maintaining a deterrence balance, seems never to

bother either side. The socalled theoretical field has not been

very helpful, for a myriad of academic bachelors, masters, and

doctors in the US and lieutenant-colonels, colonels (ca "..dates

264
 nd doctors of philosophy) -
of th« V1L c ,,liIi t.iry-poli, Llca.L
pparatus contributed
^ea he^iv to ^u
heavily t-~ the confusion of the
still x

ittle understood nature

of nuclei
uucxear warfare
Wa rf a and the associated ™
trategy

The naval contribution

to the strategic
deUvery, originally
k possession of only the
US Kavy in the form
of the attach
aircraft ^^iixcis,,
carriers was
woe iirst
*>
,• *,«.*. -.
suoolerasntpH o«^ later
«yyienLnted and i x
practically
-Placed by ballistic missile
submarines. The original
Soviet
.stem with surface Xaunch
and a 350-mile ran e was
S gradually ^
proved, and it required almost
a decade of effort to
produce
s submerged-launched
1, 500-mile range system.
A longer-range
baarine-launched ballistic missile
system, whose range has
:en variously estimated
at from 2,500 to over
3,000 miles, has
jportedly been under development.
Correspondingly, the launch
.atform was improved also,
from the 2 to 3 missies carried
by
e original Z-class and E-class
submarines to 16 on the Y-class
bmarines.
i

Paralleling the growth of the

naval strategic delivery
stem, a rather sizeable
construction of more conventional
rces, but quite
unconventionally armed, has been
observed
roughout the decade of
1930's. Besides continuing the
*Oyment of f„ rc es and the conduct
of o::ercises i lJt.«..t
anti-carrier operations and ASW
in remote areas, the « iarged

/
r 1
<~*
T~
L. O vj
i.rces of the Soviet Navy and first of all, its surface fore

live permitted the Soviet Union to initiate the second stage

c: forward deployment which, while explained originally by the

-cessity of defending against the same aircraft carriers and

Claris submarines, in effect was the application of Soviet naval

pwer to "protect the interests of the Soviet Union" and to

sipport,its foreign policy. The nuclear balance of the mid-1960*

aready had all the essential elements which led to parity,

sufficiency, equality, or whatever term is preferred over mutual -

(/erkill capability.

Such a state of affairs originally permitted the Soviet

Uion to deploy her naval forces in the area where the opposing

iarces were stronger and still have a credible instrument to

upport her policy. The Mediterranean deployment during the

:irst 3 or 4 years was a classical example of this. Gradually,

articularly after the crisis in the area had sharpened and

;ore and better units were built and became operational, the size

f the permanently present forces has been increased, creating

he condition where neither side could claim superiority (with

he exception perhaps of some naval pilots, who, as soon as they

re airborne and feel the three-dimensional freedom of skies,

ave a tendency to project that feeling into the notion of

uperiority) . In areas sucli as the Mediterrneaa, Soviet naval

'
26S
brces can receive substantial reinforcement on rather short

.otice, including land-based air power. The oft repeated

soviet dependence on the good will of the nations controlling

;he Straits seems to be no re wishful thinking than an objective

evaluation of the situation, for it is doubtful that, short of

i major conflict in which both NATO and the Warsaw Pact would

je involved, the Straits would be closed. The ability to have

superior forces in the area of confrontation, while not necessarily

Leading to an ability to control the sea, can certainly provide

its possessor with a number of advantages and considerably

increased chances for the favorable resolution of the conflict.

The presence of Soviet naval units in the Indian Ocean

aas appeared to be an embryonic variant of the Mediterrnean

situation. The behavior of the Soviet detachment during the

India-Pakistan War in a sense was not much different from that

in the Mediterranean during the Jordan and Libya Crises or during

the Pueblo incident in the Sea of Japan. It appears that the

employment of the Soviet Navy for what might be termed selective

containment of the US Navy, still in restricted situations

and carefully selected times and places, is being progressively

intensified.

307
For an evaluation see R.D.M. Furlong "St rater; 5 P :. v v
In The Indian Ocean" international Defense ;vov_
,
.0. 2,
-. 1372, pp. 133-140. ;

9R7
 It can be assumed that technically the Soviet Navy can

be employed in gunboat diplomacy. If one accepts Mr. Cable's

>

definition of gunboat diplomacy: "the use or threat of limited

naval forces, otherwise than as an act of war, in order to secure

advantage, or to avert loss, either in the furtherance of an

international dispute or else against foreign nationals within

the territory or the jurisdiction of their own state",

it might be concluded that the Soviet Navy has all the necessary

elements for its application on a selective basis. The political

validity of such an assumption is another matter, and, in most

cases, the Soviets are bound to lose more than they gain.

Soviet Navy support for an established friendly and legitimate

government, threatened internally and particularly under

circumstances where the blame for the turmoil can be placed upon

the "intrigues of the imperialists", is another matter, and its

possibility should by no means be excluded.

If the concept x>i an "all-out war at sea" seems to be

questionable, at least for the foreseeable future, a controlled

war on sea communications under certain circumstances cannot be

ruled out. However, it would not be in the form of unidentified

submarines sinking ships, but in the form of mutual retaliatory

John Cable, _ '^Z-SlL

j
Political
1 ppl :ations of
Limited Naval Force (Institute for Stra >tic ies - Studies
in International Security 16) New York: Praeger Publishers,
: .

251 pp. 1971, p. 21.

,

26 o
 trikes. Possessing the world's largest submarine fleet, a

oasiderable portion of which is well suited for the attack

ole, the Soviet Navy technically and operationally is capable

if conducting such a war. However, ±i would inevitably bear

.he fruits of growing into ;x general war and, hence, Ls extremely

remote

No picture of the Soviet Navy, even such a sketchy one

is presented in this paper, should be considered complete if

viewed in isolation, for in the final analysis, showing the

flag is only one profitable side effect of navies, which are

built and maintained to be engaged in naval warfare. An

obvious choice, and a singular one, for general comparison

might be only the US Navy. Only the most general type of

comparison of trends in the development of the two navies can

be made here. If, for the sake of analysis as well as for the

practical matters of naval warfare, one isolated ballistic

missile submarines, what remains in the two navies would be a

composition of forces which have been built for naval warfare

and which are navies as they have always been understood.

The Soviet Union's decision of the mid-19 50' s not to

build attack aircraft carriers was a correct one, considering

•the peculiar nature of the Soviet Navy at the time of

the

cincision, the trend in the development of naval warfare, and

269
Soviet policy. The US y, on the contrary, has -'or a loi

tine considered aircraft carriers as the nucleus of its naval

forces, which, to a large degree, have been developed to' support

carriers. The Soviet Union's rejection of the idea to fight

[carriers with carriers for a while denied their navy a number

of options. This probably still holds true in 'relation to a

number of situations in which, however, the Soviets do not likely

want to be involved. A diversified anti-carrier force developed

by the Soviet Union includes attack submarines, both cruise-

missiles and torpedo, land-based missile carrying aviation, and,

marginally, missile armed surface ships. While capable of

fighting carriers, they are hy no means a complete substitute

for them, although in the attack role at sea they might be more

effective.

The Soviet striking forces, as platforms for weaponry,

have a higher utilization of offensive armament. Aircraft

carriers, being high 'value targets, have to share a considerable

portion of their weapon capacity with the needs for AS 1

.'/ and

anti-aircraft defense, and many of them in effect become

siulti-purpose platforms. The question naturally arises whether

a package of diversified forces which may even cost less, can

perform the same tasks and bo lo^s vulnerable? Y/hile it _~

logical to apply the CV concept to the existing carr: one

270
should remember that the concept itself was born in order to

increase the survivability of the CVA portion of \i. Moreover,

the size and large tonnage of ships have ceased to play any

significant role in the age of missiles and sophisticated control

systems, "compressed" in size and "inflated" in performance by

the power of explosives and microelectronics. 'While ship-borne

aviation's role in combat at sea will not only survive, but might

be even elevated, the attack carrier concept, particularly in

relation to the Soviet Navy, is not very impressive. In the

decade of the 1970' s the advocates of SO, 000-ton mammoths,

particularly when they demand an increase of their number, bring

to mind Santayana's remark about fanatics who redoubled their

efforts as they lost sight of their goals. So, in relation to

the US Navy, the Soviet Navy is not much worse off at the present

without attack aircraft carriers.

The appearance in the future of carrier-like ships not

exceeding 20,000-30,000 tons displacement and serving as a

platform for VTOL aircraft in the Soviet Navy should not be

excluded. In general, both type of na\ al aviation, shipborne and

r

land-based, seem to be needed and will be developed. Heavy

land-based maritime aircraft are extremely maneuverablo „ requiring

less defense than any surface ship, and are capable of carrying

a considerable load in flights of prolonged deration, they Will

2'^1
 continue to be employed in a variety of .
ions. The Soviet
levy's emphasis on such aviation was initiated
by necessity,
i

tt turned out to be beneficial. '

The Soviet lead in submarines today is

overwhelming.
A least numerically they have held this
lead since the second
hit of the 1930«s. But only during the postwar period, when

te Soviet Union built close to' 600 submarines, were the majority

them designed for long-range operations.

Submarines, with
pactically every known type of propulsion systems
and armament,
sme unique to Soviet submarines, were
produced. Ballistic-
-ssile submarines in both the United States
and the Soviet
T
:\ vy augment both countries strategic delivery systems

prticularly the second - strike capability. Llany of the

rinaining submarines, particularly in the Soviet Navy, are

alti-purpose boats whose role in the future would probably

be
s.panded. At the present, submarines represent the main striking

tree of the Soviet Navy, the role they undoubtedly will retain

t the foreseeable future. The long nurtured idea that the

ijbmarine is a weapon of the "have-not" navy is archaic, if it

1 any time was valid. In spite of the US Navy's long and, in

i'B limits of technological possibilities, somewhat productive

>forts to have an effective anti-submarir.c defense

system, the
ijture of the problem, the budgetary limitations imposed u^on the

272
size of the ASW forces, and the size of tlie Soviet submarine

force, which under certain circumstances can afford even

saturation tactics, seems to create a situation where it would be

extremely difficult to cope with Soviet submarinos.

Besides, ASW is a two-way game, and the hunter quite often

himself can be attacked, not only by the object of the hunt,

the submarine, but by the forces supporting the submarine or

cooperating with it. This is why just installing sophisticated

'
search equipment aboard ASW ships is not enough. Modern weapons

to defend the ASW forces from various types of attacks are

needed. It seems that the submarine at the present is the best

ASW platform, and a considerable number of them are needed.

Whether the Soviet Navy has enough submarines for a variety of

missions is hard to tell, but it has considerably more than the

US Navy.

The size of the Soviet surface force, which is capable of

being deployed in remote areas, is obviously smaller and less

diversified than that of the US navy. However, there is a growing

number of Soviet Navy surface ships armed with a modern missiles

presently absent in the armament ox the US Navy ships. Certain

classes of Soviet surface ships have no counterparts in the

US Navy, and a unit-by-unit comparison is meaningless. Today,

there is no reason to consider the Soviet ffavy either as a

273
"ne-shot navy" or a "first-strike navy", because, for ....

foreseeable types of conflict, it seems to have more than one

sot, each one with a high degree of probability of hitting an

asigned target, and its defense of surface units is no worse than

oher navies, the US Navy included. The vulnerability of Soviet

srface units varies from area to area. Considering the

cordiua-ved system of naval warfare, however, other forces can

waken the opponent's ability to strike, (at the present mainly

v;th carrier-borne aircraft) thus, making the defense ability

c Soviet surface units more effective.

The amphibious capability of the Soviet Navy is very marginal

ompared with that of the US Navy with respect to the size of

te force and the size and range of operations. The important

i.ct is the emergence of such a capability coupled with the

i.pid growth during the 1360 's of Soviet airborne troops, which

i; testimony of the Soviet military orientation reward mobility,

deluding that at sea. While a ra.pid increase in size of Soviet

aphibious forces in the near future seems to be unlikely, it is

^gical to expect the sophistication of lauding means, including

$tter amphibious tanks, air-cushion armored personnel carrier,

'ie employment of helicopters, and appearance of specially designed

:Lre support ships armed with long-range guns and missiles.

In the field of tactical armament,- the Co vie t Navy scored

274
 able :^cco:^ by emphasizing the d feloj lent of sr

LBiiiles since the ^ic 1950*s.' ?or some reasc- which is difficult

o explain satisfactorily the US Navy apparently neglected this

ype of armament. The traditional preoccupation with carrier-

orne airpower, which in the words of US Navy Captain Smith

previously cited) , put "too many eggs in too few baskets'* and

ater the budgetary limitations imposed by the Vietnam war,

bviously do not explain the whole story. There should be no -

uestion that the US is technologically capable of building

ine cruise missiles, and thus avoid the situation where in the

ords of Vice Admiral K. G. Rickover, "our gun-equipped surface

;hips are considerably outranged by Soviet surface-to-surface

;ruise missiles and would suffer severe attrition in an

309
engagement". Some anti-ship capability of certain US Navy

>A2.is can hardly be compared with the capability of the Soviet

cruise missiles. The wide adaptation of cruise missiles permitted

;he Soviets to increase the range of an engagement by many

;imes, and to change the nature of defense, so that instead of

lighting the weapon systems carrier (ships, submarines, planes)

It became necessary to fight the weapon itself. In the early

L9C0's Soviet Academician Admiral-Engineer Berg advanced the

.'a a Post, May 31, 1971.

275
iea that the task in the scientific .
of

tjo systems is not to try to catch up, but to out ;ance,

lave behind, without catching (£ regnat ' nye '^V.

I seems that in relation to a naval engagement and ':he role of

ajtack aircraft carriers in it, the Soviet Navy followed that

a vice and leapfrogged the traditional carrier stage in its 1

dvelopment, and, by concentrating on cruise missiles, created

is own "carriers".' To a certain degree, 2, C and ether classes

c cruise missile submarines and Kynda, Xresta, Krivais, and ^

Nnuchka-cla.ss surface ships are carriers of robo t -kamikaze

The effective deployment of naval forces is presently

i conceivable without reliable ocean surveillance to assure the

umost effective employment of missile armament and to minimize

a. opponent reaction time. The intensive activity cf Soviet

rconnaisance aviation above the oceans, demonstrated particularly

dring* the Okean maneuvers and the reported launching of

aditional satellites during the India-Pakistan war are evidence

Soviet recognition of the importance of surveillance. The

Sviets emphasized the necessity for a wider application of *.

ir.cro-electronics and laser technology and the creation of

diensive means, not against already operational offensive

£ stems, but against potentially possible ones, "the appearance

c which are most likely to ho expected in the armed forces cf

/
1

/ r\ —/ rs
 310
[countries of the opposing camp", Th •:... •
assurance by

Marshall Grechko that "the Navy will bo su] i ith mc re

sophisticated technology and pcwer_ aL .. lonstrated

the Soviet Union's deter. ..Ion to keep its navy apace with
t

technological progress.

The prime mover behind the rapid and quite sizeable advance

of the Soviet Navy during the last fifteen years, however, was not

Soviet technology, which, in spite of the heavy emphasis on the

defense sector and obvious advances in certain fields, is no

better than US technology, and most likely behind it. The

imaginative thinking of the Soviet naval circles which did not

hesitate to break with established concepts, but worked out and

applied new ones has to be given major credit. In the United

States Navy, apparently, there are a number of people justifying

US Navy Captain Smith's statement that "out-of-date thinking

even more than our publicized over-age ships is our problem".

Often heard references to Mahan's basic concept, command of the

sea, which, as it is well known, is supposed to be gained hy a

decisive battle won oy a superior navy, can hardly be called

y

valid in the nuclear age, and its advocates seem to continue to

live in "a dim religious world in which Neptune was God, Mahan

CIA
G. A. Kadomtsev, ' "On t! - I •. . ot
scientific foresight", i Sborj - No. 11, I960, p. 5.

277
 j prophet, and the United States Navy the only true c

way of thinking leads to over... thusiastic cc tts conc<

ris

bdrofoil patrol ships as "able to take- .

.
- floats",

irf ace-effect (air cushion) ships employed in up to small

c.rrier size and changing "the whole power' relationship at sea",

ad small carriers labeled "sea control ships". While indicating

je propulsion modes of the visualized ships, most of which

or at best
re still in the drawing board stage of development

re being tested in boat-size prototypes, very little is said

bout the armament packages which, in the final

analysis, together-

lith tactics are the main thing, and the ships are only platforms

o carry them. Surprisingly, there is not much talk about

surface skimmers, and yet the Soviet Navy seems

to be interested

in them.

Recently the Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet ground

assertion that
forces concluded his Navy Day greetings with the

the Navy "can count on the efficient and the

effective support

change from
of ground forces", which represented a considerable

the not so old view of the Soviet Navy as

"a reliable helper of

the Soviet Army." The independent nature of Soviet Navy

tasks
operations, its alleged ability "to solve strategical
"to contain
directly" and, hy its presence in remote areas
.

cannot any longer

aggressive actions" claimed by the Soviets,

bo rejected off-handedly or lightly.

How efficient the Soviet

27'
jfavy would be in the claimed capability might be
debatable, bat
:heir firm understanding of the effective use of
the Navy seems
511
to be beyond any doubt.

The overall capability of the Soviet Navy and, more so

,

its intentions, might be debatable as are conclusions concorning

the Soviet naval policy and the nature of strategic employment

Df the Soviet Navy. However,, the Soviet Union's determination

to break away from her recent naval inferiority, to go beyond

the customary closed seas and coastal waters, to employ a

considerable portion of its imaginatively renovated navy in the

world's oceans for the "protection of state interests" and to

exclude the mistakes and misfortunes of the past, is obvious.

The following quotation illustrates: "For many decades almost

continuously warring among themselves, the European colonial

plunderers unanimously aspired to deny Russia access to the

ocean — by force, by diplomacy, and even by 'scientific'

argumentation. A "theory" was devised and circulated to the effect

that historically Russia was a purely continental state, and that

/
therefore it was neither necessary nor possible for it to have a

powerful navy. Influential mercenary supporters of this theory

It was reported that during India-Pakistan War, the

Soviet ambassador to India, -.'. M. Pegov, assured Indian
officials ":.. .: a Soviet fleet is now in the san, and
-

that the Soviet Union will not allow the US Seventh U"i^ :o .,

intervene". Pnrado , February 13,1972, p. 8. .

279
vcrc found in the Tsarist government, the consequences are
312
veil known — it is enough to recall the Tsushima' trade^y."
«

One wonders if the political goals of the Tsar jovernment

.vhich led to Tsushima are not shared and pursued by the Soviet

(government.

n-Maneuvo rs of the Soviet

Cl-'o ? Na.vy in, April-May 1070 ,

Vcenizdat, 1S70, pp. 2G-27.

 CHAPTER II

MERCHANT MARINE

History of Development, Plans

and their Implementation

At the beginning of World V,

r
ar I, the Russian mercantile

:Leet numbered 1,040 ships with a total cargo carrying capacity

if 912,000 tons; many were old, slow, technically obsolete

teamships and sailing vessels. Although three quarters of

ussia's foreign trade was carried 'oy sea, only 7% of it was

arried on Russian ships.

Foreign (German, French, British) interests owned a

onsiderable percentage of the joint stock companies.

As a result of World Y/ar I , the chaos of the Revolution

.rid particularly the civil war, many merchant ships were

.ost-sunk, taken overseas by the White Guards, or confiscated

)y foreign states. The total loss amounted to over 400,000

cons, or more than 40%. For example, in the Black Sea-Sea of

\zov basin in addition to combat losses, 2C4 ships with a total

cargo capacity of 200,000 register tons were tak&n away in

1
Vodnyy Transport, 20 June 1970.
 920 by the retreating White Guards, The majority of the

emaining ships were in poor technical condition, land many were

ailing ships.

The February 1917 Revolution generated alarm among foreign

tockholders of Russian steamship companies. There were attempts

o hold Russian ships in foreign ports under various pretexts,

he October Revolution just accelerated the process. In order to

revent it, the Soviet government issued the decree of 24

ovember 1917 concerning "prohibition of the sale, hypothecation -

nd chartering of Russian merchant ships by foreign citizens

.nd organizations". All transactions concerning the transfer

if ships abroad conducted prior to November 24, 1917 were declared

2
'oid, and the sailing of ships to foreign ports prohibited.

.'he socalled "workers control" of steamship lines through

specially organized committees was established. The decree

)y the Council of People's Commissars on the 23rd of January

(February 5) 1918 nationalized the whole Russian mercantile

fleet. The newly organized Baltic company, Transbalt, in 1918

candled 160 Soviet and foreign ships in the Port of Petrograd,

out the Civil War interrupted even such modest activity.

On ilarch 15, 1920, Lenin stated: "I repeat, that our

destiny depends on the forthcoming water transport c, ipaign

"::or3ko'/ Plot Mo. 1,-1967, pp. 5-7. .,

f. c> <->

£01
fcrhaps more than on the forthcoming war with Poland". 3 In

iy 1920 the decree signed by Lenin gave the Sovnarkom (Council

c: People's Commissars) exclusive right to permit the sale of

nips and to enter into charter party agreements. 4

The resumption of foreign trade was badly needed to ease

;ie economic dislocation of the country and to 'start the

^storation of industry, and at least a small number of

oerational ships was required for that purpose. Eecause of the

evil war, the only area from which the ships could operate

ad carry foreign cargo was the North. In May 1920 three sunken

slips and, during the summer of 1920, several more were raised

ii the White Sea. The newly organized Directorate of Sea

1-ansport for White Sea - Murmansk (Belomortran) collected 23

s;eamships (some with the ice-reinforced hulls) and 23 sailing

vssels. Because of the shortage of coal, the latter were

5
onsidered of a special importance. The first Belomortran ship,

£ibbotnik, left Archangel on the 16th of August 1920 with foreign

t*ade cargo. In 1921 the Belomortran was reorganized into the

Viite Sea District of Sea Communications (BOMPS) , and in 1922 the

Northern State Steamship Line Company was formed.

3
V. I. Lenin, Co mplet e Works', Fifth Edition, Vol. 40, p. 213

Sorskoy Plot No. 11, 1067, pp. 2-3.

5
iorskoy Flot No. 3, .1963, pp. 3-10. .

oo ^
 In the Black Sea, the salvage of ships started in the

:ond half of 1920. After one year of salvage and extensive

air work, the Black Sea Steamship Line Company resumed

oe ration.

In the Baltic, the Baltic State Steamship Line was organized

i 1922. The company immediately started to caTry foreign cargo.

Mney earned by charter permitted the Baltic Company to repair

sips and thus to increase their number and total tonnage.

A'ter one year the company had 30 ships with a total tonnage of
6
J, 590 tons. After 1922, the shipbuilding industry speeded up

nip repair and soon began the construction of new ships.

With the introduction of the NEP (New Economic Policy) in

D21, all steamship companies started to operate on a self-

upporting basis; they were no longer financed by the state.

n order to attract private capital, the joint stock shipping

ompanies Dobroflot and Sovtorgflot were organized. In addition,

oreign capital was attracted through a number of mixed companies.

for example, in May 1921 the Russian-German company, Derutra, and

.a 1923 the Norwegian -Russian Steamship Company were organized,

.'he mixed companies, besides bringing in needed foreign capital,

vere viewed as a device for avoiding the blockade of Soviet foreign

b MA y»oV/~ _
uitji . sKuy t? -"-*-
x 1.'.>..'
TV ...
'*V-
fto .
1
X
'

, —
TOR7 > ^j I
f
nn
yjtf . »-»
—7
* •

7
i SiH J. I.i) L' , i CD nSQ.C ^v/ -j v - . iOJj JLo . o , p , ^

cO S-
 rade cargo and for gaining experience in operating
steamship
ines. There was a strict "division of labor" between joint

took and nixed companii;:;; tho formor w< •/ • .. llnwM i., .

.,,,

:argo between Soviet ports in coastal navigation and the latter

>ere used for the transportation of foreign trade cargo

8
.'xclusively. With the growth of the Soviet Merchant Marine

md improved relations with many foreign states, both types

9
)f company were liquidated.

In 1925 the restoration of the majority of ships was

iompleted. The Soviet yards started to build new ships and,

In addition, ship procurement abroad was initiated. The merchant

aarine program visualizing the construction of 698,000 tons of

10
ships was approved by the Counsel of Labor and Defense in 1925.

In 1928, prior to the first Five Year Plan, about 80% of Soviet

Merchant Marine ships were more than 20 years old. According to

the first Five Year Plan (1928-1929/1932-1933) , 10 billion rubles

of capital investment were planned for Soviet transport, 3.6

times more than the 2.7 billion rubles for the previous five

years. It v/as further planned to complete the restoration

of Soviet Merchant Marine and to increase cargo sea transportation

8
M orsVoy Flot Xo. 11, 1967, pp. 2-3.

9
March 1930 Decision of the Soviet Government t
. .:oy
Flot No. 1, 1937.
10
For details, see Chapter entitled "Shipbuild g".

/
r\ r\ r~
J >- w x
 re than four times, port cargo turnover two tir.es, and total

tjanage of ships more than two times.

During December of 1930 and the first few months of 1931,

te Soviet transportation system, which was lagging considerably

chind the increasing demand, became the object of the special

onside ration of the Party and the government, 'which led to a

nmber of decisions to improve the situation. The decision to

cganize the People's Commissariat for Water Transport was made

12
a January 30, 1931. On April 14, 1931 another decision "on

<)a transport" demanded an improvement in the efficiency of the

iranch and approved the organization of six merchant marine

drectorates: The Azov, Baltic, Caspian, Northern, Pacific, and

Hack Sea.

Although the first Five Year Plan was not fulfilled, the

erchant marine received 136 new ships with a total cargo capacity

f close to 500,000 tons (more than half were Soviet built). In

932 the total cargo turnover of the Soviet Merchant Marine

13
eached the pre-revolution level.

The Party directives for the second Five Year Plan

1
Morskoy Plot Ho. 2, 196S, p. 3.

1?
Up to that time the Soviet Merchant Marine was subordinated
o the cit of Railroads.
Ccii The new Co^-ii^sarir. b of Yi'ater
'ransport included the merchant marine and the river fleet.
1°
Morskoy Flot T.o . i, 1967, pp. 5-7.

pp
(1933-1937) visualized an accelerated development of Soviet

Merchant Marine. A total of 26.3 billion rubles were planned

for the development of Soviet transport. Although the figures

for the merchant marine were not published, .judging from

previous practice, 6 to 8 billion rubles would be a fair

assumption. In reality, however, the merchant *marine received

only 23 new ships during 1933-1934, with a total cargo capacity

of 130,000 tons. The remaining three years of the second ?ive

Year Plan witnessed a sharp reoricniaiion of Soviet industry

toward military production. "In shipbuilding, Navy orders

became predominat, and construction of merchant ships practically

stopped. Partial reinforcement of the merchant marine was

14
conducted through the purchase of ships abroad."

Instead of ships and port modernization, the Soviet

Merchant Marine was fed with decisions. According to a decision

of the CPSU Central Committee in 1934 the political directorate

of Water Transport and political departments in steamship

companies were organized. Their functions were defined as "to

assure fulfillment of Party directives for the improvement of

all activities of water transport, to increase political

15
education and training of personnel, to elevate vigilance".

14
Morskov Flot No. 2, 1987, p. 4
15
Morskoy Flot No. 2, 1967, p. 5.

287
 anwhile, the shortage of Soviex tonnage forced the greater use

o the chartering of foreign ships. • l

The Spanish Civil War presented the Soviet Merchant Marine

v.th an additional burden. The Soviet supply to the Republican

culd be delivered only by sea, directly to the Spanish ports,

c through France. A number of Soviet ships were detained by

Panco forces, and three, the Komsomol, the Timiryazev, and the

Eagoev, were sunk. The weak Soviet Navy could not provide the'

bviet Merchant Marine with effective protection.

The 18th Party Congress (March 1939) directives for the

tiird Five Year Plan for 1939-1943, visualized the acceleration

c: the merchant marine development. According to the plan, the

nrchant marine role in the country's transportation system was

") be increased, new types of ship were to be built, ports

:aproved, and the Northern Sea Route mastered. A considerable

16
ncrease in capital investment was planned. In reality, however,

espite a modest increase in civilian- shipbuilding <, little was

Dne to improve the merchant marine prior to World War II. By

940 the tonnage of the USSR Merchant Fleet approached 2 million

ons, but qualitatively the majority of ships were obsolete and

a no way able to satisfy the needs of sea transportation, either

a peacetime or during the war.

.Morr/.roy 7 J ot No. 3, 1957, p. 7.

288
 Vn>on the war started or. June 22( : C .;i, a UUKbor of merchant
ships wore taken over zy the
Soviet Kavy. The activity of ail
steam-ship companies was immediately
subordinated to the 'needs
of the military .command, «uu
and una
,
firm m-m-*-o~„
military ~~„+
control- over them was
established. In the Baltic the merchant
fleet was used to
evacuate retreating troops, military
hardware, -some industrial
machinery and civilian personnel'
from the Saga, Tallin, and 'later
the Khanko. fail oi
In the iaj.1 n-P iq/i ,
1941 -..,
the whole ,

remaining fleet was

blocked in Leningrad, where it
remained to the end of the war.
In the Black Sea, the merchant ships v;ere used
to supply aid,
later to evacuate, the Odessa
garrison, to supply the defenders
of Sevastopol, and to assist the Black Sea Fleet
and the Soviet
Army during the defense of the
Caucasus. In the north, the
majority of available 40 merchant
ships were used for transportation
of Lend-Lease cargo and raw materials (in
western convoys and
also along the Northern Sea Route).
Twelve ships were lost.
In the Pacific, merchant ships participated in the transportation
of Lend-Lease cargo from the U. S. and continued to provide sea
trasnportation for Far Eastern region, and
along the Northern
!

Sea Route. In the Caspian Sea, the tanker fleet was

used
extremely intensively, delivering Baku's oil.

The war took a heavy toll c^ the Soviet ...O

V. :.: — v^

Nearly half (330) of all ships were lost and practically all

28S
remaining ships were badly rep; rs.

collected all the Axis shipping it could as rep ons. A

number' of ships, mainly Liberty -class, ware obtained under

Lend-Lease. Decrepit was the term describing the condition of

small old ships built in various countries during previous two

to three decades. /
The war caused considerable damage to Leningrad, Murmansk,

and a number of other ports, while such large ports as Odessa,

Novorossiysk, Nikolayev, Tuapse, Tallin, and Riga were destroyed.

The plan for the restoration and development of the Soviet

economy approved in March 1943 envisaged, for the merchant marine,

the delivery of 400,000 tons of ships, accelerated repair of

suitable ships, capital reconstruction of major ports, 2.2 times

greater cargo turnover in 1950 compared with 1940, and a 2.5

times increase in production capacity of ship repair yards. 17

Actually in 1950 the Soviet Merchant Marine transported 33.7

million tons of cargo with a total cargo turnover of 21.4

billion ton-miles. The promised tonnage was not delivered,

»

although the repair facilities were improved and port restoration

had begun. The inability of the mercantile fleet to fulfill

the plan was recognized in the Counsel of Ministers Decision of

17 June 1947 "on measures to improve the operation of -jhe merchant

1?
Morskoy Plot No. 5, 1967, p. o.

2c
 •i:ic and fulfillment of the St • -

argo in 1947". tms "=stick

While this + ,-~i-» . .

intensified somewhat an
:Lreadytense situation in the induct™, it+ could not
tne ~aaustry, ,•

and did
ot produce drastic improvements.

Directives for the fifth Five Year

Plan (1951-1955)
clopted by the 19th Party Congress in October
i 9 52, devoted

considerably greater attention to the

merchant marine. The"
cfpital investments were increased, somewhat
larger facilities'
»r new constructions allocated, an intensified procurement of
sips abroad approved, modernization
of existing and construction
c new shipbuilding yards and ports,
planned.
During the 1951-1955 five-year period,
the growth of the
Sviet Merchant Marine exceeded
that in the previous five-year
pried by 63.8%. More than half of the new ships received
were
Sviet built. In addition, many ships underwent
major repairs,
tje last time such an approach was used '

on a large scale by the

Sviet Union. In 1955 the Merchant Marine carried
53.7 million
Aw of cargo with total turnover of 37.2
billion ton-miles. 18
The XX Party Congress directives for the
sixth Five Year
'an, (1956-1960), envisaged a ..-..-chant fleet growth by 1,600,000
t (to be built mainly hy the Soviet avid
Comecon country yards)
d increased participation of Soviet ships in
transportation of

13
Morskcy _?lot No. G, 1967, p. 7.
/

2S1
 .reign trade cargo. The Soviet North -

led out as a

piority area for merchant marine development. The timber

ejport there was carried out mainly by foreign ships (85/6%)

chartered by the Soviet Union. By 1959 only 70% of the Northern

S.eamship Company tonnage was powered, including 77.5% still

20
Liming coal and only 22.5% using liquid fuel. *

While the sixth Five Year Plan was never fulfilled, (it

v:s replaced by the 1959-1965 Seven Year Plan) , the measures

provided in it did play an important role in the development"

c: the Soviet Merchant Marine. While not contributing much,

drectly, the Plan did set a definite trend, building up a

jrerequisite for the future accelerated development of the

i^rchant marine. In effect, it was the first plan which was

arried out during its initial three years as it was visualized:

ore funds were allocated and spent for ships at home and abroad,

ad more domestic shipbuilding capacity was allocated and

tilized for civilian' construction.

During the Seven Year Plan period (1959-1965) , the Soviet

/
.erchant Marine underwent a truly unprecedented development.

he plan for the merchant marine was revised twice, each time with

,
considerable increase in tasks. The first revision came after

~' J
.Morskoy 71 ot No. 8, 1967, p. 7.

20
Morskoy Flot No. 3, 1967, ^n . 8-10,

TOO
i- cJ /.
tje 22nd Party Congress (October 1961), when it was decided to

acelerate even more the already fast growth of the merchant

ojrine for the reason that the plannedgrowth of the cargo

cpacity of the fleet was lagging behind the growing demand of

te foreign trade, and, consequently, a considerable expenditure

u.s required to charter foreign ships. The second increase was

ii 1963, for the plan was fulfilled two years in advance. The

increased tasks set for the Soviet Merchant Marine in 1963 were

iso over-fulfilled towards the end of 1965, again an unprecedented

nenomenon in Soviet planning practice.

According to the original plan, the cargo turnover was

•) increase by 220%, but the actual increase was 360%. In

958 the Soviet Merchant Marine carried only 6.6% of the total

argo turnover for all types of transportation in the country,

'bile in 1965 it carried 14%. In foreign trade, the cargo

urnover increase was 480%. The total cargo turnover increased

rom 57.4 billion ton'-miles in 1953 to 209.9 billion tons in

965. The merchant fleet tonnage grew from 2,845,000 register

ons in 1953' to 7,150,000 register tons in 1965, or 2.5 times,

n 1953 the Soviet Merchant Marine had about 250 ships suitable

or long hauls while in 1965 there were over 800 such ships,

he average cargo carrying capacity of the dry cargo shd

ncreasod 150% over the Seven-Year Plan period, while that ^or

OQ
£. vj O
.;• tankers increased 180%. The Soviet Merchant Marine jumped

;iW the 12th place in world ranking in 1953 to 6th place in

LS5, becoming one of the youngest fleets in the world with

.liost 30% of its ships built in the previous ten years. Towards

;b end of the period, the Soviet Merchant Marine sharply

21
.creased its participation in the charter market.

The Seven Year Plan resulted in the complete elimination

i coal-burning ships, which at the beginning constituted 77.5%.

lithe total ship inventory of the Northern Steamship Company

ii:ered by way of example above. The average age of ships was

icreased from 14 to 8 years, while the average speed increased

'»m 8 to 14,5 knots. As a result, the amount of export timber

STied on Soviet ships increased from 14.4% to 195S to 32%

vl965. In 1962, the Northern Steamship Company was receiving

iij new ship per month, and in 1G65, two ships per month.

though completely retiring old ships, the company nevertheless

22
.creased its tonnage* by 1.7 times.

The phenomenal growth of the Soviet Merchant Marine during

its seven year period attracted the attention of world shipping

sWunity and press. For the first time in its history, the

Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1966, pp. 9-14, and No. 3, 1967,

). 6-8.
22
Morskoy Plot No. 3, 1967, pp. 3-10.

294
Sviet Merchant '
c /oil as a •
i

ad effective instrument of Soviet foreign policy .i2 **

Directives for the 1966-107C Five Year Plan approved

V the 23rd Party Congress in April 1933 provided for a 50%

ncrease in Soviet Merchant Marine t .- .30 ;

an SC% increase
24
:i total cargo turnover, and a 40% increase in port productivity.

.:cording to the plan, the average ship operating time toward

le end of period was to reach 320 days per year for dry cargo •

25
;nips and 325 days for tankers. ^•

Although the plan was not fulfilled, actual performance

as close to the planned figures. The fleet was augumented by

40 new ships totalling 4.5 million dwt, an increase of 42% over

five-year period. Total cargo turnover in 1970 amounted to

54 billion ton-miles, an increase of 70% over 1935. (In foreign

uns, which accounted for 91% of the ton mileage, the increase
26
as 78.4%)

23
See Reporter , February 10, 1966, pp. 24-23.
24
Morskoy Plo t No. 6, 1968.

Morskoy riot No. 11, 1967, p. 8 and No. 2, 1970, pp. 3-5.
26
The socalled Cuban Sea Bridge and the closure of the Suez
Janal contributed considerably to this Soviet index. Day-in and
lay-out the Soviet Merchant Marine has had some hundred chips on
:he Cuban run, where total tonnage deli 197C exceeded 3
million tons. The Sovi- . ~ Vietnamese linos were served in
-

L970 oy more than 150 ships. The 1970 cargo carried to ..';.. h
Vietnam was sale to be equivalent no about 1,000 trainloads.
few Times No. 10, 1971.

90s:
 During those five years, 730 million tons of cargo and 167

million passengers were carried by the Soviet Merchant Marine.

I 1970 Soviet ports handled 1,300 million tons of cargo,' a

"^
27 -
fifteen percent under-f ulf illment of the plan. Average ship

aerating time increased for dry cargo ships from 310 days in 1965

tj 331 days in 1970, and for tankers from 311 days to 322 days. 28
_
A'erage "speed" of dry cargo ships grew from 235 miles per day

ii 1965 to 315 miles per day in 1970, and tankers, from 327 to

C.!3 miles per day. At the end of 1970, the Soviet Merchant

Mrine had established 65 foreign lines including 33 with a *

jiblished schedule. In addition, there were many lines in coastal

nvigation.

Reporting to the Collegium of the Ministry of Merchant

;*rine, Minister Guzhenko stated that the Soviet Merchant Marine

uring 1966-1970 "assured the complete fulfillment of the cargo

rausportation requirement in coastal navigation, the independence

f Soviet foreign trade from the capitalistic charter market, and

ssistance to fighting people of Vietnam, Egypt, and other

29
ouutries". First Deputy Tikhonov added that, by satisfying

27 Ibid.

28
Morskoy Flot No. 3, 1971, pp. 3-7.
29
Vodnyy Trar port, '11 7o;:^uary -07.:.

OOP
 requirements of the Soviet .. t ........ economy,

lafine fulfilled "the century-old dream of Russia's leading

legators"

The following table illustrates the augm< ition of the

iciet civil fleet. It can be seen that, while total annual

pjwth has been around 1 million tons, not all *shi^^ ~clong

;c the merchant marine.

O r "?
 01] CO <J> Oi iSw CO :>o
K > o • • • X
c j

I I

~ O ro i
~
a #
>

rt- O 1 ri- P c <-.

c p
rr
C
£ > ft
C f-.
_ x p
>~
t/5
'
•~r>

p C »* ... ...
C
i

I u CO
H O IW (A H K ;> G
ft crq >— o (A w i t; /-••

ft
P o o
P p d KZ o 'O
hj P o P *-•

X V. io
p 0. p
o to
<—• !-. CO
rC H* c;
c o H P
| (A O rr

N
J
H-
to
O J-
• J.
O [O ;+
Cs o to CO en cn CO en m > j H*
H- o o CO en o on CO ft
W
rr
c CO Ol CI CD o O en
"HT

P
ct
*i V-
O to to to ^5
0-
r- 1
to Ol CO CD ^ £t C^ H
r+ Ol en CO i— o CO O
O CV CO Oi <J Ol b H Ol C2
P
i
*• «• «• « i

•* IO o
CO tO tO CD CO M :_i
CO Ol
g.
tO CO »>. <l A O ;_i A !

*-> :

CO CD Ol -4 <J on CO Ol M
hsJ o
to ft >-••-

oj !o o
tO CO o CO -0. <— rt
CO H- 1
o Ci CO J- 1
CD |S.
CO oi to o O ! O CO

CD
a o
V- 1

C5 — Hj
51 CO to CO en CO P 1

to to CO o < 1
on i ^
oi o en co en l- 1
h- 1
Of
co CO on <J >p>. a ft »a
i ft
0>. <J H-1 <J
W co to o tO CO en o jM •_i

en Oi CD O -J ^ CO .00 ft
|w SO.
CD
|*d CO
O <Si to <D vy
OT K«
•a to CO CO en rfx o to jj, 'G
IO tO O CD o <J o CO (A
o o en Ol O Oi CO CO CO r>
ft
vD K 1

w
„ to co en CD
—
1 ~J tO to CD CO to Oi Ol
CD CO Ol CD Ol o CO h-1
;—-i
co Ol to >^ OS CO C3

o
CO
H o
CD
£>. Ol
OJ
on
o
on
'^.i
Ol
CO
to
co 0> •O Ol co Ol Ol <J

w
Oi to H
Cn to CO CO en ^ CO tO
I- 1
Oi to CO CD M I-' O
to o o CO CO Ol CD CO
;
i

Ol CO CO
w
IO NO >0 CO CO
co <,. 1^'
01 "»4 to CO A
». w
^.> to O". 0: 0^
o u>- Ol 60 Ol o
CD CD r^ H to w IO

238
 The Five Year Plan for 1971-1975, directives .for which were

.proved by the 24th Party Congress in April 1971/ provides for a

3

.Vther increase in Soviet Merchant Marine tonnage of 5 million

As. It is planned to increase total cargo turnover by 35%,

Ale increasing cargo carriage '^y 40%. The plan provides for the

instruction of new ports and modernization of existing port

:.;ilities. The deep-draft dock areas in the Soviet ports are to

30
jc increased by 37%.

It is planned to increase container carriage and to replenish

:b merchant fleet with ships carrying 40, 200, 300, and 700

xitainers. Special container terminals in Leningrad and

f&hodka, utilizing the latest container handling techniques, are

:c become operational. The introduction of ships of 5,000 dwt

ill 25,000 dwt with stern ramps as well as LASH (lighter aboard

sifl.p) ships, each designed to accommodate 40-50 lighters of

20-400 tons each is also being planned. The Soviet Merchant

Urine is supposed to receive a number of large bulk carriers

y. 23,000 dwt,, 50,000 dwt, and at the end of the period,

.'(-30,000
/
dwt, combination tanker-ore carriers of up to 120,000

IV;, and large, 150,000 dwt tankers. More intensified long-haul

*ory service", most of which will be suitable for .ice navigation

o
0,,
forskoy .Flot No. 3 and .:o. 4, 1971; _ > Times No. 10, 1971

/
a the Far Fast, the Baltic and the Caspian Seas is visualized. 31

The merchant fleet is to be augmented according to following

pproved principles: new constructions will have an increased

argo capacity "up to rational limits", with increased speed,

otimum minimization of number of ship types built in series with

nde introduction of automation and crew reduction. It is planned

d increase the profit from Merchant Marine operations by 29%,

ad the net profit from foreign runs by 28%.

The development of the Soviet Merchant Marine in the more

2mote future," during the second half of the 1970s and the"

aginning of the 19S0s, although not validated by any announced

Ian, is being discussed by leaders and specialists of the Ministry

ad can be visualized as follows:

(a) Ships - The process of ship specialization already

ell unaer way will not only continue but intensify, coupled

ith the increased size (tonnage) of ships. Bulk carriers of

0-100,000 dwt and larger as well as tankers of about 200,000-

50,000 dwt most likely will be built. The number of general

/
argo ships,' so numerous in the present Soviet Merchant, will

eiinitely be reduced. Considerable attention will be devoted

o containerization, which will be particularly intensive during

be second half of the 1970s, when the port facilities and other

31 and
Mor Flot No. 0,
•
70; N "
.- •::
' -.;os ::o. 10, 1971;
oy ctskay a ^;ssiya, 25 May 1971.
,
:

\J v-' J
<|>des of transportation sho . be ready for it. Dur

hlf of 1970s, containerized car-.. .

I exc the

ital. The speed of ships will be increased gradually, .or in

i>st cases a drastic increase in speed is not yet warranted

:>t only technologically but it would require the modernization

c: ports, particularly their cargo handling facilities.

LASH and Roll-on/ltoll-of f ship types will be introduced

:i considerable number during the 1975-1930 period. The process

(L ship automation should not only continue but will most likely

12 intensified. New types of crews composed of specialists

(Lviaed into two groups - control and maintenance - will man

iighly automated ships. Wide introduction of submarine transports,

arge air-cushion and hydro-foil ships during 1970s is unlikely.

;sw methods of handling and transporting bulk cargo, such as

'atering down the cargo and loading or unloading it through

ose-pipes, combined with 90-95% enrichment of ores, will

robably be introduce'd on an experimental basis towards the end of

he 1970s.

(b) Ports - Initially in large ports (Zhdanov, Murmansk,

akhodka, Novorossiysk, Ismail) and later in others, more highly

utomated cargo processing devices will be installed, and there

hould be a four to five-fold increase in productivity of loading

'.ad unloading operations. More deep-channel approaches to the

oc 1
 Arts will be dredged and dock arc d \ ... increased. Spec. zed

clicks (terminals) for handling containers and packaged (unitized)

ergo will be built in Leningrad, Riga, Il'ichevsk, Odessa,

Vldivostok, and Petropavlovsk. Specialized docking areas for

kndling chemicals, ores, coal, and similar cargo will be built.

(c) Management - Wide introduction of a 'computerized control

astern (ASU) will succeed the initial, present basin and

seamship companies computer centers. Towards the end of the -

])70s the automation of control in the Soviet .Merchant Marine

sould be completed.

Coupled with the further increase in line shipping with

lie employment of specialized, automated, series-produced ships

ad improved port facilities, the measures most likely will

jjsult in a considerable improvement in the over-ail efficiency

32
<f
the Soviet Merchant Marine.

Those are the main stages in the development of the Soviet

erchant Marine and the most probable trend of its development

aring the decade of the 1970s. It can be seen that despite

36 numerous attempts, mainly through unrealistic plans approved

y the Party, to speed up the growth of the Merchant Marine and to

acrease its role in the overall transportation system, in reality,

39
Krasnaya Zvezda 4 August 1070; Literati] \ayg Sa zeta
, ,

January 1971; Morskoy Plot No. 12, 1970, pp. 4-7 and Xo 7 .
,

971, pp. 3-5.

 d for a variety of reasons (mainly the priorit: •
to th

Ltary production) that goal was not achieved uo to the middle

oi 1950s. Starting in 1956, but particularly during the' 1958-

IfO period, not only did the Soviet Union for the first time

ci^elop an extensive and realistic program of merchant marine

Mansion but, more important, for the first time was able

t<j implement it. In fact, speaking about the plan, it, too,

,;5 imperfect, for 'it was revised at least twice, but. in this

esse, upward.

The foregoing decisions and figures do not tell the

cmplete story of Soviet Merchant Marine development. Moreover,

tey do not reveal either the reasons for the decisions or the

mchanism producing the figures. The rest of this chapter will

fc: devoted to an examination of the factors which necessitated

tie decisions and the ways they were implemented; the present

cganization and the management (control) of the Soviet Merchant

hrine; the Soviet Me'rchant Marine research and development,

ducational institutions, and the personnel policy; ports and

hip repair facilities; some economic aspects of Soviet Merchant

arine operation.

«3 p «>

1»*
 The Ne ed for t '/.,.• M .-
'

Marine

Up to the middle of the 1950 's the development of the

Sviet Merchant Marine was dictated mainly by the internal

economic needs and demands of Soviet foreign trade, which was

33
nt substantial. Since that time, however, there has been a
*

onsiderable increase in Soviet foreign trade and in the development

a Soviet program of economic and military assistance. The

ped of the Soviet economy for sea transport between Soviet ports

primarily associated with the development of new economic.

2gions, in many of which land transportation is practically

bscnt) has intensified. The events in Cuba, Vietnam, and the

iddle East have not only increased the demand for shipping -

o transport armament, equipment, and goods - but, in turn, were

o a certain degree influenced by the cargo.

Since 1955, the growth of Soviet foreign trade has out-

gripped the growth of the Soviet economy. The growth of ,

:ransportation of foreign trade cargos in turn exceeded the growth

>f the foreign trade. For example, during the period 1955-1907
/
the transportation of foreign trade cargo grew 4.2 times, while
34
the value of the Soviet foreign trade grew only 2.8 times. In

33
See Appendix II, Soviet Foreign Trade. Economic and
Military A j d,
34 of Socialist Coi \s
N. D. Mozharov, "C
"-
:.:-.

the Area of Sea Transportation" , Transport, Moscow, 1963, p. 62.

OvJH
 .•oo years, 1959-1961, sea transportation of foreign trade cargo

i creased more than two times, reaching 5S.5 million tons in

'
161. .

The reasons for such rapid growth are both political

aid economic. On the political side, the obligations assumed by

tje Soviet Union toward a number of Arab countries, Indonesia,

c.d India during the second half of the fifties were of definite

importance. During the same period, trade with China continued

i> grow, and a considerable portion of it was carried by sea.

iward the end' of the 1950 's and the early 1960*s, what the

oviets call "the process of disintegration of the world colonial

:/stem" had intensified considerably. During 1960, for exa.mple,

b Africa alone, 17 newly independent states were established,

'he Communist victory in North Vietnam and particularly the

ictory of the Castro revolution in Cuba were of significant

mportance. Not all the above outlined events played an equal

ad permanent role in generating the demand for Soviet shipping.

tame, like Cuba and North Vietnam, left the Soviet Union with

lo choice; others, like Indonesia, had looked very promising, and

lence worth the gamble. The third category of country such as

the Arab countries, while in the majority ideologically alien,

presented the Soviet Union with the opportunity to undermine

Western positions in the region and hence with possible political

or ~
met, in the future, maybe even economic gains.
The break with
:hina in the late 1950's on the one hand forced the
Soviet Union
;o reconsider its obligation toward certain countries, and as

l result, for example, sharply increase its assistance to India.

)n the other hand, the break relieved the Soviet economy of a

:onsiderable burden thus permitting more flexibility in trade

is well as economic and military assistance. 35 The traditional

OViet design "to free the country of the capitalistic shipping

larket" and to have greater flexibility in the support of political

;oals should be added to that set of factors.

The peculiarity of the Soviet economy plays an important

•ole, for, while the USSR is the second economic power in the

orld and produces sophisticated armaments, the overall level

if Soviet technology is still below that in most the Western

•.ountries. This factor has given a peculiar character to Soviet

foreign trade. While a positive balance of payments has been

—
While the ideological, historical, and nationalistic
.spects of the Sino-Soviet rivalry and break nave been investigated
n great detail, the economic aspect, with the exception of the
iifficuities the break created in China, has to a large degree
>eea neglected. It is a firm belief of this writer, 'chat
ihina's needs and the Soviet Union's economic possibilities,
trimarily industrial capacities, were incompatible. The break,
herefore, although producing clearly undesirable political
:onsequences for the Soviet L'aion, si. iu ltaneously released
'

:onsiderable industrial capacities, permitting the Soviet

.overnment greater flexibility in its foreign trade, economic
.nd military assistance.

7f >-;
 maintained in most of the years of Soviet power, the physical

olume of Soviet exports and imports has varied sharply. Heavy,

i

ulky, raw materials have dominated the cargo in Soviet export

hipping. The increased foreign trade in monetary terms has

een primarily with capitalist countries from which mainly items

f advanced technology have been important. In return, a very

ew industrial goods produced in the Soviet Union could be sold

n capitalist countries, and, hence, raw materials continue to

emain the main item of Soviet export to them. In the trade with

-eveloping countries, the picture is reversed. All this produced

. situation whereby in 1967 Soviet export sea shipments exceeded

.mports by nearly nine times in physical volume, as can be seen

:rom the following table:

Soviet Foreign Trade Shipment (thousand tons:)

All means of transport (Share of sea

sea transport shipment -%)

19SQ 1965 1967

Total 99,310 ^5^ 173,910, . 206,683

U5/o) (52 - D/o) (53%)
447690 -9lT837 108,753

Export 84,376 (46%) 151,767 184,563

(52%) ( %)
38,765 79,088 98,459

Import 14,934,.^ 22,143, N 22,120, „ s

-57925(40%) 127749(57%) 107297(46%)

V^ y* p "1 T ... uiia

Institute, 1968^ and N".
o c
D. Mozharov, pp. 62-33. a, •-

Or "7
 Soviet Merchant Marine participation in assistance

3 North Vietnam goes back to .1954-1955, when two Soviet ships,

jrkhangel'sk and Stavropol', were assigned exclusively to the

SSR-North Vietnam "line". 36 With the escalation of the Vietnam

jar, the number of Soviet ships delivering cargo to North Vietnam

ncreased correspondingly: in 1964 47 Soviet merchant ships

eached North Vietnam; in 1965, 79; in 19S6, 122; 1967, 433. 37

The first Soviet ships, Arkhangelsk, Brats, Izhevsk, and.

olnechnogorsk delivered cargo to Cuba in the fall of 1959. '

The

sea bridge" to Cuoa was established in 1960, when the first

Soviet tanker, Cheboksary, delivered 11,000 tons of oil, followed

>y uninterrupted deliveries by other ships. In 1960, two million

;ons of oil were delivered and in 19-59, 5.5 million tons. At

present, the annual cargo turnover of the Cuban "sea bridge" is

xbout 9 million tons (7.3 million tons to Cuba, and 1.3 million

tons, mainly sugar and ore, to the Soviet Union in 1969). During

the 1960-1966 period,' Soviet seaborne cargo shipments between

the USSR and Cuba grew nearly five times and with North Vietnam,

3.4 times. Toward the end of the 1960 's the Soviets had 20-30

36 Morskov Plot
.
No. 1, 1971, pp. 3-4.
37
Report to the U. S. House of Representatives, Committee
on Armed iorvices, "T! Ch Strn to -jc Nay 1 JBj^^incej _Ht "-„
'*

—
:\

USA Section 4, V
, .t 'Marine
•
U.S. Govt. ?r , ;ing ee, , , — i

December 1968, Washington, D. C.

38
yoi-skov 7 V; t No. S, 1970, p. 53.

C-8
•lips on route to or from Cuba on any given day. 39

Seaborne- cargo shipments between Soviet ports and

developing
ountries grew considerably during 1961-1965. With Socialist
ouutries it increased from 6.3 million tons in 1960 to 16.4.

illlion tons in 1967. The seaborne shipments between the USSR

ad capitalist countries grew about three times*, while with

,ipan, 5.5 times (6.7 million tons in 1965), with Italy, 3 times

3 million tons), and with West Germany, 7 times (3.1 million

ons) .

Shipping Policy

The foregoing factors and figures are definite testimony

p the importance of the Soviet Merchant Marine during the 1960's.

iit at the beginning of the decade discrepancy arose between the

lanned growth of merchant marine tonnage and the tonnage actually

squired. It forced the Soviet Union to increase considerably

He chartering of foreign - flag ships, which in turn "reduced the

ffectiveness of foreign trade" or, in simple language, cost too

41
uch and forced the Soviets to pay in badly needed foreign exchange.

V. G. Bakaev, "USSR na morskykh putyakh" (USSR on World

ea Routes ) , Znanie, Moscow, 1969, p. 16.
40
N. D. Mozharov, op. cit., pp. 63, 66 and ^.04.

41
Moreover, the shortage of ships imposed an added burden
pon the other, already ovc^-oaded, modes of Soviet tr.. -nation, .

articularly the railroad system.

O ^'
 p i3 why at the beginning of the 1960's a review of the

iven-year plan for the development of oho Soviet Merchant Marine

ms made, resulting in accelerated shipbuilding at domestic

;3.rds and increased orders for merchant ships abroad. In 1962

le total annual increase in Soviet Merchant Marine cargo carrying

apacity was equal to the growth of sea shipments of foreign

rade cargo, and toward the end of the decade exceeded it. The

ptal tonnage of dry cargo ships increased from 2,107,000

3gistered tons in 1953 to 4,704.000 registered tons in 1965.

.a even more rapid growth of total tonnage was achieved in the

anker fleet: from 741,000 registered tons in 1953 to 2,446,000

42
egistered tons in 1935, or 330%. Major factors for such a

apid tanker fleet expansion were Cuba's need for oil, which had

o be shipped thousands of miles, boycott attempts (which only

artially succeeded) organized by Western oil companies, and the

rowth of Soviet oil exports.

The development* of foreign trade, particularly on the

• asis of the long-term agreement preferred by the Soviets, created

. more or less steady flow of cargo to and from certain geographic

.ud political regions. It permitted the Soviet Union to establish

'foreign trade cargo traffic directorates" and to establish five

;roups incorporating several such directorates, European, Middle

42
N. D. Mozharov, p. 105.

310
 / 3
East - African, South Asian, Far Eastern, an J American.

T he European Group , where close to one-half 'of foreign

A

trade cargo is shipped, includes three directorates: the -^

Mediterranean (Italy, France, Greece); the Scandinavian; and

Continental (West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Great

Britain). Oil, oil products, coal, and timber are the main

cargoes (by volume) in this .group.

The Middle East - African Group includes five directorates

The Near East (Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus); the Red Sea

Countries; the Persian Gulf Countries; the North African

Countries; the West African Countries. The largest cargo flow

is to Egypt.

The South Asian Grou includes India, Pakistan, Ceylon,

Burma, Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand, and Indonesia; The Fa r

Eastern Group, Japan, North Korea, and North Vietnam; The

American Group , Cuba, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, the U.S.,

Mexico, and other countries of the Western Hemisphere.

Practically all major Soviet basins (Northern, Baltic,

Black Sea-Azov, Caspian, and Far Eastern) are participating

in more than one group through the steamship companies located

there. Some steamship companies of a particular basin have been

assigned to specific directorates, and also are specializing in

Soviet Union Sea Trar ,'.,r/; ;. - F :.:

J
:y Years, Moscow,
Transport, 1967.

rs_
 p a rticular c a rg o

The Northern Basin companies are specializing in ship-oats

f timber and minerals, mainly to the European -roup, as' well

s delivery of coal to the USSR from Spitsbergen.

The Baltic Basin companies are mainly involved in

bipments of industrial goods as well as coal and oil mainly

.o European and American (including Cuba) groups. The companies

if the basin are also participating in shipments to West Africa

rroups

The Black Sea-Azov Basin companies are serving all five

;roups and are carrying a considerable portion of Soviet foreign

trade cargo, mainly oil, coal, cement, metals, machines, and

sugar. The companies of Far Eastern Basin are serving the Far

Eastern and in part the South Asian and the American groups.

Up to 1965 the Caspian Basiu provided partial deliveries

of Soviet foreign trade cargo to Iran in addition to internal

transportation of oil from Baku. Staring in 1965, but especially

after the closure of the Suez Canal, it has been involved in the
/
growing volume of Iranian cargo to and from Europe.

With the closure of the Suez Canal, the length and the

duration of the North Vietnam runs from the Black. Sea and the

Baltic increased considerably, thereby requiring more ships to

maintain even the same volume of cargo. t?hile continuing North

312
 letnam shipments from Euro? 5 j.ns, Far ....

is been gradually assigned the larger share of cargo for North

ietnam. Shipment via railroad a . the Northern Sea Route are

d have been increased corresponc gly.

The Soviet Merchant Marine has developed extensiv aer

ervice in four major categories: purely Soviet, operating jointly

ith other Socialist countries, jointly with capitalist countries, -•

nd jointly with developing countries. The economic advantages

f liner shipping are obvious, but their organization and

aintenance are possible only in the case of the availability

f a steady flow of cargo, at least in one direction. The

.learly established policy is to expand liner service, something

•elatively easy to achieve in internal shipping or in the case

)f lines operated jointly with Socialist or developing countries

[thanks to the planned deliveries and the absence of opposition for

i variety of reasons) . The initial Soviet attempts to join lines

run by V/estern countries, many of which are under the strong

influence of British shipping companies, ran into opposition,

rhe shipping conferences initially rejected Soviet steamship

AA
*
A conference is usually formed by a number of shipping
companies agreeing to provide scheduled runs on certain routes at
fixed freight rates. Their customers often receive more favorable
rates as a reward for long business associations. The con .ces .-.

serve specific lines, many wi inounced schedules. The ships

participating in a line service are calledliners. The occasional
cargo, or c: L-go who^Q volume fluctuates considerably., is usually
ca r r i e d b y t ram o s
.
/

oio
 ompany applications for membership. Of the various reasons

iven for rejection, the most common and important wore: all

oviet steamship companies and their ships are government owned,

nd the principle of government non-interference with commercial

hipping would be violated by acceptance of the Soviet companies;

he alleged fear that the Soviets were trying to monopolize

.heir own shipments, while infiltrating the Western lines.

The rejection of the Soviet application for membership

.n London's Baltic Exchange and in various Australian conferences

•esulted in not just a war of words, but certain deeds from the

soviet side. At least some Soviet business with the Baltic

Exchange was cancelled, and Soviet shipping companies organized

i number of "outsider lines" competing with the existing Western

Lines, often by cutting rates. Finally in 1969 a number of

Soviet steamship companies were accepted as members in various,

45
previously exclusively Western, shipping conferences. By the

45
Morskoy F lot No. 3, March 1971. For the detailed
description' of the Soviet "battle" with Western conferences,
see David Fairhall, "Russian Sea Power, pp. 119-148, Gambit,
Boston, 1971. Actually the first to accept a Soviet member, the
Baltic Steamship Company in 1960, was a passenger conference
controlling services in the North Atlantic. The Soviet rcacticn
.s expressed in an article which stated: "In these days, it is
a hopeless enterprise to discriminate against t! Soviet anion,
.

and it is good t the A

fc ;ralian conferences have f tally
understood ,".
. zvej 15 March 1969.
,
The £ .: claimed

up to 1^69 they were paying over 1 million rubles an

Ito foreign shipping companies to carry Australian fcc
. Soviet
-

pores

Q1 U
4d of 1970, out of 65 Soviet lines, 15 were being operated

jiintly with Western shipping companies, and the number continue

ti grow. In April 1971 a joint Soviet-French line between Odessa

a.d Marseille was opened, and in May, the Japan-Mediterranean

46
Is a line became operational.

The growing importance of liner service can be illustrated

b way of the example of the Chernomorskoye (Black Sea) Steamship ..

Cmpany which in the middle of 1971 had more than 80 ships

asigned to all four types of lines. In order to increase the

efectiveness of the company liners, a special Department of

47
Iternational Lines was organized.

The conflict between Western shipping conferences and the

Sviet Merchant Marine has not been unique, for the conferences

peviously were involved in a conflict with the U.S. Maritime

Cmmission and opposed any attempts to impose shipping regulations

b the U.N. (UNCT.VJ - United Nation Conference on Trade and

48
Dvelopment) . Sovie't efforts l.ave been directed toward reassuring

46
Vodny y T ranspo rt , S July 1971.

47
Vo dny y Trans port , 13 September 1971.
48
The Soviet Union obviously prefers that UNCTAD play a more
important role in regulating international shipping, as is evident
fom a number of pre ounces 2t Merc
» Marine officials,
':

ad particularly clear ^pressed in ... 'mer Merchant M rine

Minister BaL:ayev's publication The S oviet Union on c. ... _Jea ' 1

Rutes, 1970. .

315
 Western ship owners and demonstrating that
once admitted, they
are faithful observers of conference regulations ,' which , in fact,
according to available information, they have
been. The' Soviets
flatly deny the allegation that they desire
and plan to monopolize
their own seaborne trade, emphasizing that
it is a practical

impossibility and that the achievement of independence

from the
world freight market does not mean monopoly.

Starting in 1962 there was a gradual increase in -the

number of Soviet ships chartered by foreigners, with

correspondingly
greater earnings of foreign currency. In 1962, Soviet ships

carried 1.9 million tons of foreign cargo, in 1965, 8.6 million

tons, and in 1967, 15.7 million tons. 49 Simultaneously, the

number of foreign ships chartered by the Soviet Union has

increased, too. Chartering increased 4.4 times during the

1959-1967 period, and in 1967 59.7 million tons of Soviet goods

were carried by foreign ships, while the remaining 64.1 million

tons of seaborne foreign trade cargo were carried by Soviet

50
ships. Soviet statistics are vague concerning the balance of
/
charter in monetary terms, for they do not specify what percentage
!

of cargo carried by foreign ships was transferred by the ships of

CMEA countries. The Soviet Minister of Merchant Marine stated

49
V. Bakayev, op.cit., p. 25.
50
V. Bakayev op.cit., p , 23 «

3lb
 :
19C9 that between 1964 and 19G I
the ....- :...,

f convertible currencies increased ten tiir.es. It is fair to

ssume that, at least in foreign convertible currencies ,'

the

carter balance continues to be favorable for the

Soviet Merchant
irine.

The activity of the Soviet Merchant .Marine and merchant

arines of CMEA countries is closely coordinated in Section

i

j. 3 of CMEA Permanent Committee for Transport. The Soviet

conization, Sovphrakht, in cooperation with its counterpart in

tiEA countries, conducts a coordinated charter policy through the

barter Bureau. Cooperation in mutual use of tonnage, charter

f foreign tonnage, mutual use of ports, ship-repair bases,

xchange of information, joint policy toward international

emulations, etc. are well developed within the CMEA framework.

otal tonnage of Socialist countries at the end o£ 1970 was

1.4 million registered tons, or approximately 9.4% of the world

otal. It was argued that with its share of world production

utput in excess of 1/3 of the total, merchant marine growth

s not only warranted "from the economic and other points of

51
lew", but should be intensified. The effectiveness of CMEA

ountry merchant marines undergoes close examination during the

51 f
Plot No. 1,
-

orr;!:oy 1971, pp. 47-49, and __/vv

£*!H»22£i* 23 January 1971.

317
r.athly .Moscow meetings of their representatives.'""

The Soviet Merchant Marine is maintaining a\few joint

Lies with developing countries which have been operating for

ay years. The joint line with India was organised under an

ii'eement signed between the two countries on 6 April 1956, and

.but 20 Soviet and Indian ships are now serving the line..

HJ joint line with Egypt was organized after the signing of an

53
ig-eement on 18 September 1958.

The Soviets have never failed to answer Western accusations

:acerning the Soviet merchant marine deliveries of cargo of

54
ie'eloping countries. The Soviet countercharges are usually

)">e£ upon the claim that up to recent times Western shipping

xipanies had no competitors in the developing countries, and

"iace dictated their own terms. Those companies have been

ujiused of "squeezing more than two billion dollars annually from

:t> developing countries for the transportation of their goods",

ul of being irritated at the "unselfish" Soviet assistance to

52
A. V. Voronkov, YU. V. Klemen'yev, Merchant Fleet of
wiet State, Moscow, Znanie 1971, p. 44. ,

53
Ibid. , p. 45, and New Times No. 10, 1971.
54
See for example, an article in July 1970 issue of U.S .

fos and vror ic; r

'"'i>
ailc* Soviet Minister 0; mko's answer
rt; it in Nov; Times No. 34 ; 1970, pp, 27-2S

O 1 o
 lp devclopin ; countries.

As for the accusation that the Soviet Merchant Marine permits

is ships to carry cargoes of foreign shippers on their return

is at cut rates, the Soviet Minister admitted the charge,

dlling the practice "perfectly normal". He added that "many

:>reign shipping companies do the same and no o*ne has yet accused

tiem of engaging in economic subversion", and "it would be

isurd to deny that the Soviet Merchant Marine is interested in

fcrning foreign currency". In their counterattacks, the Soviet

preservatives accused the U.S. shipping cc":zz.:.Ljz of charging

ates "more than double the world's standard" and being subsidized

!y the government which, in addition, "have introduced

iscriminatory regulations", seeing in them an indication of a

risis in U.S. shipping. Admitting the economic competition

hich is going on today between the two systems in the maritime

ield, the Soviet Minister conduce .hat "socialism is demonstrating

ts superiority over capitalism", emphasizing that the Soviet

Merchant Marine is technologically more advanced than the

55
'leets of leading western countries, including the U.S.

55
New Times No. 34, 1970, p. 29

wo. J
 Fleet C". '- •:.- .

To implement the above outlined policies, the Soviet

erchant Marine has to have ships in appropriate number and of

uitable quality and assortment. Certain aspects of Soviet

olicy in this respect are considered in the analysis of Soviet

hipbuilding (the choice of rational, or optimum, sizes of

ry cargo ships and tankers; production, i.e. mainly series

onst ruction; selection of speed and type of machinery for the

arious ships, etc.). However, the operational aspects

nfluencing the fleet growth and composition and the employment

f ships under particular circumstances were not discussed. It

s appropriate to briefly consider these problems.

One of the major features of the Soviet Merchant Marine

s its serial composition. Large-scale standardization of ship

1

ypes was accomplished at the beginning of the 1960 's, when more

han 30 different types, which used to be produced for the

56
bviet Merchant Marine, were reduced to 11. The use of a

tandard design for ships and ship machinery allowed the Soviet

nion to build ships in large series, to improve the training

i crews and operation of ships and of ship repair facilities.

ong-term planning, although it did not always work smoothly,

Morskoy Sbornik No. ;, July, J.ybJ, p. i^s.

/ • -
I
'

320
 haS be °^ a contributing factor to
iaproving the composition
of the merchant marine and its
performance, including expansion
of liner services. It has been claimed that the ccono.il
gains
from the above measures are in the tens of
millions of rubles.
During the last 12 years, Soviet Merchant
Marine was
upplied with more than one thousand ships with
total of 9.3
illion deadweight tons. Most of the new ships have speeds in

excess of 16 knots. The highest priority in the merchant fleet-

replenishment has been given to dry cargo ships, tankers,

and
passenger ships.

Dry cargo, particularly general cargo, ships are in the

largest number in the Soviet Merchant Marine. Most of them are

of heavy tonnage, and can carry bulk cargos and heavy,
and long
cargos. Many of them have removable hatches, making it possible

to open the deck wide. The advantages of that type of ship are

constantly being emphasized in the Soviet Union. In addition

to the conveniences they provide for loading and unloading

operations, they are the best suited for carrying a variety

of military cargos. The Soviet Union convincingly demonstrated

this when it used Poltava-class ships to transport missiles to

Cuba in 1962.

The di-y cargo ships-, which were built in lar ,

v,- o v: .•. ^ e .^

during the last decade, are by class: Leninskiy Koi isomol class,

21
milt in Nikolaev and Kherson, •
Lth 00 to. ...

speed about 19 knots; K / - '

nar ':o class, assent llj the

same design as Leninskiy Komsomol, but with a 12,300 hp diesel

Lnstead of a 13,000 hp steam turbine; Poltava class, built during

L960-1967 in Nikolaev and Kherson, with 12 000 dwt and speed ,

around 17 knots; Slavyansk class, with 12,900 dwt and a speed of

13 knots. One of the Slavyansk class ships has completely automated

control of the propulsion unit.

The dry cargo ship classes built in large series abroad

include the Omsk class, 14.9 thousand dwt, built in Japan, the

Beloretsk class, 14.9 thousand dwt, built in Denmark, and the : ula

class with 12.2 thousand dwt, built in Yugoslavia.

Other classes of ships built for the Soviet Union in foreign

countries are the Krasnodar class, built in Finland in 1961-1968,

the Murom class built in Poland, and the Vyborg class built in

East Germany, all between 12.4 - 14.9 thousand dwt and with a

speed of 17-18 knots. The Soviet Merchant Marine has about 300

timber carriers, which carry more than seven out of the ten million

tons of exported timber. The Soviet timber carriers are suitable

for carrying, and are being used to carry, other types of cargo.

Two series of large timber carriers, the gas-turbine propelled

Pavlin Vinogradov, 6,000 tons dwt, and the diesel-propelled

Vyborglos of the same tonnage, and a largo series of medium and

i~\ /-» ,->>

6^2.
mall timber carriers of 3.3-4 and 1.4-2.4 t wt

espoctively were built in Soviet yards. In addition, a large

eries of Volgales class ships of 5.8 thousand dwt was built

n Poland, and of Kotlasles class ships, in Finland. Many Soviet

ry cargo ships have ice-reinforced hulls and are suitable for

avigation in northern areas with, and under certain conditions

57
ithout, ice breakers. The current Five Year Plan provides for

he construction of a number of bulk carriers and other. specialized

hips. A large ore carrier, Chernomory 'ye

50,000 dwt, is under
,
-
53
Dnstruction in Okean, one of the Nikolaev district shipyards.

Tankers constitute close to 40% of the total Soviet Merchant

arine tonnage. Although the average tonnage of the Soviet tanker

s still below that of the world's major maritime nations, it is

teadily growing. Besides, the size of Soviet tankers has been

ictated by the depths in home ports and in ports of the foreign

ountries with which the Soviet Union trades. Eighty-five percent

f the tankers were built during the 1360 's and have a speed of

ore than 15 knots. The Soviet-built Sofiya class ships of close

/
o 50,000 dv/t are at present the most advanced and largest Soviet

ankers. They have hull" reinforcement for ice navigation, and

57
A. V. Voronkov, op. cit., pp. 15-13.

53
Komsomol 'skaya Pravda, 22 September 1971.

oo^
6/. J
 cijiic have been built for foreign sh: > o 1

Start in

]iG7, a large series of Velikiy Oktyabr' class tankers of 15.2

tiousand dwt v/as built. Also starting in 1957 a large series

c: small tankers, the Baskunchak class, of 1.6 thousand dwt,

Lmilt in the Soviet yards. LUit t ho tn.vjowi \ ^ I ;iovli ivhant

.v.rine tankers were built abroad. Between 1932 and 1965 Japan

elivered tankers of the Lisichansk class of 35,000 tons dwt;

ialy, the Leonardo da Vinci class of -19,000 dwt; Yugoslavia,

tie Split class of 20.5 thousand dwt; Poland, the Eauska class

c: 19,000 dwt and International, of 20,000 dwt; Finland, the

bvek class of 4,200 dwt. Several tankers were modified for

;:-fueling naval ships, and some tankers are used for delivering

uel to naval bases. The largest Soviet tanker, Mir, 150,000

ivt is under construction. The first gas carriers, the Kegums

lass, designed to carry 2,800 cubic meters of liquid gas, were

jilt in Japan in 1365, but no more ships of this type have

jen reported.

The present Soviet passenger fleet has about SO ships for

/
ixlimited navigation and several hundred small ships xor

oastal navigation, including hydrofoils serving local passenge;

ines. About 60% of the large passenger ships are less than

A. V. Voronkov, pp. 22-25, :oy Sbo mik No. 7, D6o,

p. 9-1-1, and S^dost -'•° 4 -- ^ J
P* -"-"
f^ "__:_-_-^i ' > >

6/Ji
;cn years old, and all are serially built. Thor< an ... ...

jhips of the Ivan Franko elass for 700 passengers) with a speed

>f about 20 knots; 19 ships of the Mikhail Kalinin class for..^

iOO passengers, and 9 ships of the j r rizstan class for 240

>assengers.

The Soviet passenger fleet now operates 15 international

Lines with a total length of 27,089 miles, linking the Soviet

Jnion with 37 ports in 24 countries. The Soviet General Maritime

5
assenger Agency (v/o Morpa-rflot) has been promoting tourism

iboard Soviet passenger ships. In 1933 the Black Sea Liner,

Shota Rustaveli , made her first trip around the world. Mixed

uruises involving several modes of transport are now being

60
organized. Soviet passenger ships employed in international

Lines or under charter provide the Soviet Union with an important

source of foreign currency.

Morskoy Flot No. 5, 1971, pp. 14-16, No. 10, 1070,

pp. 24-25.

o o ::
 Organization and Mr n a .
;

of the Soviet Mcrchar.w i.Tariric ;

.*

During its development, the Soviet Merchant Marine did

lot avoid the usual growing pa^ns. The Independent People's

Commissariat of Water Transport was organized in January 1931,

incorporating the Soviet Merchant Marine and river transport, but

prior to this, the Merchant Marine was subordinated to the

People's Commissariat of Transport Communications. In April

1939, the Independent People's Commissariat of Sea Transport

(Merchant Marine) was organized. In March 1953, right after.

Stalin's death, the Soviet Merchant Marine and river transport

were again united in a single Ministry of Sea and River Transport

Finally, in August 1964, an All-Union Ministry of Merchant

Marine (Ministerstvo Morskogo Flota) with the mission "to

61
supervise all sea transportation of the country" was organized.

The Ministry of Merchant Marine is subordinated to and supervised

by the Council of Ministers and its agencies. The Ministry

activity is coordinated with the Ministry of Water Transport,

Ministry of Foreign Trade, Ministry of Railroad, Ministry of

Shipbuilding, and others.

The Ministry of Merchant Marine is headed by a minister

•.. »skoy 71c-:, Mo. 6, 1967, p.

<-j r\ ~\
3Zb
:id a numoer 01 deputies. To ... i . he ;ter, to provid

';oliectivo leadership", there is a collegium consisting of the

:.nister as its chairman, his depu , , and a number oi members '

£ the collegium including all the cl:iofs ci the main

./aist rat ions. The decide, oi the collegium are put into

Jfcct by order of the minister. The minister can overrule the

ollegium, but it in turn can appeal So the Council of Ministers.

here is a relative!}' clear distinction between staff and line

unctions. The function of the staff ia .Moscow is to plan,

oordinate, and control. The immediate economic management is

ainly in the hands of the basin steamship companies, which are

ie operating divisions of the Ministry. The Ministry of Merchant

.irine is also the agency of state supervision of mercantile

62
svigation in the USSR. It publishes regulations, instructions,

ad statutes which are binding on all ministries, departments,

ad organizations. The USSR Registry is within the purview of

he Ministry. The most recent changes in the Ministry structure

ook place in late fall 1970.

The Ministry is now comprised of two main administrations,

he Main Administration of Fleet and Port Operations and, the

ain Administration of Development and Capital Construction of

'Article VI, '_

]Sl
xt shi PP* n g Code -

> '

611
oris, Yards, and Shore Facilities and several a< strations

ad departments. The most important is the Main Administration

f Fleet and Port Operations, which supervises the operations-^)*

5 Soviet steamship companies through three subordinate

dministrations.

The Administration of Fleet and Port Operations .of the

outhern Basin, Yzhf lot , supervises the operation of seven

teamship companies: Chemomorskoye (Slack Sea) , Azovskoe

Azov), Xovorossiyskoye, Gruzinskoye (Georgian), Dunayskoe..

Danube) , Kaspiyskoe (Caspian) , and Sredneaziatskoye (Middle

jsian) Steamship Companies. The Administration of Fleet and

ort Operations for the Northwestern Basin, Sevzapf lot , supervises

wo northern steamship companies, Severnoye and Murmanskoye

ad four Baltic companies, Baltiyskoye (Baltic), Estonskoe

Estonian) , Latviyskoye (Latvian) , and Litovskoye (Lithuanian) .

he Administration for Fleet and Port Operations of the Far

astern Basin, Dal f lot f

, supervises three steam ship companies -

alnevcstochnoye (Far Eastern) , Sakhalinskoye (Sakhalin)

amchatskoye (Kamchatka) . The Northeastern Administration of

erchant Marine with headquarters in Tiksi is subordinated

irectly to the Ministry. The Middle-Asian Steamship Company

63
perates in the Aral Sea and en the Amy Darya River.

and '— :.— "

lot
V -- Trans
;
_.-, 15 September 1970, .

o. 11, IS 70.

3?R
 During the fal '0 reorgar tiou of the Ministry, the

Scientific-Technical Administration, incorporating the

:echno logical Council, the Department for the Introduction of

Ldvanced Methods of Transportation and Loading and Unloading

operations, tne Department for Containerization and the Department

*

lor Analysis were established.

Each of the Soviet steamship companies is a large enterprise

•ith a vast area of responsibility, including not only "the

operation of ships but of ports, ship repair yards, salvage

ervices, etc.

To manage such a huge and complex enterprise as the

oviet Merchant Marine with its highly centralized structure

nd under the overwhelming priority of the Soviet plan, based

pon various economic as well as political criteria, is obviously

very difficult task. In spite of the greater emphasis upon

he economic independence of the major units of the structure,

radually introduced after the 1965 Economic Reform, the

lentral apparatus of ministry, its main administrations, and

he management of the steamship companies are in constant need

f receiving and supplying the flow of data concerning the

64
alfillment of the plan. The Soviet preoccupation with

.tistics is not for the' sake of statistics per so, but is an

64 cit., 22-23
V. G. Bakayev, op. pp.

323
 bjoctive necessity uuder the system of management
control based
pon central planning.

It now appears that the point has been reached where

jnning the economy under the existing principles and structure

3 becoming more and more difficult, and either the principles

liould be changed (and there is no indication of the leadership's

sadiness for this) or the methods should be adjusted to the

ituation without considerable modification of the structure.

'.ie Party approved state network of computer centers and the

lified automatic cdmmunication system, to bo gradually introduced

ithin the next ten years, appears to bear witness to acceptance

f the latter. The need for improvement in the- system of control

f the Soviet economy was labeled "the main problem of the Party

sonomic policy" in Brezhnev's speech to the 24th Party Congress,

arty and government decisions stressed a need for the speediest

atroduction of a comprehensive system of automated control

*

ased on a network of computerized centers as a means of fulfilling

/
tie task. The All-Union Automated Control System (CGAS-

bschegosudarstvennaya Automaticheskaya Sistema Upravleniya)

ill incorporate the automated system of Gosplan, the Central

tatistical Administration, the All-Union Supply Administration,

he industrial bra n c h e s , aad other ce n t rally s v. b o r d : i

.
a ted

i'encies , each having its own system called AST' (Av^oaaiokookaya

30
5istema Upravleuiya - automated control system). All

systems are based on a network of computer centers down to the

Large enterprise level. A number of such computer centers are

io\v in operation. The problem, however, is that the elements

)f the system introduced earlier were based upon various computers

vhich are in the main obsolescent and incompatible with one

Jther. Moreover, the installed computers utilized non-standard

programs. For those two reasons, they can not be linked

together even in the framework of one industry, not to mention

af an All-Union system. The Soviet Merchant Marine case

represents a typical example.

The Ministry of Merchant Marine, by virtue of its

activity and the availability of a relatively well-developed

communication system, was among the first where introduction

of the automated control system, ASU, was initiated. During

1962-1963 the TsNIIMP (Central Scientific Research Institute of

Merchant Marine) worked out computer programs for the

organization of cargo movement, distribution of ships on lines,

/
and the optimum fleet development. Since 1964 the optimum

lines schedule has been controlled with the use of the Minsk-22
65
Computer. In 1965 an experimental Calculating Computerized

65
TsNI IMP Transactions, Vol. 133, 1970, pp. 45-07.

331
Center was organized in th Itic St Co -, followed
in 196S by two centers at the Black Sea Steamship Company

and the Far Eastern Steamship Company, la 1933 the Main

Computerized Calculating Center of the Ministry of Merchant

Marine was organized. The center's task has been to control

»

both the routing of ships and the flow of cargo and to plan and

regulate the operation of ships and ports, in cooperation with

steamship company centers, whose introduction into service and

operation the main center is supposed to coordinate.

The ASU of the Ministry of Merchant Marine, "Morflot", is

supposed to be developed on the basis of existing computer

centers utilizing a third generation of computers. The ASU

Morflot is being developed under the supervision of the Institute

of Control Problems, USSR Academy of Sciences, in cooperation

with various scientific research and educational organizations.

Two Soviet Academicians, V. A. Trapeznikov ("Scientific

Leadership") and N. P. Federenko ("Chief Economist") are in

charge of the system's development. The scope of the system

can be illustrated by the outline of functions the system is to

perform. Each function is tied to a corresponding sub-system,

as follows: 1. "Operational Control of Fleet (ships) ___location"

2. "Operational Control of Cargo Transportation Process"

p. 99, i ; orskoy Flot h'o . 11^ 1967, p.

/-. /-. r*>

66/.
3
:

"Operational PI; I of Fleet . Port

1 "Current Planning of Basic Activity 'ine"

(utomates preparation of a economic calc." ...c^)

5 "Charter" (Automates flow of infor concerning the

darter market situation, analyses the economic effectiveness

5 charter transactions, determines optimum ship requirement)

5 "Technical Control of Fleet Condition, Ship Repair Plans, and

[plementation" 7. "Supply Planning and Stocktaking" •

S.

'ookkeeping and Statistical Calculations, Zconcmic Analysis"

"Personnel". The ASU's of steamship companies, ports, and

Lrge shiprepair yards are to have similar appropriate sub-syste us

^unified system of documentation based upon computerized data

:ocessing is also under development. Those are the basic

fatures of the planned unified automated system of merchant

nnne control.

The system of communicat--<~.- existing in the Soviet ile reliant

Grille can hardly cope v/ith the fully developed ASU Morflot and,

Lerefore, there are plans to improve it "to the level of world's

est systems" over the current five-year period and in compliance

»..th the unified automated system of communications of the country,

63
llch is presently under development.

67
V . Vo r o kov , pp. 27-31,
68 99.
'i>ansactions Vol. 133, pp. 44,

n ^ '"^

3o3
 The development of ASU Morflot . y been >c

ith a number of problems. The computers installed dur

•ush to create more computer centers in steam ship companies

.re of various designs, and xy of them do not leet ... demands

i)f the system. There is lack of program standardization among

steamship companies, and the existing and presently ized

>rograms do not always correspond to the design cf the sub-

systems of ASU Morflot and hence have to bo modified and adjusted

;o the central system. In September 1971, the Chief of Far

Eastern Steamship Company Computer Center wrote "what at present

69
constitutes the ASU of the steamship company is not clear".

The Ministry was accused of trying to introduce first the sub-

systems for the center and of neglecting the interests of the

operating divisions (steamship companies) . The existing variant

of the system design was criticized for its complexity and the

excess of information flow it requires, which presumably "would

*70
overload the system".

The main problem, it seems, is not the amount of information

processed by the system, but its quality and reliability. V/hile

automation of the chain of information definitely reduces the

intermediate bureaucratic echelons "corrections" and the adjustment

Vodnyy Tran t, 14 September 1071.

70

/ •

334
yf figures required by the ., such a possibility
,
...
.

be
sompletely eliminated by compute rizatic
., particularly at the
initial level (enterprises). An unrealistic report fed into

somputer does not change its quality, i.e.

"garbage-in,
;arbage-out". Of course, the specifics ofmerchant
marine
operations, the rather great dependence upon
non-Soviet sources
>f information, and the need -co analyze a set of objective data

(cargo, speed, weather parameters, time factor, ship capacity,

3tc.) seems to diminish the negative effect of traditional Soviet'

'adjustments" of the data and, hence, makes application of

automated control system more effective. Accepting such a

[lopeful assumption, one might conclude that the measures under

Implementation would increase the effectiveness of merchant marine

Management, resulting in reduced turn-around time, increased

Ship usage, and improved utilization of port capacities.

Pers onnel -Poli cy Educat ional

,

ana ^-search ^ns\m. fces . .

/
In the course of developing a merchant marine, any country

faces two immediate problems: procuring ships and manning them.

Yhile the first problem can be solved during a relatively short

period of time hy building ships md buying them, the second

requires a considerably greater :oricd of time, for it takes

3 Q c
U \J \j
years and even decades to educate an apj priate number of

specialists and to gain experience.

i

Pre-Revolutionary Russia had two maritime academies and

nine nautical schools. After the Revolution, the nautical

schools were transferred into specialized secondary educational

establishments, and two higher institutes to train engineers for

water transport were opened, one in Leningrad and another in

Odessa. Leading personnel of steamship companies and other,

merchant marine enterprises was trained in the Academy of Y/ater .

Transport. Drastic educational reform for the Soviet Merchant

Marine was introduced in March 5, 1944 by Decree of the State

Committee for Defense "on measures concerning the training of

command cadres of the mercantile fleet". Higher engineering

education for ship's officers was introduced. Educational

institutions of the merchant marine were enlarged and upgraded.

The decision was said to be motivated by the considerable losses

of personnel during the war, and the planned expansion of the

Soviet Merchant Marine. Three higher merchant marine academies,

/
Leningrad, Odessa, and Far Eastern, were organized in addition

to twelve nautical and one Arctic schools. In Soviet specialized

71
literature, the decision has always been referred as historic.

71 "'
So. 1967, pp. 7-14;
Morskoy 3t No. 3, 1969, .. 34; 10,
and Vodnyy Tr; rt, l.'^ --• 1969

ID
During the post-World War II _ -ic ., the . a -

the size, of merchant marine educat:

In 1945 the Higher Arctic N sal School was org In

.1 the Arctic School was merged with the Leningrad Hij her

Maritime Academy into the S. 0. Makorov Leningrad Higher sring

Nautical School (Academy) , the largest Soviet Merchant .Marine

educational institution.

At present there are four higher and twelve ialized

secondary educational establishments, administered by the Ministry

)f Merchant Marine, engaged in training officers for an engineer

liploma in fourteen specialities and a technician diploma in ten

72
specialities. In addition to the Leningrad Higher School,

:.here are three more, Admiral G. I. Nevel'skoy the Far Eastern

ligher Engineering Nautical School; the Odessa Higher Engineering

tautical School; and the Odessa Engineering Institute of Merchant

iarine. All four combined have 5,000 full-time cadets and more

;han 4,000 correspondence courses and part-time students. In

iddition, three institutes are .raining engineers for shore

services and some of them, such as the Gor'kiy Engineering

institute of Water Transport, have departments for training ship

Officers. All higher schools have period of training of not less

79 ....
Morskoy ;- ':
No. C 1971, pp. 3-7, and Soya*
l ev icv/ I\o . o, 1970, pp. 8-9. .,

'
•
f
han five years, and for some speciality 2 years
.nd six months. Secondary specializ* utical schools have
1

>eriod: of training of from three years to four years and three

73
lonths. The post-graduate training is provided by higher

;chools and two merchant marine scientific research institutes,

[ost of the graduates pursue full-time study.

The education is free, and the cadets receive allowances,

miform, and free board. But there are also part-time study

.rrangements with extended period of training, and correspondence

courses. Many sailors (unlicensed and sub-officer seamen) study

it both higher and secondary nautical schools by correspondence,

vuch studies are encouraged. The educational institutions

occasionally send instructors to serve on ships on long voyages

;o help correspondence-course students, and in large ports,

special student consultation centers have been set up. Students

In correspondence courses are given additional paid leave for a

Deriod of 20-40 days of year to prepare for and to take examinations

Approximately one-third of the Soviet seamen are involved in

studies at the higher or secondary educational level. The number

3f seaman correspondence-course and part-time students studying

in just the educational institutions of the merchant marine reached

23,000 in the 19C3-13S9 school year. In 1570 one out of four

Vodnyy Transport, 26 May 1970, and 23 ilay 1971.

°. ?9
 men in the Soviet Mer ... . .
G _- ^_ higher

di- specialized secondary edu -..-.."_

>n ,....'

Cadets in higher and secondary nautical schools receive

good sea practice, which starts on sailing ships, and continues

bn special training ships assigned to the schools. In 1970,

the training fleet of the Soviet Merchant M ae consisted of

15 ships, and has boon growing since. A large series of B-SO

training ships (the Soviets call them "training-cargo snips'*

for they can and do transport cargo) has been under construction.

The original order for 3 ships fro- Poland was augmented in 1970

to a total number of 10 to be delivered daring 1071-1073. Senior

cadets are receiving practice aboard operational chips of the

Merchant Marine.

During the last five year period, 1965-1970, 32,179

engineers and technicians were trained, and 8,150 specialists

improved their qualifications in the merchant marine educational

76
system. The ship s officers of the Soviet Merchant .Marine are

relatively young. At the end of 1969 there were I, 6C0 licensed

captains, of whom 300 were between 31 and 40 years old, 750

between 41 and 60 years old, and about 40, more than 60 years old.

7S
.Morskoy Flot No. 11, 1971, p. ^
73
Mcr .: o •
: h fo. 3, 1971.

1 O
QO
-,-
t.)O
i'he captains wore distributed as follows by nationality:

1,100 Russians, about 200 Ukrainians, 32 Georgians, 32 Jews, 23

77
Azerbaijams. The Soviet Merchant Marina even has several

women officers, and at least three of them have been masters,

actually commanding ships. Of 1,600 Soviet licensed captains,

about 700 have higher education. On an average, in the Soviet

Merchant Marine it takes eight year^- for a graduate from a

higher nautical school and ten years for a graduate from a

secondary specialized nautical school to become a captain. 78

It is openly admitted that graduates from secondary nautical

schools have had a progressively growing feeling of a lack of

education, and many for this reason continue in higher nautical

schools by correspondence.

During the 1971-1975 period it is planned to increase

enrollment in the educational institutions of the Merchant Marine

Existing higher nautical schools in Odessa and Leningrad are

being expanded, and the decision was made xo organize a new

79
school, the Novorossiysk Higher Engineering Nautical School.

Apparently there is no lack of young men who desire

to enroll in nautical schools and become merchant marine officers,

77
. No. 50, December 1939, p. 13.
78 44-45.
'
-
'
oy Fj - -
, No. 11, 1970, pp.

A. Y. Voronkov, p. 47.

I
40
i 1971 there were from 3 to 5 applications (varying from school

) school) for each of the 10,000 openings available in higher

id secondary specialized merchant marine nautical schools. In

le Odessa Higher School there were 2,000 applications for 500

oenings. In the Kherson Secondary Specialized School there

80
<2re 1,200 applicants for 90 openings in the command department.

The Soviet Merchant Marine educational establishment

inducts an extensive public relations program. In addition

3 propagandizing merchant marine service throughout the country's'

igh schools, a number of higher and secondary nautical schools

re sponsoring extra-curricular programs in some of them to

tudy maritime subjects. A few schools went even further. In

rkhangelsk, for example, there is a high school which introduced,

Q addition to the regular study program, a maritime program

liich includes such subjects are navigation, radio communication,

arine engineering, etc. in the ninth grade. During the summer,

ale students involved in the program have au opportunity to

ail aboard nautical school training ships and obtain additional

raining. The Northern Steamship Company is sponsoring the whole

rogram.

As a result, the percentage of male graduates from high

chools maintaining close' ties with merchant marine organizations

Vodnyy Transport, 31 August 1971.

341
t
applying to continue their education in nautical schools is
l

onsiderably higher compared with the high school graduates

81
vthout such ties. The foregoing permits the conclusion that

•iere is neither a shortage of applicants for merchant marine

uutical schools nor there is noticeable shortage of basic

:;ecialists required by merchant marine, and hence, the system

£ specialists training in the Soviet Merchant Marine is fulfilling

*
V x

ts basic task.

In addition to their educational role, the Soviet

nautical

in
chools, particularly at the higher level, are involved

xtensive research work. But the bulk of research work for the

large institutes,
oviet Merchant Marine is conducted by two very
Marine in
he Central Scientific Research Institute of Merchant

eningrad (TsNIIMF) , with branches in the Far East, Baku, and

Institute
[urmansk, and the State Design and Scientific Research
organized in
,f Merchant Marine in Moscow (Soyuzmomiiproekt) ,

Vladivostok.
i960, with branches in Leningrad, Odessa, and
the Institute of
The TsNIIMF was first organized as
assuming its present
Shipbuilding and Ship Repair in March 1929,
reorganization. The
title and mission after the fall 1930

and Minister of Merchant Marine

decision of the Ministry Collegium
concerning the intensification
Order No. 475 of 2 December 1955

81
Vodnvv Transport , 3 October 1970

~- I i~v
 f scientific research work in the merchant marine, allocation of

reater funds, construction of new buildings and laboratories,

tc, were important factors in the growth of the role of the

wo institutes and of their influence in the Ministry,

pparently this did not come about without the help of the

oviet Navy and the participation of its leaders, for at that

ime, Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union, I. S. Isakov, one of

he most respected and best educated men in the higher echelon '

f Soviet Navy Command, assumed the position of the Deputy

inister of Merchant Marine for Science and Technology, and is

redited with playing a crucial role in the preparation and

82
he implementation of the decision of December 1955.

The scope of the work of the two research institutes is

>o broad that there is hardly any topic or aspect related to

;he merchant marine which it does not cover. The staff of

•esearch specialists in each institute numbers in the several

tundred.

It is difficult to draw a clear demarkation line between

specialities of the two institutes, for they have both in

1

;be

i number of instances been involved in research dealing with

;he same subject, for example, unitization and containerization

>f cargo or standardization of ship designs. However, the TsNIIMF

^Transactions, Vol. 133, pp. 7-10.

/

313
is primarily concerned with the mercantile fleet, its ships,

and problems associated with them. The Soyuzmorniiproekt , on

the other hand, is concerned with the economic performance of

the entire merchant marine, particularly over the long range, and

on the technological side, with shore facilities such as ports,

*

repair yards, and systems of cargo handling. Any given problem

is usually handled by one department of either institute. The

research findings and proposed solution for the problem are

reported to the Scientific Council of an institute which, after

approval, sends the recommendations to the Ministry for practical

83
application. During the past several years, both institutes

have produced a number of recommendations, including those

dealing with the automation of ships and management control of

the Ministry, which were accepted and have either been or are

being implemented.

There are fifteen nautical schools training unlicensed

and sub-officer seamen with a period of study of around one year.

These schools and a number of special courses from a few weeks

to 3-4 months in length supply the Soviet Merchant Marine with

a pool of qualified personnel. Many sailors discharged from the

Soviet Navy upon completion of their service as well as naval

83
Examples of such recommendations are given in this chapter
as well as in other chapters, particularly the one on shipbuilding,

344
officers separated from the Navy for various reasons often join

the Merchant Marine, and thus increase the pooi of qualified

personnel. The romanticism of sea duty, a degree of adventurism

so common to the young, good pay (better than for shore duty),

and the possibility for advancement through education are but

a few of the factors attracting many Soviet young men to service

in the Merchant Marine. Soviet restriction on travel abroad

is also a definite factor in making sea duty attractive.

A system of material incentives is widely applied in the

Soviet Merchant Marine. In addition to free food, for which

30-49 rubles per month, depending upon area of operation, is

84
allocated, uniforms, better housing for families ashore, with

a network of kindergartens and nurseries operated by the Merchant

Marine, seamen are paid bonuses for the successful fulfillment

of plans and are provided with rest and recreation stays at health

and rest homes. More than 150 hospitals and 170 polyclinics are

run by the Merchant Marine Ministry, which employs more than

85
5.5 thousand doctors. New Soviet ships, which are in the

majority, have comfortable cabins for the crew and good

recreational facilities, including swimming pools in some ships.

A. V. Voronkov, p. 29.
85
Morskoy Flot No. 8, 1970, p. 12
•?

345
Practically all large Soviet ports have seamen clubs and cinemas

and some have hotels where families of seamen can stay on visits
1

to the ports. The Ministry schedules regular radio programs

"for sea-farers", with good music and prescribed news and

propaganda and so called "radio letters" from relatives of the

seamen. Each ship has its own amateur musical and singing

groups, and some ships have orchestras. Athletic teams are

formed from among the crew members. All these groups and teams do

lot limit their activity to entertainment alone, which certainly

is a factor, but they perform while visiting foreign ports and

also participate in sports competitions with their hosts. This

so called "cultural and sport activity" of the crews is closely

supervised and directed to produce a favorable effect upon

foreigners.

The system of "political organs" in the Soviet Merchant

Marine, which at the ship level includes the Pompolit (Political

assistant to the captain) and Party and Komsomol (Young Communist

i

League) organizations, is responsible for the organization; and

/ . !
-

naintenance of such activity. Ship captains, most of whom',

together with the senior ship officers, are members of the .

y

:ommunist party, have to support that activity and probably

find it beneficial to the morale of the crew.

Propaganda and political education, regularly conducted

!
'
- •»

31+6
among crew, are designed not only to indoctrinate
sailors in
Soviet Communist ideology but to make them effective
i

representatives abroad. That obligation of Soviet crew members

is openly proclaimed in the Soviet Merchant Marine, and crews

of Soviet ships are constantly reminded of it. There are now

4

more than 1,250 Soviet crews which are "collective members of

Soviet societies of friendship and cultural ties" with people

in foreign countries. Thus, one more form of "profitable"

employment has been found for the Soviet Merchant Marine. 8 ?

Shore Facilities

For normal and, even more important, for effective

operation, any merchant marine has to have well developed shore

facilities, particularly ship repair and port facilities. In

general, the development of shore facilities throughout the

world lags behind fleet development. There are very few ports

which can accommodate super-tankers, and the development of

progressive methods such as containerization is restricted by

the availability of ports equipped to handle containers. In

86
Vodnyy Transport, 19 October 1971. The article by Yu
Evfharestov, member of the Ministry of Merchant Marine Collegium
and apparently in charge of political work in the Soviet Merchant
Marine, gives a revealing description of the political role of
'

the Soviet Merchant Marine and attempts to present the "new

Soviet man"

3 it 7
jeaeral, it appears easier to build a fleet to the appropriate

size than to develop the necessary -shore facilities, particularly

Dorts, and the Soviet experience in this respect might be

considered typical. Even in the past, when the Soviet Merchant

,iarine was small, the existing shore facilities did not satisfy

the requirements. With the rapid development of the Soviet

Merchant Marine, the gap between th<? shore facilities and size

)f the fleet widened, not because shore facilities have not been

developed, but because the rate of their development has not

Hatched the rate of the fleet growth. Recognizing the problem,

the Soviets openly stated that the future profitability of the

Merchant Marine should not be bound to the emphasis on increasing

its tonnage, but would result from the harmonious development

of every branch of the industry. For the near future at least,

that harmony can be achieved only through the accelerated

87
development and improvement of ship repair and port facilities.

Ship Repair

The Soviet Union started specialization in ship repair-

just prior to World War II, when all large ship repair yards

were subordinated to a special department of the ministry, while

smaller ones remained under the control of steamship companies.

87
Morskoy Flot No. 4, 1970, pp. 6-10.

48
 I number of new ship repair yards were built before the war.

?he larger yards specialized in major repair as well as .construction

>f small series of auxiliary ships. The situation remained

mchanged after the war for over the decade. The three

jategories of repair, small, medium, and major, continued to be

Dracticed; the rationale for repair was dictated, by the need to

aaintain available tonnage and was not justified by economic

/alidity.

At the beginning of the 1950 *s, the rehabilitation of

existing ship repair yards and construction of new ones increased

the production capacity, 2.75 times over that of 1940. During

the decade of 1950' s the modernization of ship repair yards

continued, and a new yard was built in Nakhodka. As a result,

in 1960 the capacity of Soviet Merchant Marine repair yards was

3 times greater than in 1950 and 8.2 times greater than in 1940.

What appeared to be a phenomenal growth actually bears testimony

to how weak the ship repair capability used to be*

In 1959-1961, the research and design institutions of the

Merchant Marhe with representatives of steamship companies made

an extensive analysis of expenditures for ship repair and

developed the economic and technological rationale for some

types of repair. Optimum periods of service for various types

of ships and the approved schedules for allocation apd amortization

31+9
of funds for ship renovation were worked out. In 1961 new

regulations concerning ship repair were approved and introduced.

Major and medium ship repairs were excluded as economically

unsound, and only two types of repairs, a small and large,

which differ only in volume of work, were introduced.

In 1957 all ship repair yards were subordinated .to

steamship companies. Starting in 1962 the development of ship

repair facilities was accelerated, and capital investment for

1966-1970 was increased three times over that for the previous
88
period. Two new ship repair yards, one in Il'ichevsk (Black

Sea) and the second in Slavyansk (Far East) , are presently under

construction. When completed in 1972-1973, the Il'ichevsk ship

repair yards will, be Soviet Union's largest. During the last

five year period, 1966-1970, a number of ship repair yards were

modernized, and many were supplied with large floating docks.

The above measures, combined with the reduction in number of

ship types built and the construction of ships in large series,

i

considerably improved the ship repair situation in the Soviet

Merchant Marine. In addition, foreign ship repair facilities,

i

particularly in Poland and East Germany, can be and often are ^

used. Soviet ship repair yards are specializing more and more in

88
Morskoy Flot No. 10, 1967, pp. 7-14.

350
he repair of specific types and classes of ships enabling them

o be better supplied with parts, still in short supply, and to

ring the improved technology to bear. The modular replacement

ethod is being introduced, but owing to a lack of spare parts,

89
*
t is still not widely applied yet.

The shortage of ship repair facilities forced the Soviets

;o organize and keep so called ship repair brigades (SRB) aboard

;he ships which were paid out of ship repair funds. Together

tith the base technical service (BTO) assigned to the ports,

...
the

>RB performed about 15% of the total volume of work necessary to

laintain normal operation of ships and to prolong the period

)etween repairs at a ship repair yard. It is planned to increase

the BTO services to 22% of such work in 1975 and up to 37% in

90
L980 after wich the SRB will be disestablished.

The one reason the Soviet Merchant Marine is satisfied

with the goal of 330 days of ship operating time, compared with
i

340-350 days in most of the Western countries, is the still

i

relatively weak ship repair and maintenance capabilities, both

of which are slated to be strengthened.

89 14 July 1970.
Vodnyy Transport ,

90 108.
Transactions, Vol. 133, p.

/.

351
 Ports

»
There are not many

the European part.

natural harbors iQ

For this reason, most

^ ^ ^^^
of the Soviet
'

harhors have to he protected

by breakwaters. Port facilities W ere
considerably expand rior
p

locations, with few notable

to fforld War n>
^ ^^ ^
C exce
exce*nt<„„=
Ptions, nor their cargo
handling
equipment was good.- Durine
6 World
xorid War tt more
w,,- II
than 70% of the
port facilities in the Baltic the D1
ie Baitac, ,
Black
, o
Sea, and the Northern
'
Basins were destroyed. Many '

ports, including such large

ones
as Tallin, Riga, Nikolayev,
Odessa, were left without '

a single
Pier or cargo storage facility.
The only undamaged ports
were .

in the Caspian Sea and the

Far East. For eleven years
(1945-1956)
most of the funds allocated
for ports were spent for
restoration,
and not until 1956 was a
new stage in the development
of port I
facilities initiated.

The expansion of Soviet foreign

j trade and the beginning
of rapid expansion of Soviet
Merchant Fleet forced the Soviet
Union to start a major port
facility improvement program. The- .'

highest priorities were given to

expanding bulk-cargo handling '

facilities, the construction of

deep-draft piers and approaches,'
bunkering facilities and wide
introduction of mechanized

91
Morskoy Plot No. 10, 1967, pp. 7-14.

352
cargo-handling equipment (gantry cranes, fork lifts)

Construction of new ports such as Il'ichevsk, Wrangel' and

modernization of existing ones has been underway for years.- The

completion of the third stage of the Port of Il'ichevsk will

make it the second largest in the Soviet Union. The Port of

Wrangel', about 20 miles from Nakhodka, being built with Japanese

financial and technical assistance. The construction plan for

the Port of Wrangel 1

calls for it to be completed in 19*73. .The .

new port will have 60 piers for deep-draft ships and a total
A

berthing length of 12 kilometers. Special container terminals

will be built, and modern cargo transfer equipment installed

(for example, the coal terminal will process 12,000 tons of coal
92
per hour) . The Port of Nakhodka was gradually built up in the

post-World War II period in an area 100 miles southeast of

Vladivostok. The port benefits from the Japanese Current, and

completely ice-free the year round, while Vladivostok sometimes.

freezes. A special extension of the Trans-Siberian Railroad

has been built to Nakhodka. The future Port of Wrangel* is being

/ |
.

called a satellite of Nakhodka, but the Ministry of Merchant

i

Marine disputes the term, emphasizing that in the 1980* s it will-

be proper rather to call Nakhodka a satellite of Wrangel', as

92
Trud, 22 September 1971.

i /
i

353
the latter will have facilities four times as great and will
l
93
become the largest deep-water port in the Soviet Union. ,

There are now 8 extra class, 21 first class, 17 second

class, and 19 third class ports in the Soviet Union and about

100 small ports. All together, they processed close to 300

aillion tons of cargo in 1970. 94 However, the construction of

lew ports and the modernization of existing ones has not been

seeping pace with the rapid expansion of the Soviet merchant fleet,

ind the port facilities have become a major hindrance to the

;fficient operation of the whole merchant marine.

There is nothing unusuai in the present situation, because

for many years the main attention of the Ministry and its central

)lanning organs had been devoted to developing the fleet and

.ncreasing its tonnage. In the ten year period 1959-1968,

japital investment in the fleet exceeded that in ports by more

;han 7.5 times. While the Soviets have obtained a rather modern

nd to a large degree diversified fleet, their ports are incapable

f serving it properly, and the ships are losing a considerable

/
ortion of their operating time in ports waiting to be processed.
I

or example, in 1968, 57% of the total operating time of dry-cargo

93
Vodnyy Transport -
, 7 March 1971.
1
- ' -
%
'

94 35-36.
V. Voronkov, pp. /

i
/

351
 ;hips was spent in ports. Besides the low capacity for processing

hips there are deficiencies in planned scheduled arrivals of

t

oviet ships, further increasing the time loss.

A ssw^v-UM^MN MUV Ifctffcigft kttdJrfcS is striking. For example-,

n 1968 Soviet ships lost 268 ship days in foreign ports waiting

o be loaded or unloaded, which constituted 1.6% of alJL time

ost in unproductive waiting. In the Soviet ports, they lost

,341 ship days, or 27.5%, i.e. 24 times as much as in foreign

torts. In foreign ports, longshoremen await the arrival of ships,

?hile in Soviet Union ships wait until longshoremen are free to

mload them. As a rule, longshoremen in foreign ports work only

>ne shift, while Soviet longshoremen work three shifts, yet

according to Soviet calculations the transfer volume in Soviet

ports is only 2% higher than in the foreign ports.

There are two major reasons for such low performance: the

degree of mechanization in Soviet ports is still below that in

foreign and there is a labor shortage. For example, during

1966-1968 the volume of processed cargo in Soviet ports grew

/
by 14.7%, but the mechanical equipment increased only by
,
1.1% L
95
and the number of workers by only 2.8%. This is why at the
1

the
end of 1970 the Ministry requested a one-third increase in
i

95
Morskoy Flot No. 12, 1970, pp. 11-14.
! /

355
.—
number of port workers, a request which is uulikely to be

satisfied. On the other hand, the Soviet love for bookkeeping

and statistics has produced a huge bureaucracy in the ports,

resulting in a situation where there is more managerial and

clerical personnel than longshoremen and port workers. 96

The remedy is seen not in reducing the flow of information

and the bureaucracy, but in automation, i.e. introduction of

the automated system of control, the ASU. Meanwhile, the

bureaucracy is at work, and the delivery of each piece of ._

machinery to a port is accompanied by more and more, quite often

completely unrealistic, norms for loading and unloading operations,

which in turn increased the amount of fine a port must pay for

the time wasted by ships while waiting to be processed. A

paradox situation is created, where the port administration quite

often resists the introduction of new technology, preferring to

97
operate according to established norms.
i

As stated previously, the problem of disproportionate

I

development of' fleet and shore facilities has been recognized,

/ j

/ I

and certain corrective measures, initiated. Already in 1971

thanks to the measures taken, the time lost by ships in ports

96
Vodnyy Transport, 29 August, 1971.
97t

1971.
Vo dnyy Transport , 4 March,
/

356
 was reduced, in some steamship
companies by as much as 00%, but
the gap between the cargo carrying
capacity of the fleet, and
the capacity of ports remains
a serious problem, particularly-,

in the Far East.

During the current five-year period

(1971-1975) , it is
planned to build more deep-draft
berths, particularly .in

ports handling export-import cargos,

to gradually replace most
of the general purpose cranes with '

specialized cargo handling

equipment with a high rate of productivity,
to improve the..

scheduled operation of the fleet and to

introduce more automatic
equipment. Ports are viewed as the main point of
application
of the Merchant Marine in its drive to
improve productivity.
The greatest expectations of the Soviet planners
in
realizing this goal lie in the broad introduction
of unitized
cargo processing systems, particularly
containerization. The
development of a universal cargo containerization
handling system
has been called a technical revolution in commercial
shipping.
Eliminating the traditional pier-side sorting, warehousing, '

and
repackaging of goods, containerization offers vast savings
to
shippers, tremendously increases the productivity of
specialized
ships and ports, handling through specialized terminals.
The
leaders of the Soviet Merchant Marine are well aware of the

advantages of containerization, and are planning appropriate

357
measures. The importance and the complexity of the problem

deserve special consideration.

i

Containerization

The overall importance and magnitude of the cargo handling

problem in the Soviet Union can be illustrated by the .following.

According to recent data, the number of workers involved in cargo

handling in the USSR in 1970 was eight million, after increasing

at the rate of 250-300,000 annually. 98 The Soviet Institute of

Transport Problems states that the total cost of load-and-storage-

operations is approaching 15 billion rubles per year. 99 The

annual consumption of some packaging materials in 1969 amounted

to 600 thousand tons of steel, 48 million square meters of lumber,

100
and 450 million square meters of fabric. Bulk transportation

of cargo has produced tremendous annual losses, including 2

billion bricks, 18 billion square meters of glass, and 3 million

101
tons of cement

The Soviet Union has developed an extensive package-handling

98
Vodnyy Transport , March 16, 1971.
99
Ibid.

Deribas, A. T. Transportation of Cargo Y/ithout Reloading ,

Moscow; Znaniye 1970, p.' 4.

,

Deribas, op., cit., p. o.

358
system including the handling of containers. In 1970 there

were more than 900,000 continers in use, but most were the small,
102
three-ton size. The number of large containers meeting "^-^ '

International Standard Organization (ISO) specifications is

small, and as of 1970 these containers were not being mass

103
produced. Moreover, the Soviet transportation system is not

yet prepared to handle ISO approved containers.

The problem faced by the Soviet Merchant Marine is even

more acute due to the rapid introduction of containerization

among leading maritime powers and their successes in the highly

competitive charter market. Containerization was introduced

into conferences of which the Soviet steamship lines are members.

Due to the absence of specially built container ships, the only

commodities left for Soviet ships in the conferences to transport

were small amounts of irregularly scheduled and low-rate cargo

unsuitable for containerization.

The experimental use of containers by ships of the Poiava

102
The greatest owner of containers in the Soviet Union
is the Ministry of Railroads, which possesses 724,000 units of
1.25, 3 and 5 ton capacity.
103
The International Standards Organization (ISO) in
1968 has adopted as standard dimensions for containers an
8 £ foot height, 8 foot width, and lengths in 10 foot increments
up to a maximum of 40 feet.

359
class and Lininsky-Komsomol class was initiated by the Soviet

Merchant Marine in the Black Sea in 1967. The use of containers

i

was also developed along the Northern Sea Route during the same.
104
year. The emphasis on the Northern and Far Eastern Region is

- ogically explained by the short navigational period along the

Northern Sea Route, prevailing climatic conditions, a lack of

covered storage facilities, and the shortage of port facilities.

Beginning in 1969 several Soviet steamship lines began n

to build up an inventory of their own containers. Utilizing r.

these containers an unspecified amount of cargo, usually expensive 22

articles, was delivered to Cuba, Italy, Egypt, Kuwait, and other . _

105
countries. In spite of using small containers, the Soviet ~.

Merchant Marine's volume of containerized cargo in 1970 reached ~

600,000 tons. Starting in May 1970, ships of a Baltic line,

using Leningrad as one terminal and a suitable European port as s:

another, were carrying 10 and 20 foot ISO standard containers -

106
leased from foreign countries. The transit of containers

via Trans-Siberian Railway from Europe to Japan has been established zz.

and a regular container line between Nakhodka and Japanese ports :_

104
Morskoy Flot No. 3, 1968 and No. 11, 1970.
105 January 1970.
Morskoy Flot No. 1,

106
Morskoy Flot No. 4, April 1971..

360
was opened m the spring of 1971.
107
Also, during summer of 1971,

the container line between Il'ichevsk and Bulgaria was opened. 108
\

Along the Northern Sea Route and in the Northeastern Regions of

Soviet Far East, special self-propelled barges (Sever type, 14-ton

cargo capacity and the improved Vostok type, 22-ton cargo

4

capacity) carried aboard ships are used for loading and unloading
. 109
unitized cargo and containers.

The Central Scientific Research Institute recommended

seven new general cargo ships, all of them capable of carrying

containers. The proposed new ships are designed to operate as

liners and are self sufficient for handling containers. According

to the Soviet Minister of Merchant Marine, during the period

1971-1975, container ships will be built with capacity of 40,

200, 300, and 700 20-foot containers. Roll-on/ roll-off ships

and LASH ships designed to take on board 40-50 lighters of

110
200-400 tons each are under consideration. The construction .

of cargo helicopter carriers was also recommended. Among the

arguments favoring the construction of such a ship is the frequent

1Q7 Pravda 4 July 1971.

,

108
Vodnyy Transport , 28 August 1971.
109
Morskoy Flot No. 1, 1971.

Vodnyy Transport , March 16, 1971.

381
necessity for unloading cargo at harbors or points on the shore

lacking cargo handling facilities. A converted A.\:GUEMA-class

with three KA-25 K helicopters and a specially designed Project

No. 567 A cargo ship with three MI-8 helicopters were considered.

Increased reliability of loading and unloading operations of

*

those ships was claimed owing to-, their relative independence

111
of weather conditions.

The first Soviet container ship, Svetlogorsk, built in

Vyborg in 1971, can carry 218 containers. East Germany and

Poland started to build container ships in the late 1970's/

Containerization is planned to be introduced in two stages:

the first stage, 1971-1975, "organizational-technological

preparation" will involve building up a container inventory,

the development of a maintenance-repair base, and experience in

container utilization. This preparation will parallel the

construction of container ships, of which 18 have been authorized,

The Ministry, considering this number inadequate, is arguing

for an additional eight container ships with a 150-200 container

/ i
-

The proposed cargo helicopter carrier in conjunction

with a containerized or unitized cargo system comprises the ,

major elements of the ship helicopter extended delivery system

(SHEDS). In addition, most of the new ships proposed for ;

containierization will be self-sufficient. The two measures

would result in extra cost, but are extremely important
militarily.
-. i /

382
capacity for use on short and medium range lines (USSR-Italy,

USSR-France, etc). In addition, there is a plan to buy from

East Germany an unspecified number of ships carrying 40 containers

each (for lines between Germany, Bulgaria, and the USSR). The

Ministry of Merchant Marine plan envisaged 23,000 20-ton (or

*

equivalent) containers by the end of 1975.

During the second stage, 1976-1980, "containerization will

become the main means of transportation for general cargo". The

fleet of container ships will be considerably enlarged to include <

an unspecified number of specialized container ships with a

1,200-1,400 container capacity and a speed of 23-25 knots, 20-30

ships with a 700-container capacity, and 25 ships with a 300-

112
container capacity.

Meanwhile, the absence of specialized container ships

in the Soviet Merchant Marine, and all the consequences thereof,

was said by Minister Guzhenko to be "the result of the short-sighted

»

technological policy" of the two main administrations of the

113
Ministry. Even a partial solution of the containerization

problem will improve the situation in the Soviet ports somewhat,

but most of the problems will remain, and the Soviet port

112 2-6.
Morskoy Flot No . 4 , 1971, pp.

113
Vodnyy Transport, 14 July 1971.

363
facilities will for years to come still be a major obstaclo

in the Soviet Merchant Marine's course to greater efficiency.

Some Economic Aspects of the

Soviet Merchant Marine"

In spite of the apparent similarities between the

»

operations of the Soviet Merchant Marine and the merchant marine

of any other maritime nation, it is an extremely difficult task

to compare their performance in economic terms. In fact, such

basic categories as ownership and the objectives of operation

differ so drastically that they as often the sole reason for

rejecting any attempt to compare the performance of the

Soviet Merchant Marine with its Western counterparts. The

centralized planning and control in the Soviet Merchant Marine

are often pointed out as another reason for the impossibility

of such a comparison, and the rationale of fleet utilization in

the Soviet case might' be completely different from the Western

rationale, profit making. According to D. Fairhall "some factors

/
are declared to be more rational than others and the nature^ of
!

the criteria applied to the planning might have very little in

114
common with the familiar Western criteria". What is implied
i

114
See D. Fairhall, 'op. cit., pp. 111-114. i

. /

j.
/
i

364
here is the possibility of using the Soviet Merchant Marine to

achieve purely political and military objectives, as certainly

;

might be, and occasionally has been, the case. As for the -

^
political purpose, the Soviets themselves do not deny the

importance of using their merchant marine to that end. Moreover,

«
the Soviet Merchant Marine is considered to be a part of a

unified internal transportation system and as such its performance

and utilization, if measured against the interests of the overall

system, do not necessarily coincide with Western standards of

efficiency.

In spite of the recent Soviet emphasis upon profit,

profitability, and the introduction of cost accounting in every

enterprise, when one examines current Soviet Merchant Marine

statistics, he will find continued emphasis on cargo turnover,

ton-miles, cargo processed, cargo capacity, etc.

On the other hand, allowing for the aforementioned

peculiarities of Soviet Merchant Marine operations, an impartial

observer cannot fail to recognize the existence of a pragmatic

j

understanding of its economic function by the Soviets. In.

addition to its satisfying the Soviet Union's shipping requirements,

"liberating the Soviet Union from dependence upon capitalistic

charter market", and assisting in the development of Soviet foreign

trade, there is a genuine drive toward greater efficiency in the

365
Soviet Merchant Marine which in essence does not differ wuch

from that in any other merchant marine of the world. They are
trying to increase the productivity of their ships, ports, ship,

repair yards, improve ship design, select better propulsion

units, install more productive cargo handling devices, introduce

automation, and reduce the administrative apparatus. They are,

in general, attempting to introduce the best from world maritime

practice into their merchant marine. Occasional rate cutting,

either to gain competitive advantages or to avoid returning,

empty, is not unique to the Soviet Merchant Marine, and has a

long history in world maritime practice.

The economic reform, "the new system of planning

(management) and incentives", launched in September 1965 was

gradually introduced into the Soviet Merchant Marine during the

period 1966-1968. First established in a number of pilot

enterprises, a Latvian steamship company, the Port of Riga, a ship

repair yard in 1966 and a Murmansk steamship company in 1967,

the reform gained momentum, and in 1968 the Ministry of Merchant

Marine completed the conversion of all its enterprises to the new

115
system. The introduction of the reform resulted in a greater

degree of enterprise independence from central control and permitted.

115
Communist of Armed Forces No. 21, November 1969, p. 47.

2CLO
wider application of economical methods of management. Profit
and profitability were applied as standards for measuring the

performance of ships, ports, steamship companies, etc.

The reform did not grant the enterprises complete control

over the distribution of profit and the portion left to the

*

industries varied. As for the Merchant Marine, 84.8% of the

1966 profit was left to the Ministry, of which over 70% was
117
reinvested. Planning and measuring of merchant fleet* performance.

in foreign runs in terms of profit was introduced even before the

reform, and high profitability of operations has been claimed.

The announced rate of return was 18.5% for 1968, 13.2% for
118
1967, 4.9% for 1960, and 3.7% for 1958.

In 1969 Minister of Merchant Marine Bakayev claimed that

the Soviet steamship companies' profits could be the envy of

"any ship company" in the world, that the profit covers not only

116
It has been constantly emphasized in the Soviet Union
that the Socialist state is not at all indifferent to how an
enterprise obtained a high profit. Not denying at all the
concept of profit, many Soviet economists emphasized, however,
that the high profit can be obtained "only through high prices"
(which, in fact, is a "general law" stated by Marx). Party
directives did not demand either the maximization of the profit
or the raising of prices. Increased labor productivity and the
reduction of production costs have been stressed as the main goals
117 Morskoy Flot No.
6, 1968, p. 35.

118
Communist of Armed Forces No. 21, November 1969, p. 48.

367
operational expenses but capital investment for future development

as well, and that in 196S there was a net profit of 300 million
i

119
rubles. How much of the 300 million rubles was earned by

charter and how much by Soviet coastal shipping is not clear.

Bakayev became a strong advocate of a more rational

planning approach and further reduction and simplification of

system of indexes, at least in relation to the Merchant Marine.

He emphasized the peculiar character of the industry's operation,

the need for a greater sense of responsibility toward customers,

and broader application of the incentives provided by the reform

on the basis of a more rational establishment of funds for this

purpose. He also argued for better coordination of plans between

the Merchant Marine and its major clients, and the need for the

party responsible for a. delay to bear material responsibility

for it. The Minister emphasized the need to use only one index,-

profitability, as it is more objective and completely indicative

of efficiency in the shipping companies. The decisive influence

i

on profit growth of the rate of fleet expansion was used to.

/ i

justify the profit deficiency as an index. Profitability, on the

other hand, cannot be changed unless the operation of the fleet -.

120
is improved.
i

119
Ibid^, p. 49. .

120 « •'

The profitability is calculated as the ratio of profits

capital. /
to fixed and working
• •
;

;
388
 The Minister was also against the application to the

Merchant Marine of group norms which are established for all Soviet

industries and which determine the economic incentive funds. .^

There is a lack of uniformity among the various Soviet steamship

companies which is caused by the specialization dictated by such

factors as geographical ___location (influencing navigation and

fleet composition) , which is in turn usually linked to different

wage levels and material and fuel costs; the prevailing' cargo

and, hence type of ships; type of service, i.e. coastal or foreign'

shipping, etc. For example, even two companies, Murmansk and

Severnoye, operating from the same northern basin are different

in this respect. The average ship of the Murmansk Company is

30% larger, the average distance to carry a ton of freight is

40% farther, and the average wage for workers is more than one
121
and one half times higher. The importance attached to the

Soviet Merchant Marine has been acknowledged, and the majority

of requests of the Ministry were satisfied.

In comparison with wages in other Soviet industries,

Soviet seamen are well paid. In addition to wages and longevity

bonuses, there is a system of incentive bonuses determined by

the performance of the ship and contribution of the crew to it.

In the fall of 1971 a very important regulation for rewarding

121
Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No. 25, June 1968, p. 5.

3G3
ships operating at reduced manning levels was approved by the

Council of Ministers. of the USSR. The possibility for management

to eliminate excess labor was opened by the reform and first ^ -

-

tested on a wide scale by a chemical combine. In the Soviet

Merchant Marine, the experiment to man ships at a reduced level

(crew strength has often been in excess of the actual need) was

initiated in 1969, and it produced a very favorable result in

that productivity was increased by 11%. The main reason for

such a phenomenon was purely materialistic, for the remaining

crew members were paid better. All the wages of the relieved

members in rubles and 50% in foreign currency (crews on foreign

runs are paid in both Soviet and foreign currencies) were left

for distribution among the remaining crew members. As a result,

the average wage on such ships increased by 22% and crew costs
122
dropped by 11.5%.

The approved regulations not only sanctioned operations

with reduced crews (subject to approval by the Minister, providing

that the safety of navigation is not being compromised) , but even

improved the system of material rewards for the crew paid for

by the saved funds.

The 1971-1975 plan visualizes a 23% increase in labor

122
Mo rskoy Flot No. 8, 1970, and Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta
No. 39, September 1971, p. 7.

370
productivity on ships, 12% in cargo handling operations, and

35% in ship repair. In the near futuro it is planned to reduce

}

123
crew by 20-25% and in the more remote future by up to 50%.

Party control of the unions, the practical absence of

unemployment, and the shortage of labor produced a situation

»

where the workers not only permit, but welcome, the introduction

of any labor-saving devices. Surprisingly enough, it is the local

administration which tries to resist and avoid the introduction

of such devices, because of unrealistic increases in the norms

and indicies often accompanying them. As can be seen, apart

from a few obvious and often crucial differences, many other

factors determining the economic performance of the Soviet

Merchant Marine are quite similar to those operating in any other

merchant fleet.

123
Vodnyy Transport, 5 October 1971.

371
I
 Conclusions

The development of theSoviet Merchant Marine over half of

a century has been extremely uneven. Up to about the middle

of the 1950's it had not been distinguished either by the rate

of its development or its size or the characteristics of its

ships and what Captain A. T. Mahan, U. S.N., wrote at the end

of the last century "

Russia has little maritime

commerce, at least in her own bottoms: her merchant flag is ^

124
rarely seen" remained generally true. However, the existing

merchant marine was able to, and to a large degree, did satisfy

a rather considerable dependence of the Soviet economy and certain

regions of the country upon sea transport. The size and

character of the Soviet landmark create such a dependence,

for in some areas, particularly in the Far East and the Northern

territories, overland transportation does not exist, and the sea

is not only the most logical, but the cheapest way to transport

goods
/ |

In the pre -Wo rid War II period, not until the first Five

Year Plan (1928-1932) was the Soviet Merchant Marine reinforced

by a sizeable number of new constructions. During the second

Five Year Plan (1933-1937) merchant ship construction was curtailed

124 25.
Quoted in Reporter, February 10, 1966, p.
i

.
i

372
in favor of warship construction. The attempt to correct the
i

situation during the third Five Year Planlost out to the, war.

After World War II and up to the middle of the 1950 »s ^~

there was very little new construction in the Soviet shipyards.

The procurement of ships abroad, though important, was not on

a very large scale either.

In 1956 the accelerated development of the Soviet Merchant

Marine was started. Considerably larger domestic shipbuilding

capacities were provided and orders for ships abroad increased.

For 15 years approximately 40% of the new ships were built in

domestic yards; about 50% were built in Socialist countries,

particularly Poland and East Germany, and the remaining 10% in

capitalist countries.

It is doubtful that the decision to accelerate the

development of the Soviet Merchant Marine, particularly as far

as rate of its development is concerned, was the result of a planned

approach. It strongly resembles a reaction to the existing

situation, when the requirements for sea transportation generated

by the relatively fast development of Soviet foreign trade and

the initiation of economic and military aid were far in excess

of the Soviet Merchant Marine's capability, and hence forced

heavy dependence upon the' charter market. The victory of the

Castro revolution in Cuba, growing foreign trade, and foreign

373
economic and military aid sharply increased this dependence at

the beginning of the 1960's. Restrictive measures against

ships carrying cargo to Cuba initiated by the American government

and a boycott organized by Western oil companies against

non-Soviet tankers carrying Soviet oil to Cuba aggravated the

situation. The foregoing made an even faster growth rate

imperative, with the result that the growth for the period from

1961 to 1966 was labeled unprecendented by the Western 'press.

Jnprecendented or not, it was still a reaction to a situation

and not a planned activity.

The development resulted in elevating the Soviet Merchant

Vlarine role in the world shipping community. Prior to World

Var II, the Soviet Merchant Marine was in 23rd place in world

shipping, in 1960 it moved to 11th and in 1966 to 6th, the

place it continues to occupy.

Starting with the middle of the 1960 s, when the situation

f

lad somewhat stabilized, one can validly speak, of the planned

development of the Soviet Merchant Marine, an assertion which is

particularly true for the current Five Year Plan (1971-1975)

Such benefits of a planned economy as the allocation of

shipbuilding capacities, construction of ships of approved types

Ln large series, and greater maneuverability of capital,

permitting emergency financing of ship procurement abroad, were

374
certainly beneficially utilized. The Soviet claim that they

serve as an example of the development of a national mercantile

fleet can in general be accepted.

The present Soviet Merchant Marine is sufficiently large

and diversified to carry more than half of the Soviet foreign

trade cargo, to deliver military and economic aid, to satisfy

basic domestic needs in sea transport, and to earn enough

foreign currency to pay for the Soviet charter of foreign ships

and even supplement the Soviet need for foreign currency. __

It is obviously in no position to dictate terms and determine

shipping rates in the world shipping community. While occasionally

providing real competition to ships from capitalist countries

and representing the commercial power of the Soviet Union on

the ocean trade routes, the Merchant Marine will for a long time

be preoccupied with the Soviet Union's own trade needs.

The Soviet Merchant Marine's share of the world shipping

tonnage is minor, and compared with the other nations in terms

of GNP, industrial output, and size, neither Soviet foreign

trade nor its merchant marine are really great. Of course,

there is room for growth in the latter.

In terras of ship composition, Soviet Merchant Marine is

not well balanced yet, in' comparison with major mercantile fleets

of the world. It has very few bulk carriers, is just starting

375
 o receive container ships, and only planning to build lighters

board ships (LASH) v

The smaller Soviet ships are well suited for trade with

smaller, less developed countries of the world, where modern

cargo handling equipment is practically absent and volume

(of trade does not require large specialized ships. In

containerization and cargo handling and distribution ashore, the

Soviet Merchant Marine is behind many Western countries-.

Disproportions between the ability of the merchant fleet to

carry cargo and ports facilities to process it is well understood

by the Soviet authorities, and measures to remedy the situation

are underway.

Liner service is being rapidly developed in the Soviet

Union. However, while the unusually high proportion of general

cargo ships provides the Soviet Merchant Marine with diversified

capabilities, it is becoming an obstacle and often leaves them

with a less profitable cargo and the necessity to resort to

tramp service particularly in international lines and in the

conferences of which they are members. The planned emphasis

upon larger specialized ships should improve the situation.

While membership in various international maritime

organizations, conferences, and agreements permits the Soviets to

promote their own interests, in the final analysis it might be

r

376
-
advantageous to the world shipping community. In general, the

Soviets have demonstrated their willingness to cooperate, and

many countries understand this. It was reported that the U.S.

decided to explore ways to encourage more liberal U.S. -Soviet

commercial shipping arrangements, including greater access to

each other's ports and reducing ..the lengthy advance notice of

a ship's arrival (from 30 days to 14 days), thus making sea

125
trade between the Soviet Union and U.S. somewhat easier.

It has been recently proved that people sailed the seas

126
for trade ventures 9,000 years ago. Historically, the world

trade centers and sea routes along which goods have been moved

have constantly shifted. The main factor determining the shift,

however, is not the sea routes themselves or the availability or

absence of a merchant marine in one or another country or regions,

out the country's or region's industrial capacity, its ability

to produce, sell, and buy.

The import-export trade of the Soviet Union has been

jreatly increased, thanks to the economic development of the

country in general and industrialization in particular. Other

125
Washington Post , September 11, 1971.
i 26
Washington Post, September 26, 1971.

-r

377
developments, including the growth of Soviet Merchant Marine

itself, have been derivatives from these factors. X

The fact that more than half of the Soviet ships were

built abroad does not minimize the overwhelming role of Soviet

industry, whose development created the condition whereby goods

»

can be produced for sale, armament and equipment can be built

for military and economic aid and even natural resources exploited

and exported as payment for imported goods. Of course,' the

Merchant Marine is not a simple carrier of all these cargos,

but also produced effective feedback for further development

of the same activity, i.e. foreign trade, economic and military'

aid, for which, initially, it was built.

In today's world it is difficult to separate economic

power from political and military power. As an offspring of the

former the Soviet Merchant Marine is providing considerable

support to the other two. Its ability to move cargo anywhere

in the world and to be employed', on-, occasion., in direcc support.

of the Soviet Navy has definite strategic significance. The

decade of the 1960's produced three major crises, in Cuba in 1962,

in Vietnam, and in the Middle East, and in all of them the- Soviet

Merchant Marine played an important role. Moreover, it can be

said that without the Soviet Merchant Marine, the Cuban crisis

would probably not have occurred and those in Vietnam and the.
i

i .

/ - -378
Middle East would be of a different nature.

The auxiliary role of the Soviet Merchant Marine for the

Soviet Navy is significant. The Soviet Merchant Marine personnel

policy, which is generally successful, is benefited by steady

supply of trained men from the Navy. Conversely, the Merchant

Marine represents a "personnel bank" of trained reserves for the

Navy

During Soviet Navy and Army exercises, a number of Soviet

Merchant Marine ships usually take part, and contingency plans

for speedy conversion of merchant ships into military transports

127
exist.

It appears that the economic (commercial) ,

political,

and military roles of the Merchant Marine are well understood

by the Soviet leadership, who are using it as an instrument of

Soviet national policy.

127
Rear and Supply of the Soviet Armed Forces No. 11, 1970,
pp. 75-78.

373
 155538

Thesis
S43227 Shadrin
v.l Development of
Soviet maritime
power.

155538

Thesis
S43227 Shadrin
v.l Development of
Soviet maritime
power.
thesS43227v. 1

Development of So
viet maritime
power.

3 2768 001041007
DUDLEY KNOX
LIBRARY
 DEVELOPMENT OF SOVIET MARITIME POWER

by

Nicholas George Shadrin

V
DUDLEY KNOX LIBR\RY
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA 93940
ffiH&* -*"«#**i ,
»
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Development of Soviet Maritime Power

Volume II
By

NICHOLAS GEORGE SHADRIN -

B.S. 1952, the Naval Academy

.E.A. 1964, The George Washington University

*.
A Dissertation submitted to

The Faculty of
i

The Graduate School of Art and Sciences

of The George Washington University in partial satisfaction
of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

June, 1972

•
Dissertation directed by
Vladimir Petrov
Professor of International Affairs

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SCHOOL
MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA
93940

CHAPTER III

SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY

General Development and Yards

The number of ships and the total tonnage of a country's

merchant marine and Navy are not necessarily indicative of .the

nation's maritime power or its industrial might. Liberia, for

example, has the world's largest registered merchant marine,

and Argentina and Brazil have sizable Navies; however, none

of these nations can be called maritime powers of magnitude.

The shipbuilding industry of a country is a better indicator

of a country's maritime development.

Pre-revolutionary Russia had a relatively well developed

shipbuilding industry, characterized by distinct eccentricities

(1) specialization in naval construction; (2) extensive

control by foreign capital; (3) dependence (and often far

beyond necessity) upon foreign technology. Naval construction

programs, often being more profitable, monopolized Russia's

shipbuilding capacity, resulting in very few merchant marine

ships being built in Russian shipyards. In 1913 85% of the

f

'

83G178

380
total Russian merchant marine tonnage was comprised of foreign
1
built ships. The history of Chernomorskyi Shipbuilding Yard in

Nikolaev is very illustrative. Completed in 1897, the shipyard

was owned by a Belgian company. Starting in 1901, the yard

participated in the construction of a number of navy ships,

among them the famous Potemkin, and produced steam engines,

boilers, and turrets. In 1911, the yard became the property

of a French company and was awarded a contract to build, the

latest Russian battleship and to supply propulsion plans for -

another battleship being built by "Russude" (presently "61

Communars Ship Yard") . The growing demands of Russian naval

programs required the modernization of the yard, subsequently

accomplished by the British Vickers Company. In 1912 the

shipyard built the Krab, the world's first submarine-mine layer.

Ensuing pressure from the Russian mercantile banks forced the

company to sell a sizeable block of stock to the Russian

controlled International Commercial Bank; the resulting joint

stock company was named the "Society of Nikolaevsk Shipyards".

During World War I, the shipyards built a large number of naval

ships of various types and classes. In 1915, the Petrograd

International Bank, financier of both yards, centralized the

Sudostroyeniye (Shipbuilding), No. 11, 1967, pp. 31-37.

381
administration and therein effectively monopolized the shipbuilding
2 i
industry in the southern Russia.

A considerably larger group of Russian shipyards, located

in Petrograd, was also heavily involved in naval shipbuilding

with a relatively minor allocation to commercial ships. Owing,

in part, to the naval shipbuilding orientation, the technological

level of the Russian shipbuilding industry remained comparable to

that of major European maritime powers. Supporting industries,

receiving less emphasis, were subsequently less developed and

hence, Russia's dependence on foreign deliveries, particularly

ship machinery. A number of types and classes of ships built

prior to the revolution were equal and some even superior

(eg. destroyer Novik) to comparable ships of the major maritime

powers. Commercial shipbuilding, to the contrary, was under-

developed; during the period 1905 to 1917, Russian shipyards

built only eight merchant ships.

The Russians did not hesitate to experiment, and at

the beginning of 20th Century the world's first tanker with diesel

propulsion, Vandal, was built in Sorraovo.

The chaos and destructiveness of the revolution and the

civil war brought the Russian shipbuilding industry's productive

2
Sudostroyeniye No. 5, 1971, pp. 45-51.
•
f

n
82
activity close to nil, and most of the shipyards, fell into

decay. However, in 1921, the first southern shipbuilding yards

(Black Sea) and in 1922 the Petrograd shipyards began their

restoration, and gradually resumed the work. In January, 1922,

the shipbuilding trust was created in Petrograd to "organize

the work of the shipbuilding yards for the restoration of the

3
Navy". Again, as prior to the revolution, the emphasis was

placed on naval shipbuilding. , It soon became clear tha^t the

one-sided emphasis on naval construction was beyond the reach

of the badly damaged Soviet economy. The introduction of the

New Economic Policy (NEP) and urgently needed foreign exchange

for import payments forced the Soviet Government to reconsider

the shipbuilding industry priorities and to place greater

4
emphasis on the merchant marine. Additionally, the poor

condition of in-country transportation demanded the hasty

development of water transports. In 1924, the Soviet Government

decided to construct timber carriers, tankers, and refrigerators

5 |

immediately. /By the beginning of 1925, previously initiated

3
Shipbuilding No. 4, 1969, pp. 69-70; No. 4, 1970, pp,. 1-5
4
Shipbuilding No. 5, 1971, pp. 45-51. '

5
Shipbuilding No. 11, 1969, pp. 17.

383
efforts resulted in the complete restoration of all remaining

ships of the nationalized merchant fleet. Ships construction

began in 1925 simultaneously in Leningrad and in Nikolaev. —

Early in 1925, the Special Committee of the Consul of Labor and

Defense presented the first five-year shipbuilding program for

the years 1925-1930 and the Central Bureau for Shipbuilding

was organized in Leningrad. The first four ships, timber

carriers, with a cargo capacity of 3,100 tons were laid' down

6
in the Baltic Yard in January 1925. The first tanker of 10,000

dwt (deadweight tons) laid down in November 1925 in Nikolayev,

was ready exactly four years later. The relatively long period

for the construction of this tanker, the Embanef , was explained

as being a weakness of the industry, the necessity of utilizing

only available machinery, and a preoccupation with the naval

construction which continued in high priority.

In 1927, the first cruiser, Chervona Ukraina , whose

7
construction began prior to the revolution, was completed. In

1928, all of the suitable remaining ships of the former Russian

Imperial Navy, were either restored or completed and the Soviet

shipbuilding industry started to build new naval ships. The

6
Shipbuilding No. 11, 1969, and Shipbuilding No. 4, 1969,
pp. 69-70.
7
Shipbuilding No. 11, 1969, and Shipbuilding No. 4, 1971,
pp. 7-11.

384
first Five-Year Plan, 1929-1933, visualized construction of

216 ships for the Soviet Merchant Marine, 1 floating dock, and

16 harbor tugs. However, not only was this program not fulfilled,

but two combined programs, 1925-1930 and 1929-1933, produced

Q
only a total of 104 merchant ships. Throughout the 1930's, so

few commercial ships were built that the programs for their

construction are not discussed in modern Soviet specialized

literature. The 15 year period from 1925-1940, resulted in the

construction of 23 tankers with total capacity of 200,000 dwt. "

A large number Of river boats were built by secondary shipyards,

and priority programs such as the construction of a few ice-

breakers were fulfilled. The minimal performance of the ship-

building industry with regard to the Soviet Merchant Marine is

casually explained by "this period having coincided with the

9
beginning of intensive construction of the Navy". The third

Five-Year Plan, 1939-1943, devoted somewhat greater attention

to the merchant marine, but the plan never materialized because

of war. /
A number of innovative methods were introduced to the

shipbuilding industry prior to World War XX. In 1930, in a!

Soviet Far Eastern Shipyard, the first tug with ari electro-welded

Shipbuilding No. 11, 1967, pp. 1-3, and No. 4, 1970, !

pp. 1-5.
• "

9 - '
/
Shipbuilding, No. 11, 1967, p. 2. /
i

385
hull was built. In 1932, Admiralty Yard, in Leningrad, while

building a timber carrier introduced the sectional method

of hull construction. However, those innovations were, seldom

widely used in commercial shipbuilding and were primarily *

employed for naval construction.

A program for shipyard restoration, primarily for purposes

of naval construction, was initiated prior to V/orld War II and

a number of new major shipyards were built. The Nicholaev's

Yard was modernized; the Sormovo Yard production capacity_was

extended (primarily for sectional construction of submarines)

two new yards, one in the north, Severodvinsk, and one in

Komsoraolsk on the Amur were built (both designed to build

cruisers, destroyers, and submarines) . Modernization of the

Leningrad shipyards had been started, but was interrupted by

the war.

During the war, the Soviet shipbuilding industry managed

to complete the construction of ships with a high degree of

prewar readiness; however, the industry was basically involved

in the repair and maintenance of ships of the Soviet Navy, some

yards built tanks and other items for ground forces.

The war resulted in the severe damage or destruction of

10
Shipbuilding No. 4, 1969.

386 :

mi. ,ni »i i mi ^w w^ jiii nnuu i .ii 'i i j i

HJ ip jiwrjw^
i
i i^
^ ZT
many of the principle shipbuilding yards, particularly in the

Black Sea area. Immediately following the war, the Soviet

shipbuilding yards were among the first enterprises to be

restored and many considerably modernized. The productive

capacities of many yards including Zdanov, Sormovo, Severodvinsk,

and later Kerch', were enlarged, and covered fabrication shops,

permitting year round production in the northern area, were

added. Former German yard in Kaliningrad (Koenigsberg) v

, was

rebuilt.

The allocation of shipbuilding capacities in the Soviet

Union during the first post war decade reminds one of the prewar

situation; i.e., naval shipbuilding, intensified in 1947, had

received far greater priority in allocations, while commercial

shipbuilding was conducted on a residual basis. However, there

was an increase in the number of smaller yards and the portions

of the larger ones which were involved in commercial shipbuilding

Two major decisions made soon after Stalin's death altered

not only the nature of Soviet shipbuilding, but also affected

the allocation of capacities. The first decision was connected

with the beginning of nuclear submarine construction in 1953;

the second involved termination of the construction of a large

series of cruisers and conventional destroyers. A number of

build-ways, previously committed to cruiser and destroyer

387
"«M««wni<
construction, were subsequently vacated. Some of those previou

involved in cruiser construction in Severodvinsk and Komsomolsk

on Amur were gradually converted to the construction of nuclear

submarines; part of the others previously allocated to destroyer

construction were redirected to the production of diesel

submarines. The remaining vacated build-ways were allocated

~

(in Leningrad and the Black Sea Yards) to commercial shipbuilding,

thus initiating, together with increased orders abroad, *a rapid

development of the Soviet Merchant Marine. The accelerated

submarine building program definitely demanded an expansion

of the Soviet submarine building facilities which, probably,

11
took place during the late 1950 's and early 1960's.

At the present time, the Soviet Union has approximately

15 major shipbuilding yards, close to two dozen of medium sized

shipbuilding yards, and many small shipbuilding and ship repair

yards and shops, the total number of which probably approaches

a few hundred (including those involved in fishing fleet and

river fleet repairs) . The major Soviet shipbuilding .yards, the

type construction (naval or commercial) and geographic ___location

are as follows: (1) Northern area - Severodvinsk - practically

exclusive naval construction specializing in submarines. This

is one of the newest and most modern Soviet shipyard which,

11
Jane s Fighting Ships 1966-1967 thru 1970-1971 editions.
,

388
/
•
"
..^.
. "_ i-.m.. J~= >=«
according to a probably exaggerated statement by Admiral Hyraan

Rickover, has "several times the area and facilities of all of

i

12
the U. S. submarine yards combined." (2) Baltic Area - four

yards in Leningrad: Baltic and Admiralty primarily involved' in

commercial construction; Sudomekh - submarine construction;

Zhdanov - both naval (destroyers type specialization) and

commercial; and one in Kaliningrad specializing in escorts

construction and performing minor commercial construction; (3)

Sormovo - primarily submarine construction; (4) Black Sea

Area: Nikolayev -' both naval and commercial construction; Kerch -

'
\
/

both naval and commercial construction; Kherson - primarily

commercial construction; (5) Soviet Far East - Komsomol'sk

on Amur - primarily naval (all types) construction; and Khabarovsk

both naval and commercial.

In addition to the above, there are a number of smaller but

nonetheless important yards located in Vyborg, Klaipeda, Riga,

Tallin, Astrakhan', Azov, Sevastopol, Kiev, Yaroslavl, Perm 1

,

Rybinsk. Most of these yards are involved exclusively in j

commercial ship construction, and many combine shipbuilding and

extensive ship repair.

As can be seen, the major shipbuilding yards are widely

12
Fortune, August 1, 1969, p. 122.

389
disbursed and all four Soviet Naval Fleets; Northern, Baltic,

Black Sea, and Pacific, have shipbuilding facilities capable of

satisfying their basic needs in all types of ship; this is ^

particularly true with the Soviet Pacific, Black Sea, and Baltic

Fleets. The preoccupation of Severodvinsk Yard with submarine

construction does not seriously handicap the Northern Fleet

because its proximity to the. major shipbuilding center in

Leningrad and the existence of inland waterways, which facilitate

the distribution of ships among the other two fleets in the

European part of the USSR. A major Soviet submarine building

yard, (Sormovo) , lying deep inland, used to ship newly constructed

submarines in section by railroad. At present, the yard is

connected by the system of inland waterways with three European

Soviet Naval Fleets.

The sectional method of ship construction, mastered in

the 1930' s, received wide application in the post-World War II

development. Later, a large block construction method was added

which permitted the construction of large ships far exceeding the

I

capacity of a building way, through the joining of blocks while

afloat. In the late 1940 's, the riveted method of hull

construction was rejected completely. The advanced technology

x
"13
of the full construction resulted in a 30% reduction in the nuiaber

of workers involved in the process, while doubling the output.

*

13
Shipbuilding No. 4, 1970, p. 3

330
"'wnimii
 The deadweight of Soviet built ships is being constantly

increased. A series of Kazbek-type tankers of 11,800 DWT, built

at the beginning of 1950' s, was followed by the Praga-type with

'

doubled deadweight and Sophiya-type whose deadweight reached

49,000 tons. Today, the tanker MIR of 150,000 DWT is under

construction. During the decade of the 1960's rather large and

sophisticated war ships of the Kynda, Kresta, and Moskva classes

were also built.

A degree of ingenuity and innovation was also widely,

exercised in the field of propulsion. In the first half of the

1950 s as a result of a lack of large powerful marine diesels,

f

smaller diesels were employed in electric-diesel propulsion

systems. A typical ship for such a system was Dneproges laid

14
down in 1954. Existing and slightly modified steam turbines

were also employed for merchant ship construction. A dry cargo

ship, Pariskaya Kommuna, built largely on an experimental basis,

was fitted with gas turbine of 13,000 horsepower. The vari^le

pitch propeller found wide application aboard Soviet merchant

ships. The speed of many Soviet merchant ships, particularly

dry cargo ships, was raised to 19 and some to 22 knots. The

application of automation, particularly to control the main

machinery of the ships, started at the middle of the 60' s and is

14
Shipbuilding -No. 5, 1971, pp. 45-51.

391
presently being widely expanded. The search for and experimentation

with new types of ships, such as katamaran, hydro-^foils and

i

air-cushion is continuing; number of ships built on new principals

are already being widely used by the Soviet merchant marine and

river fleets.

The importance of the Soviet shipbuilding industry was

recognized by the opening of the new permanent "Shipbuilding"

pavilion in 1967, at the Soviet Exhibition Fair in Moscow,

VDHKH, where many new and progressive methods of shipbuilding -

were proudly displayed. The wide application of new materials

including plastics in Soviet shipbuilding was evident. The

Soviet Government's support of the shipbuilding industry also

can be illustrated by the fact that each launching of a new major

merchant ship is widely publicized and treated as "a victory of

the labor".

Research and Development

The successes of Soviet shipbuilding industry would have

I

been impossible without a powerful support received from various

research and development institutions as well as the maritime

educational establishment. In addition to several dozen

scientific research institutes and design bureaus subordinated

to the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, there are a number of

332
scientific research institutes and design bureaus which are

subordinate to the Soviet Navy and which contribute to the

t

various fields of shipbuilding in a very substantial manner,

particularly for ship propulsion including nuclear systems. The

educational institutions, such as marine engineering institutes

and various navigational nautical schools are annually turning

out a considerably greater number of graduates (marine engineers

and naval architects) than any other country in the world.

The scientific research efforts in the area of shipbuilding

is coordinated by the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Institute

for Complex Transport Problems. The major shipbuilding research

centers are located in Leningrad and Moscow, but the centers in

the Gorki, Black Sea, Kiev, and Soviet Far East areas are also

important. Among the best known Soviet scientific research

institutions are the following: Central Scientific Research

Institute of Merchant Fleet (TSNIIMF) ; Central Scientific Research

Institute imemi Academik A. N. Krylov; Central Diesel Scientific

Research Institute; Scientific Research and Project - Design

Institute of Sea Transport, Sousraorniiproekt; Central Design *

Bureau, Baltsudoproekt; and the Leningrad Central Project -

Design Bureau., The contribution of the Scientific Research

Institutes, subordinated to the fishing industry and river transport,

333
 15 I

have also been considerable.

Over 200 scientists with Doctor of Science and Candidate

i

of Science degrees are working for two leading research institutions

of the Soviet merchant marine, Souzraorniiproekt and TSNIIMF.

In addition, more than 50 doctors of science and 400 candidates

of science are working for the higher educational institutions

of the merchant marine. Research work is also done by a number

of central project-design bureau and more than 30 specialized

16 ^
institutes of shipbuilding and other industries.

The Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute is the largest Soviet

educational institution directly connected with the Soviet

shipbuilding industry. The institute has 44 departments, and

during the period of 1946-1967 graduated more than 12,000 marine

architects and engineers. It was organized in 1902 on the

initiative of the Soviet academician and ship builder, A. N.

17
Krylov. A number of Soviet universities and poly-technic

institutes have their own shipbuilding departments; the better

known among them is the shipbuilding department of Gorki

7
Poly technical Institute, organized in 1920.
!

The department mainly

1

15 '

Central Scientific Research Institute of Merchant Fleet,

Transactions Vol. 133, Leningrad, 1970.
,

16
Morskoy Flot No. 7, 1971, p. 3.
17
Shipbuilding No. 8, 1970, pp. 7-8. /

! /

394
associates with shipbuilding yard Krasnoye Sormovo in Gorki,

and many of its graduates have occupied the leading positions

t

in the yard. Among the recent contributions of the research

work of department were detailed research on hydro-foil and

18
air-cushioned ships.

Some of the works by Central Scientific Research Institute

of Merchant Fleet demonstrate the scope and the influence of the

'

Soviet research institutions upon the decisions made regarding

shipbuilding and general development of the merchant marine. — ^

The basic work for the typification of fleet and the selection

of minimum necessary number of types of ships was done in the

19
institute in the late 1920 s and early 1930 s.
f
Immediately
f

after World War II, the world shipbuilding experience in construction

and exploitation of merchant ships was summarized and analyzed.

The problems of typification and the selection of the appropriate

technical - economic parameters of ships were among the main

outcomes of the study. During the 1947-1952 period optimum

typification of ship, the so-called "Network of Ship's Types",

was recommended and included eight classes of dry cargo ships,

five classes of tankers and a number of other ships. A 1955-1956

18
Shipbuilding No. 6, 1971, pp. 61-64.
19
The institute programs are described in its Transactions
through a number of years. Particularly descriptive for this
purpose is Volume 133, Leningrad, 1970. * .

3S5
study resulted in selection of the optimum limits of propulsion

units for various ships and the recommendations to increase

i

the deadweight of constructed tankers, which resulted in the

20
decision to build the Sophiya class tanker.

During the 1958-1962 period, the institute worked out a

plan of general prospective development of sea transport for the

1959-1980 period. The recommendations of the plan serve as a

basis for further work in the designing and the construction of

larger ships with higher speeds, and further reduction in_the~

number of types of specialized and universal ships. During the

1961-1963 time frame, the recommendation for typification of

merchant marines of Comecon countries were worked out together

with the selection of types and basic ships parameters. As for

the 1971-1975 period, the accelerated construction and introduction

of fast dry cargo liners, container ships, and lighter carriers,

LASH, "capable of competing with any ships while working on the

international lines" was proposed and basic design of the ships

formulated.

The introduction of so called complex automation on the

i

new ships, which could result in a 15-20% crew reduction, was

i

strongly recommended. The measures to increase profitability of

i

the Soviet merchant marine, with emphasis on the efficiency: of

20 • /
Ibid ., p. 17. /
•
• . /

336
 on
container ization, were worked out
cargo handling devices and
merchant
sphere of activity of the Soviet
the assumption that "the
transportation of foreign cargo will.,
•

marine, especially in the

future
The more detailed plan for the
be widened considerably".
for the 1971-1980 period
was
development of the merchant marine
and
of ships, their parameters,
worked out, where the basic types
ship
were determined and the basic
the rate of their construction
increase in the proportion of
designs worked out. The further ^

and the further automation- of

narrow specialized cargo ships,
ships were recommended. The
diesel, steam, and gas turbines
in limited numbers was
not
construction of transport submarines

excluded.
measures proposed by the Soviet
Examining past programs and
ship-
research institutions and
comparing them with the actual

striking similiarities, especially

building performance produces
(usually five years) programs.
in case of shorter range
naval
design, shipbuilding, and
Each major aspect of ship
research institute There
development has its own .
weapons system
hydro-dynamics and ship construction,
are separate institutes for
missiles,
turbines, boilers, diesels, electronics, naval
welding,
design
weapons, etc. The observed improvement in the
underwater
their
growing sophistication of
of Soviet naval ships and
ships built for. merchant
weaponry, better' and more economical

337
i
i ii n... * . m n' i u
i i ii T ii
"

m mm mmm n w» *>«-
marine, fishing and river fleets, experimentation and construction

of new type vessels (such as hydro-foil and air-cushioned) are

i

testimony that the research resources allocated to the Soviet

shipbuilding industry are producing significant results.

Shipbuilding Methods Employed

Because Soviet shipbuilding yards were built at different

times, they can be divided, according to layout and production

facilities, into three major categories. The first category

is represented by the yards built prior to the revolution and

among them are the largest Soviet yards. They have variety of

shops capable of manufacturing all necessary items for a ship

under construction. Some of these ship yards have the Soviet's

oldest and longest (over 200 meters) inclined end launch building

ways. Two of these yards, one in Leningrad, and the second in

Nikolayev, have custom building capabilities in facilities and in

skills. They certainly meet the demand for small quantities of

individualized ships, such as complicated research vessels or

sophisticated naval ships.

The second category of the shipbuilding yards, representing

the largest group, are those primarily built prior to World War

II and designed to build naval ships utilizing the components

provided by supporting industries. Straight line production flow •

398
i i i ii i
in iii )» » iijrJii
'
*» iii» i »i'ii .» ^» w) wHi, < i *^***^
i
i
 building positions, and each yard
is utilized in enclosed, level

has a ship dry docking capability. \

ship yards built or

The third category is represented by
most modem design
modernized after World War II, yards of the
practices. Many of ship
employing most productive production
commercial shipbuilding.
yards in this category are used for

It is standard practice of the

Soviet Ministry of the

assignment of the construction

Shipbuilding industry to limit the
yards as possible and thus to
for each class of ship to as few
from specialization,
gain the greatest possible advantages
Often, the development
standardization, and series production.

of a particular yard has been

planned with a specific shipbuilding
programs
program in mind. Those yards engaged in major production

in such a way as to assure a

are designed, arranged, and tooled
a particular ship type.
smooth flow of series production of
shipbuilding programs and the
The central planning of the
materialization provides
production processes 'involved in their
involves a design process with
for increased standardization and
production. Highly specialized
a major goal being to facilitate
vicinity of or nearby the .

design bureau usually located in the

j

a given ship type which

shipbuilding yard are assigned to design

will be produced by the yard.

shipbuilding yards have
The majority of the Soviet major
/

399
mm^"^****mU*mm*r*'m**m<mrrm'mi i
h i
.h w h.hu
i
. i m. -jww
well spaced and conveniently located shops for fabrication,

sub-assembly and machining, employing varieties of conveyor

systems, transversers, and other devices. Some of the production

lines have been automated. The automation mainly involved steel

plate processing, fabrication, sub-assembly, and material transport

Practically all machinery is Soviet designed and built.

Some hot cutting machines are operating on a photo-electric

cell principle, and others are controlled by computer. The

Kristal hot-cutting machine has three modifications, one of

which employing plasma-arc cutting, or oxygen cutting. A number

of Soviet shipyards have mechanized the welding of joints and

framing connections. The automation of production processes

resulted in a considerable reduction in assembly and welding

time, and increase in output per square meter of working space.

The advantages of automated and improved methods of processing

and fabricating steel are further utilized in a number of methods

for hull assembly, resulting in cutting down building way times

and thereby increasing the number of ships turned out without

increasing the numbers of ways. Complete hull section assembly

method worked out a long time ago for construction of submarines,

is widely being used. A some-what modified method employs the

so-called "block technique". The hull is divided, for example,

into nine blocks, which later are assembled into sections at

4C0
"» i h ii. i «
 three positions (each section
is assembied fro™ three
blocks).
Later the sections are transferred
to the finaX hull assembly
line where they are joined
together and launched. By using
these methods,, the production
cycle of BMRT Mayakovskii was
21
reduced to 3.5 months.

Another sectional construction

method called the "Island
Method" is employed for
construction of larger ships.
The hull
is divided into blocks,' or
. islands. These islands are
constructed
simultaneously on the building "
ways with sufficient space
-between
them for the installation of
machinery prior to final assembly.
The complete utilization of
building ways working space is
achieved. Several variations depending
upon a number of islands
exist for this method. For
example, the three islands
variation.
requires a building position
long enough for a complete ship
Plus an additional island.
Generally, the process starts
at
the head of the building
way with the formation of a
stern, island.
When the completed hull
that shared the building ways
with the I

stern island^ launched, the

stern island is moved to the
(foot
of the building way. The
second, the mid-ship island, is
built
and joins the completed
stern island, and simultaneously
the third,
the bow island, is being
built, and connected with the
mid-ship
island. Meanwhile, another stern island
is started at the head

21 I
j
Shipbuilding No. 1, 1970.
*
/

i
/
i

401
of the way, and should bo completed by the time the bow island

is joined and the completed ship launched, after which the

entire cycle can be repeated. Employing the three islands -~^^

method the construction time of the tanker, Geroi Bresta, was

22
cut from seven months to 3.5 months.

Another method of hull assembly presently being widely

introduced involves the launching of two separate whole sections

which later are joined together afloat. First introduced at

the Rybinsk Ship Yard while building a bulk carrier for river-sea
23
navigation, the method is presently employed in construction
24
of much larger ships, including tankers.

Most Soviet ships are built on level ship-assembly positions

from which the following launch methods are used:

a floating launch dock;

a controlled launch/ship transverser-fed facility;
a floodable basin/building dock combination;

All methods have a built-in ship retrieval capability. The

floodable basin/building dock combination includes building docks

which are connected by water-tight gates to a floodable launching

basin that has access to navigable water through another set of

22
Shipbuilding No. 12, 1970.
23
Izvestiya , 16 October 1969.
24
Shipbuilding No. 12, p. 8.

HC2
water-tight gates or caissons. Each building dock is equally

suitable for single, large hull construction or multiple, small

hull production. When construction is completed, the gates to

the dock are opened and the ship floats into the basin. The

level of the basin is then adjusted to that of the estuary.

After that, the outer gates of the basin are opened to allow

the ship to be moved to the fitting out area. In multiple hull

production, the dock gates are opened and the completed" ship

or ships are rolled out dry into the basin, leaving the uncompleted

hulls behind. The dock gates are shut, and the launching basin

is flooded to enable the hull to be floated to the deeper portion

of the basin. Then, the deep basin water level is adjusted to

the level of estuary and the new hull is moved through the gates

for fitting out.

The geographic ___location of the majority of the Soviet

shipyards requires weather protection and themajority of the

shipbuilding positions at major Soviet yards are enclosed in

heated buildings. A device permitting conventional method hull

painting and creating a sort of micro-climate on the floating

25
docks was introduced in Zdanov Shipyard in Leningrad. The

device, through a system of ducts, distributes hot air with

controlled temperatures through the working areas as well as

25
Morskoy Flot No. 6, 1971, p. 7.

403
1
-rn^-irnr-iTi«titifm«»iM»r»mii— imiihi.mhi tun in
- '
'- '"•"''" "" ""'
I-
along the ships hull, creating better working conditions and

permitting paint drying during the winter. l

Propulsion Systems and Their Development ^~~^--

The continuous reduction in the cost of maritime

transportation, primarily resulting from the increased sizes

of ships, improved propulsion systems and the automation (resulting^

in the reduction of crew size) will take place in the future as

26
well and apparently along these same lines. •— ^

The reduction of hull resistance can also bring remarkable

improvement. The bulbous bow has brought with it, in recent

years, a marked saving either in power needed to propel a ship

of certain displacement, or in increase of speed. But in principle,

the problem is one of converting the flow around the ship's hull

from turbulent to laminar.

Friction resistance can be eliminated by creating an air

cushion between the ship's hull and the water surface, or by

using hydro-foils which lift the ship's hull out of the water.

But both methods suffer from a serious shortcoming, for they

26
Shipbuilding No. 4, 1968, pp. 11-15. Very interesting
and revealing discussion of this problem can be found in " Shipping ,

the Next 100 Years ", J. and J. Denholra, Ltd., 1967, and The
Journal of Commerce and Shipping Telgraph, 1967, 18/1, # 43393.

404
require a very high-power output to remain underway (approximately

half of the main propulsion power generated by hoVer-craft is

expended in creating the air cushion, while speed has little

effect on this power) . A hover-craft making 60 knots requires

100 horsepower per ton of weight, whereas a modern displacement

ship making 22 knots, requires only two horsepower per

displacement ton.

At the present time, the great majority of ships are driven

by diesel or steam turbine. Diesels are used almost exclusively -

when low and medium power is required. The steam turbines have

been used when high power was required. The recent years have

witnessed more and more diesels entering the high-power field.

If, in the early 1950's, 10,000 HP was the limit for a diesel,

today the limit approaches 50,000 HP, meaning that one engine will

develop all the Power a propeller can absorb.

In contrast to diesels, maximum power for the steam

\

turbines has never been a problem. Steam pressure in steam

I

turbines presently are around 40 to 60 kg/cm and the temperature

is 460°-500 <7C.
/ The thermal efficiency of steam turbines is
i

not as high as that of diesels and presently is in the average of

j ,

25-27%. In certain cases, it was increased up to 30%, when steam

2 o 27
pressure is 70-80 kg/cm and temperature 500-510 C.

27 /'

Shipbuilding No. 4, 1968, p . 14 , I

i
/

1*05

Wffwtw.iBWim.IM —r**jm&*t*&* " —

... > " -•^—mt~t~ mm i*f frf " - »i » » »«»-
 The gas turbine might be a good propeller drive. There is

no problem with feed water or with condensers, bat partially

because of a still low quality of fuel, the efficiency of gas

turbines are in neighborhood of 30-32%. More technologically

advanced gas turbines using better fuels can probably raise the

efficiency to 40%.

The existing atomic reactors use a very small percentage

of the energy hidden in the atomic nucleus. The breeder reactors

are more promising. The energy obtained in the atomic reactors

can be used in steam turbines or in closed cycle gas turbines.

If and when the way to obtain electrical energy directly will be

discovered, it would result in the most efficient propulsion

system. Such has been the general trend in the improvement of

various types of ship propulsion systems.

Diesels

The first diesel was produced in Russia at the beginning

of the last decade of 19th century by Russky Diesel Plant,

where the production of diesels continues. However, while producing

a number of diesel types for the various modes of transportation,

the production of large powerful, contemporary marine diesels

did not start until the beginning of 1960 s when a technical

f

assistance agreement signed in 1959 with Burmeister and Wain

40S
(Denmark) provided the Soviet Union the license to build the

famous B & M marine diesels. The production was organized at

*

the Bryansk Plant.

Prior to World War II, Russky Diesel produced DKRV 65/69

diesels of old design with 1,900 - 2,400 HP output, and 110-125

rpm respectively. During the decade of 1930's production of more

modern diesels, DKRV 68/120 type with 1,800 - 2,700 HP output

and 100 rpm was organized. Another plant, Kolomensky, built

28
less powerful diesels. After the World War II, diesel propulsion'

plants for the Soviet built ships were designed on the basis of

diesels manufactured by Russky Diesel of the following types:

6 and 8 DR 30/50 with 600 and 800 HP output (300 rpm) , 8 DR 43/61

with 2,000 HP output (250 rpm) as well as universal industrial

diesels, D 50 of 900-1,000 HP and D 100 of 1,800 HP.

The low power output of the Soviet built diesels presented

the shipbuilding industry with considerable difficulties. A

number of diesel-electric plants with 7,000 HP were designed and

29
built. The diesel electric propulsion plants utilized the output

of 2-4 diesel generators through a powerful electric motor driving

the shaft. This type of propulsion plant permitted the Soviet

28
Shipbuilding No. 11, 1967; pp. 31-37.
29
Ibid. , p. 16.

407
- l -•-• -~..*W-*M«*»M-.«-,.-«~ .~W^-»- .^ .t., ^^^,--
 of
(reinforced for ice navigation) class
Union to build the UL
areas.
ships needed at the northern ,

marine diesels (674 VT^

The B & W low revolution powerful
74/160, and DKRN 50/110) whoso
2BF - 100; Soviet code DKRN
Plant in 1961, played a very
production was mastered by Bryansk
3° motor ships are,
important role. The majority of the Soviet
and ships over 15,000 tons
propelled by foreign built diesels,

using them exclusively. Many of these "foreign built"

nave been
rem
by Poland, (under licensing^
diesels are being manufactured
-
Denmark Sulzer - Switzerland, and M.A.N.
Burmeister and Wain ,
,

West Germany) and Czechoslovakia.

marine diesel of the Soviet
The first powerful 9,500 HP

design was built by the Bryansk

Plant in 1969. " In 1971, the

the first
unknown origin was built for
21,000 HP marine diesel of
32 without
-,.,„+ It fair to conclude that
Tt is lair
time by the same plant.

deliveries „-e jio^K

of the Soviet merchant marine
diesels, xne
the foreign

3°Soviet Government permission

diesel apparently was
to buy the
notobtaiued.ithou a strong
^f^J^es
intervene

S^^S&^^VbS Lk £J. --^ration Pla.

TZLtt*?X^~'£ESZ r/dieTels",

31
Prayda, 28 February 1969.
32
Izvqstiya, 24 May 1971.

408
i^—.—m^r^mm—» |
i « ii i n» m » hi
(84% of ships are diesel powered) would be hard pressed for

propulsion plants installations and many ships would either not

be built or the rate of the merchant marine growth would be

slower.

The naval diesel propulsion installations went through a

somewhat similar process of development. Of course, the naval

requirements have been of different nature as for the size,

power, and rpm. The demand for the reserve power have often

excluded diesel as the main engine on the combatants.

Initially in the late 1920's and early 1930's, slow speed,

four cycle, solid injection diesels of several sizes were

produced. They were used as main engines in auxiliary ships

and as generator drivers. Later on, two types of four cycle

diesels for naval installations were built. The first of these

were rated at 1,100 and 1,400 HP at 460 rpm and had specific

weights of 22.7 and 18.9 kg/HP respectively. The second type

was lighter (13 kg/HP) rated at 600, 800, and 1,100 HP at 600

Two cycle diesels with loop scavanging rated at 4,200

HP
rpm.
33
Serial
and 6,000 HP were also produced in the pre-war years.
was
production of the 30-D and its successor, 40-D diesels

organized. The 40-D engine rated at 2,500 HP had a two stage

33
Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1966, pp. 76-83.

4C9
/ .

! .— Ill H ill » ! II. ' M il »

super charging system. Compared with the 30-D, the 40-D power

was 25% greater, its fuel consumption reduced and it was 20%
34
lighter. A definite success in the post war years was serial

production of the Type 61 diesel, a two cycle, 6,000 HP engine.

The Type 61 diesel, having 1,200 hour service life prior to major

overhaul, can be used as a pure diesel or in combination diesel-

gas turbine installations as- a sustainer engine. The M-50

diesel designed by a Navy bureau have been produced for* many

years and is now widely used in the Soviet Union. This marine

diesel is produced in 1,000, 1,100, 1,200, and 1,500 HP sizes.

Power changes are provided for by stepping up rpra and super

charging. The specific weight of the M-50 diesel is 1.4 - 1.7

kg/HP.

The big success for the Soviet diesel builders was the

development in early or middle 1960's of the M-503 diesel, which

have been in the serial production and widely used by torpedo

'
j *

boats, fast patrol boats, and light combatant ships. The M-503
I

diesel is 42 cylinder, 7-black star with 6 cylinders in each row.

It is equipped
/ with reverse reduction gearing and is produced in
I

several modifications. The main modification develops 4,000 HP

I

and has a specific weight of 1.35 - 1.63 kdg/HP. The specific fuel

34
Ibid. , p. 79

! /

410 '.;
 is not exceeds
in the power range from 10% to full
consumption
value is 158) The K-5C* i.
grams/HP/hour (the opting
.

lW
,1th driving turbo-super
charger and has ._
four cycle diesel
operation at maximum
permissible time of continuous
limited
of many
basic characteristics exceed that
power. The.engines
ic n?iat 560 MB-518
(Fiat 5bu, ws Mercedes Benz,
foreign designed diesels

24WZ Mitsubizhi) .

Systems -
Steam Turbin ° Propulsion
...

Soviet merchant *lV» taW *b»V

If the majority of
been
Soviet major combatants have
propulsion, the majority of
revolution.
systems. Prior to the
using steam turbine propulsion
demands
plants could not satisfy the
Russian built steam turbine
installations were imported.
of the Navy and many
turbine propulsion systems
The first Soviet built steam
escorts,
1920's and early 1930's for
.ere developed in the late
destroyers
Many of the Soviet first
and for destroyer leaders.
Soviet
foreign built turbines. Later in the 1930's, the
had
steam
design and construction of
research work resulted in the
of Soviet built destroyers.
turbines for a second generation
design
version of pre-World War II
After the war a modernized
SKory Class
on Soviet Otlichnyi and
steam turbines were installed
steam
Sverdlov Class cruisers. ^ The
destroyers and Chapaev and

Ul
,rr~
, . _ i L .
jjn i
ii i.i
.

' ''
parameters of those installations were 27-32 kg/cm and

420-450°C.
i

Just before World War II, the destroyer Opytnyi (Experimental)

with very productive, but not manueverable once-through boilers

35
was built. The extensive experimentation with this propulsion

system continued after the war. During the test runs in 1947

and 1948, the destroyer Opytnyi developed speed up to 42 knots,

but the system, because of its poor manueverability , was found

unsuitable for the war ships and the experiment dropped. _

In the early 1950's, a new lighter, more economical and

raaneuverable system with partially automated controls was designed

for escorts (utilized on Kola and Riga Classes) . A two stage

reduction gear was used with the turbines. During the middle

1950's, a steam turbine propulsion plant, for the Kotlin class

destroyers, was developed. The further improvement in Soviet

built steam turbine installations dealt with the following: the

specific weight of the turbines, the condensers, and the reduction.

gears dropped considerably; the turbine blade periferal velocities,

rpm and load on the reduction gear increased. All this made

possible the reduction of the specific weight of the installation,

while almost doubling the power of the aggregate and simultaneously

35
The boiler was designed by Professor Ramzin, a well known
specialist, accused leader of so-called Industrial Opposition,
sentenced in 1932 to jail where the boiler was designed in the
middle 1930' s.
'

/
 increasing its efficiency. The auxiliary mechanisms and'

Obviously, the best

heat exchangers were also improved.
i

selected for nuclear

available steam turbine installations were

powered submarines of the Soviet Navy.

turbine propulsion plants
The task to develop suitable steam
aboard of large dry cargo
for serial production and installation
37
tankers was set up in 1954. Such installations were
ships and
of Sea Transport during
developed by Central Research Institute
on Leninsky Komsomol class .

the 1955-1959 period and installed

tankers, and in 1963 on the tanker
dry cargo ships and Prage Class
2
this installation are 42 kg/cm
Sophiya. The steam parameters of

and temperatures 450-470°C.

Demands for the steam turbines with
2
parameters up to 80 kg/cm and temperatures up to 515°C
higher
during the 1971-1975 period
have been made and their development

should be expected.

36 of some .Soviet boilers

For the specific characteristics
Sbornik No. 7, 1966, pp. 76-83.
and steam turbines, see Morskoy

^Shipbuilding No. 11, 1967, pp. 31-37.

1413
'
« j i. w— m i ' " mn H
' 'i.
 Gas Turbines

The necessity to build a propulsion system combining the

advantages of the turbine and the simplicity of using the opefi^-

heat cycle, i.e. the gas turbine, was well understood in the

Soviet Union even in pre-World War II times. As was also the

case in the other countries, the research and design work for

the creation of marine gas turbine propulsion system were

conducted in the middle and the end of 1930' s. The Soviet Navy

designers, particularly the group headed by Engineer-Captain First

Rank Professor G. I. Zotikov, worked out the theoretical

fundamentals, and certain design principles, for the naval gas

38
turbines.

The gas turbine advantages in the use as a main propulsion

engine or additional engine' (a sort of booster) are in the

following: low weight for large power in one aggregate; good

maneuverability and Immediate readiness to develop speed right

up to the limit; smaller number of auxiliaries; suitability for

a high degree of automation of all processes; simplicity of;

service.
>

After the war, research was conducted along two directions:

the utilization of the experience of marine steam turbine building

38
Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1966, pp.- 78-83 and Sudostroyeniye
No. 11, 1967, pp. 31-37

l*
—
w— ' '
^ ^»»w— m i min i i i »^^» .i. i i
41U
i p i
.i mp i .
pi.i. ^ i in m i
| i
hj i i mull i ii » Ll) |i ii , h
i iiiliii ii in i i ) i
n mi
and the adaptation of the experience of the aviation industry

where gas turbines produced a sort of technological revolution.

The aviation gas turbines were first to be used by the Soviet Navy

when they were installed as booster type engines on torpedo boats.

The experiments were conducted during 1956 and 1957. Soon, however,

better gas turbine were developed, built, and installed aboard

many Soviet Naval ships. During the decade following the initial
v
test, the power of gas turbines used by the Soviet Navy increased

approximately ten times, specific fuel consumption was cut 1.5

39
times and engine life was increased many times. At the present

time, many Soviet Navy guided missile destroyers, various type

escort ships (some in combination with diesels) , and boats are

equipped with gas turbines as main propulsion systems. The

Soviet Navy occupies a leading position compared with other navies

of the world in its use of gas turbine propulsion systems

(definitely quantitatively and possibly even qualitatively)

The research efforts for the implementation of gas turbines

^40
in merchant marine ship propulsion systems started in 1956.
/
The first Soviet gas turbine driven ships were the series of

Pavlin Vinogradov class timber carriers built in the early 1960's.

39
Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1966, pp. 78-83.
40
Transactions, Vol-. 133, p,. 41.

/
i

415
*^*'^*' ' P mi H n il h. iiii ium l,n I I i i .iii i i i>-.- i i
n» iw< i .i i , ^,» v n.li' > > » .. ~y
The French built gas turbine of approximately 4,000 IIP was used.

The first domestic marine gas turbine system, 13,000 IIP, }

GTU-20,

designed and built by Leningrad Kirov Plant was installed oh^dry

cargo ship, Parizhskaya Communa, and widely tested since 1968.

The gas turbines of the GTU-20 type are expected to be improved

o
to a point when gas temperatures of 900 - 1,000 C will be utilized
41
and specific fuel consumptions of 165-175 gram/HP/hour achieved.

Nuclear

Besides the fact the Soviet Union has several classes of

nuclear powered submarines, one ice breaker, Lenin, (built in

1959) and the Arktika Class larger ice-breakers under development

and/or construction, very little detail is known on the quality

of the Soviet nuclear propulsion systems. Some information,

however, generally dealing with chronological data and theoretical

considerations of the system application, particularly to. the

merchant marine, have been published. Accordingly, the first

ship nuclear propulsion systems were worked out at the beginning

of the 1950' s and from 1953 the Soviet Union began construction
42
of nuclear submarines. In 1956, during XX Party Congress,

41
Ibid . , p. 146.
42
Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1971, p. 18.

4-16
 academician I. V. Kurchatov argued for the necessity of having

a "wide open road for the nuclear energy application for tho
i

transport purpose" and that "the initiative of the engineers

43
and the designers of ship building industry" should be encouraged.

During the 1956-1957 period, the Central Scientific Research

Institute made an extensive analysis concerning the feasibility

and prospectives for applications of nuclear energy in the Soviet

,44
Merchant Marine. In 1968, in the Institute of Complex Transport

Problems under Gosplan, the plan for developing nuclear power in

maritime transport was discussed and' the necessity to develop

economical atomic power installations for merchant vessels,

1.5-2 times smaller and 4-6 times lighter than the first marine

nuclear installations, stressed. In general, marine nuclear

propulsion systems are already beyond the experimental testing

stage. However, as for the merchant marine application, the

widening of the sphere of nuclear power was said to be dependent

45
on the cost of the reactor, fuel, service and repair. Nevertheless,
|

it was concluded that the wide application of nuclear propulsion

system to the merchant marine is a question of the near future.

43
Shipbuilding No. 4, 1970, pp. 51-58.
44
Transactions, Vol. 133, p. 42.
45
Trud, 31 May 1968.
/

" " - »^t» i

urn — 1 I IWWIWW»WW"" W'
I II
'
'
'
m l. l ii , m m-rm: r*,-*->~mtm~
]
- -
-
The Central Research Institute tied the problem with the scope

of the application of nuclear propulsion systems / arguing that

widely applied experimentation with the nuclear propulsion »ystom,

even in the case that the systems will not be profitable at

46
the beginning, is needed.
47
Other Soviet specialists, while recognizing the lower

limit of economically effective application of nuclear propulsion

systems as being in neighborhood of 50,000 HP, have emphasized

that in the next several years it will be difficult for a nuclear

propulsion systems to compete with those of the diesel or steam

turbine. In general, the Soviet pronouncements concerning the

wide introduction of nuclear power in maritime transport up to

1968-1969 had been more enthusiastic then that they are today,

whereas the cost factor has been mentioned as a major obstacle.

Nonetheless, the specialized ships for the specific tasks and

certain geographical areas, seem to be under consideration and

may be even under development.

46
Transactions , Vol. 133, p. 146
47
Shipbuilding No. 4; 1971

418
 Automation of Propulsion Systems
l

The automation of propulsion systems is relatively' well

Little if anything is published concerning tl*« ftUtO»aU*»

advanced.

aboard the Soviet naval ships. However, already in the middle

plan of the Soviet

and late 1950' s, most of the propulsion
had various degrees^
escorts, destroyers, cruisers, and submarines,
sophistication
of automation. It is logical to assume that the

of the automatic devices have

been increased together with the ^
scope of their application. As for the merchant ships, the

in 1948. The steam turbine

TSNIIMF began to work with the problem
automated devices for
propulsion plant incorporating various
ships were the outcome
Leninskii Komsomol, Praga, Sophia class
,
48
of this work.
to achieve "complex
From 1958-1963 the efforts were directed
propulsion plants. A
automation" of steam turbines and diesel
maintenance of automatic devices
special system for the repair and
49
of Shipbuilding. The system for
„as organized in the Ministry
Inzhiner A. Pustoshkin, was
the first automated diesel ship,
for the
. worked out in 1963. The system served as a prototype

48Transactions , Vol. 133, p. 133.

49
Ibid., p. 115.

413
development of automated diesel propulsion ships (Novgorod

class) . A considerable degree of automation has been achieved

on the first gas turbine ship, Parizhskaya Kommuna.

At the end of 1960's the Soviet Shipbuilding Research

Institutes completed the study determining the "rational degree

of automation of propulsion systems" which presently serves. as

50
a guideline. In 1970 it was "stated that "in the USSR ships

of various types with completely automated diesel, steam turbine,

51
and nuclear propulsion are being designed and built". _
The scope of ship automation is being constantly widened in

the Soviet Union. The automatic stabilization system initially

introduced in 1955 to the Kotlin Class DD and since widely used

on many types of Soviet naval ships, has also been installed on

some commercial and scientific research ships. An automatic

transverse stabilization system installed on the scientific

52
research ship Akademic Kurchatov is typical.

An automated navigational system had been designed and

tested. A system for the automated electro-chemical protection

of ship hulls from the corrosion has been worked out, but no

50
Ibid. , p. 25.
51
Ibid . , p. 116.
52
Sudostroyeniye No. 9, September 1967, pp. 31-34

120
i
-— — ^
data was published concerning its practical test.

As of the beginning of 1971, the Soviet Merchant Marine

and one^of
had 15 motor ships with so called complex automation,

them, the Soviet built Svetlogorsk has an automated navigational

system in addition to the automation of propulsion plant.

Leaving aside the quality and reliability of Soviet systems

upon which they
of automation, owing to the absence of any data
quantative sense,
can be judged, it can be said that at least in
application of ship
the Soviet Union is among the leaders in the

automation.
has been performed
To summarize, a considerable research work

to determine the optimal types and sizes

of propulsion systems

for the Soviet ships. However, the selection of propulsion systems

the past World

did not always, and in early stages including
due to lack of
War II period, seldom corresponded to optimality
Quite often what
appropriate engines and in many cases boilers.
was installed. At the
is available instead of what is the best
and the concept
present, the situation has improved considerably
larger degree. Thanks to
of optimality is being applied to a

the upper limit of their

the availability of larger diesel engines

the end of 1950's and the

use was elevated from 10-12,000 HP at
the present. High
beginning of 1960 's to 20,000-25,000 HP at

pressure, super heated steam propulsion

systems were also introduced.

421
- - '
•""••" -
i , | | II
| I I
 The Soviet Union considerations and preferences relating

to maritime propulsion for the decade of the 1970*5, particularly

i

for the 1971-1975 period, appears to be reflected in the planned

deliveries of ships which are as follows:

Universal dry cargo ships (4.5 - 13,000 dwt) , timber

carriers (1.5 - 12,500 dwt) , refrigerators (5,000 - 10,000 dwt)

will have propulsion plants whose power will not exceed 15,000 -

20,000 HP.

Increased number of bulk carriers which dwt will reach

80,000 - 100,000 tons, but propulsion plant will not exceed

15,000 - 20,000 HP.

Fast dry cargo ships with speed of 23-24 knots and large
53
tankers of 150,000 dwt with propulsion power up to 30,000 HP.

The majority of propulsion plants (up to 90%) will not

require more than 12,000 - 15,000 HP, and, therefore it is clear

that the low revolution diesel will continue to be the most

• i

widely used engine. The steam turbine systems will be used on

large tankers and probably on some fast dry cargo carriers,'

including container ships. The gas turbine would most likely

continue to be used on a wide experimental basis.

The Soviet Union will definitely start the construction of

i

larger tankers, bulk carriers, container ships, LASH, etc. in

53
Morskoy Flot No. 2, 1971.
/
/

422
1WI»—I—WW » «><l l III
the near future, and the propulsion systems above 30,000 HP

would be needed, and gas turbine or steam turbine for theia have

to be developed. Most likely it will be the latter. In the^

more remote future, particularly the 1976-1980 period, the further

increase in power of ship propulsion plant is expected

(approximately 50,000 HP for one shaft ships and up to 100,000

HP for two shafts ships) . Power installations of 10,000 - 30,000

HP are expected for hydro-foils and 50,000 HP and more for

air-cushioned ships. The diesels evolution is not expected to

produce considerable increase in power output much above 50,000

HP and for this reason, it was proposed to concentrate research

54
on turbine driven systems: (a) steam turbines with intermediate
2
super heating and high steam parameters (80-100 kg/cm and

515-540 C with specific fuel consumption of 165-175 gr/HP/hour)

(b) gas turbines with prolonged service life and more economical

(about 175 gr/HP/hour) . Northern latitude navigation is viewed

as most favorable for gas turbines where the low air temperature

can help to achieve the most economical specific fuel consumption

of 170 gr/HP/hour and lower. In the more remote future, the gas

turbiue is viewed as the most promising. For the hydrofoils and

lir-cushioned ships it will remain the main type of engine; (c)

54
Transactions , Vol. 133, 1970, pp. 145-156 and Morskoy
''lot No. 2, 1971.
water cooled nuclear reactors for steam turbines capable to compete

with the systems on the organic fuel, where power output of 50,000

HP or more is needed. Power output of above 60,000-75,000 HP

is considered already suitable for nuclear propulsion.

Soviet Hydrofoils

The Soviet Union occupies the leading position in the

world in the varieties and number of hydrofoils produced. The

chief designer of Soviet hydrofoils and head of the Sormovo

Hydrofoils Design Bureau is R. E. Alekseev (the winner of Lenin

State Prize) . His story is quite revealing in the history of

Soviet hydrofoils designs and construction. In 1941, as a

graduate student of the Gorki Polytechnical Institute, he

presented the unusual graduation (diploma) design - a hydrofoil

boat. The war interrupted further development and Alekseev

was sent to work as an engineer at Sormovo Shipbuilding Yard.

The yard, in its term, soon was switched to tank production. In

1943, however, while the city was still being bombed by German

planes, Alekseev was ordered to continue work with the hydrofoil.

After prolonged experimentation and testing, the first Soviet

hydrofoil of serial production, Raketa, was introduced for Volga

55
and other river navigation in 1956. After the Raketa, 110

55
Pravda, 14 July 1971.

424
i n ——w."— i nn——pwwm i n .i u i. i
t H» »«i. ,|»ip| HI , > »> ,' i.l >i ^u .,.^. .—^»>.- ..«_.*. „-».
"
*
passengers Meteor, 300 passenger Sputnik, 150 passengers
'

Burevestnik, 50 knots Chaika, and sea-going 118 passenger

i

Kometa, sea-going 260 passenger Vikhr' were designed and built

in Sormovo. Other design bureau have also worked with hydrofoils.

In Leningrad, 12 passenger sea-going Nevka, 92 passenger Strela,

and 100 passenger sea-going Taiphun with automatically controlled

56
foils were built. Many Soviet built hydrofoils such as Vikhr',

Chaika, Burevestnik, were still (at the beginning of 1971) in the

stage of experimental exploitation and some were modified in

the process.

In 1970 the Soviet Union had five classes of hydrofoils in

serial production, and 150 passenger lines were served by them.

During the period of 1958-1968 the hydrofoils carried more than

57
30 million passengers. Recently, the Alekseyev Bureau designed

and built two more classes of hydrofoils - sea-going Voskhod,

58
and Tsiklon. The latter, instead of propellers, use water jets.

In May, 1971, modernized Kometa-M cruised from Yalta, Black Sea,

59 I

around Europe to Helsinki, Finland, with intermediate stops in

many major European ports.

Taiphun has two sets of engines and propellers - for slow

and high speed and special start foils.
57
Sudostroyeniye No. 4, 1970, pp. 37-41.

Pravda, 14 July 1971.

59 /
Vodnyy Transport , 20 July, 1971. /
 Air-Cushioned Vehicles
(ACV, Hovercraft) v

The idea of air-cushioned motion is not new. The ~-\^

theoretical consideration, some with great details, began to

appear in a number of countries in the 1920' s and 1930' s. In

the Soviet Union, the idea was first developed by K. E.

Tsiolkovskii. The initial work of Tsiolkovskii was continued

by Professor V. Levkov, from Novocherkassk Poly technical Institute

and since 1930, its director. The air dynamic laboratory of the

institute started to test a model of chambered ACV in 1927 and

later (1930) the test continued in the air dynamic tube. In

1933, a special design bureau headed by Levkov was organized

with the task of building and testing ACV. The first test of the
60
air-cushioned boat, L-l, was conducted in 1934. The L-l

developed speed of 135 kilometers per hour (over 70 knots) . More

powerful and heavier L-5, was built and tested in 1937. Both

L-l and L-5 were capable of riding over different types of ground.

Some more models of L type ACV's were built; the largest weighing

15 tons. A naval version of L type ACV existed and was tested

in the Gulf of Finland in the late 1930' s. The war interrupted

the work.

6Q Sudos troyeniye No.

7, 1971, pp. 55-56 and
Socialisticheskaya Industria, 29 November 1970, p. 4,

426
«I*>*i H »i I.< W— »tl
|| I —!»- .
- « .
 After the end of war, Levkov continued his work with

ACV's, but in addition to difficulties with design, the Soviet

economic situation, particularly the low level of technology

and lack of appropriate engines, did not warrant the success.

With Levkov* s death in 1954, the experiments discontinued. In

1957 an ACV of original design by a student at Gubkin Petroleum

College, G. Turkin, was built- but the test was never concluded by

the designer who died in 1959 overwhelmed by the problem.

The decade of the 1960's witnessed a number of attempts

to solve the problem by various Soviet agencies. The attempt

to develop Turkin 's idea was undertaken at the Chelyabinsk

Tractor Plant and its design bureau; it was a failure. The

same disappointment awaited the attempts of Volgagrad Plant, of

the Tsagi Research Institute and elsewhere under various

ministries and departments. By 1962, most of the projects were

discontinued because, according to the State Scientific Technical

Committee under the Gosplan, of "poor prospects for hovercraft

61
and low technical characteristics of the experimental models."
/ !

In 1963 the work on ACV v/as resumed at the NATI's Chelyabinsk

j

affiliate only to be dropped in three months time, whereupon, the

i

the USSR Ministry for Tractor and Agricultural Machine building

Komsomolskaya Pravda, 14 November 1967.

k21
^W* * " "
1 1 "! "« iwwwwwww»ww>— n» i p. j „ *<»« " t-*«*i|fB*, vr 4w«M. ww.p*** u >i m,im * "^ •lj?** » hwJ* *
> * •
* ***>> ! «— »* .
>•*-+*»» •*"»£>
 USSR Ministry for Chemical and
handed over the project to the
the work with
Petroleum Industry. In the mid-1960's, apparently,
a
be described by a single word,
ACT in the Soviet Union could
being very critical, appeared
mess. A battery of articles, some
for the urgently needed
machine (ACT) ,

in the Soviet Press arguing

and experimental work.
and requesting the resumption of design
machines" became quite a common
"Where are the air-cushioned
particularly professional
leader in many Soviet newspapers, "
were presented for the necessity
periodicals; and sound arguments

of building them.
Soviet ground transportation
The poor development of the
is commonly known. la Siberia,
system, particularly highways
fields are under intensive
Tumen' Oblast, where the oil
meters,
only .014 kilometer, or 14
development, in 1969 there were
there are
100 sq. kilometers (in India
of paved roads per each
is known
33 kilometers). Nearly half of Siberia's territory

swamps. The cost of 1 kilometer

to be occupied by impassable
The number
rubles to 1.5 million rubles.
j
.

of road is from 340,000

average
was 14 times as little as the
of roads which had been built
testing
Siberia was called the "ideal
for the country. Western
Even heavy
conventional road transport".
ground for grinding out
use;
wearing out after one year of
duty trucks and tractors were
discarded
the oil land, had to.be
special vehicles, being used in
/

428
J....,„„ -„„,„-- - ~«~ i
» **•*»• *".
after a few months service for broken carriers. Helicopters

were being used at an hourly cost ranging from 2*60 rubles (MI-4)
CO
to 1,700 rubles (MI-6) .
'

The river transport plays a very

important role in Siberia, but the rivers are frozen during the

winter from five to seven months. The cost of transport amounted

63
to 17% in 1959 and 26% in 1967 of the total cost of oil drilling.

Air-cushioned vehicles under the circumstances were found

even in the second half of the 1960's to be superior in every

aspect to the transportation facilities which were employed in

Siberia, and some even called ACV "singularly prospective and

universal under the circumstances". The passenger transportation

along the thousands of rivers does play an important role too,

and in many cases can be provided only by air-cushioned boats.

The ACV proponents recommended the creation of a united center

on hovercraft research which, in addition to experimental uork,

would have the production facilities as well. But for a while the

State Committee for Science and Technology under the Gosplan

I

and a number of ministries resisted the idea referring to 'the

fact that "up to now, the acceptable technological solutions

eliminating existing problems of the machine (ACV) have not been

62
Komsomolskaya Pravda , 28 February 1969
63
Ibid.

/
/

429
 64
Toward the end of
found neither in our country nor abroad".
of the ACV proved that not
the 1960's, however, the proponents

the idea, but the attempted ways

of its implementation were

for intensifying
defective and this was the strongest reason
At that time (1969)
the research and further experimentation.

the proponents had a good argument

supporting their battle and

use this in the following

they did not miss the opportunity to

statement claiming that: "our country is being considerably

reached abroad,
behind the contemporary level of ACV development
65 ..
in England", which the opponents could not easily
particularly

refute, for more than technological the

matter now could easily be

prestige and,
interpreted from the position of international

hence, acquired a political overtone.

No one in the Soviet Union

suddenly, the green

could dare to ignore such a factor and,
future "discovered"
light for the ACV was open and its bright
bureauocracy and the
at the top of administrative technological
recommended to
same State Committee for Science and Technology

the Gosplan "to include air-cushioned

ships in the plan of country's

the Ministry of
economic development", and also recommended to
measures for
Shipbuilding Industry "to undertake correspondent

64 Ibid.

65 Vodnyy Transport , 11 January 1969

430
«****S**wi5^.*--^ -~*"* * "•"
mp
'

i. ii i wii n <mim**<mm
 66 I

such sbips". The ACV

industrial production of a party of
"particularly promising type".
Sormovich was singled out as a
of
be emphasized that the arguments
in all fairness it should
State Committee, were not as
opponents, particularly from the
proponents of the ACV. First,
ridiculous as presented by the
though
the air-cushioned principles,
in overall, the research of
institutions and agencies,
not centralized and conducted by various
and a number of experimental
nevertheless was relatively extensive,
were produced (Neva,
models performing rather satisfactorily
leading
Raduga, Sormovich). Second, the technological solution

performing machine was not found and,

to the construction of well
not ready and capable to assure
probably, the Soviet industry was
air-cushioned machines.
argued mass production of the
proponents was probably
A powerful support to the ACV
have bad definite ACV interests,
given by the Soviet Navy which
the
during the Navy Day Parades in
and a number of models, shown
developed. The Navy's version of
late I960', and in 1970, were
the advance party of naval
ACV was used as a means to discbarge

infantry during an amphibious

operation and for other slmilir

purposes.
were designed, built,
The following air- cushioned vessels

and tested:

88
Ship buildin g No. 2., 1970.
/

431
!»1 ii i
i n. ' " ' " ' ' " '
"
 So rmovic h - first built iu 1965, 50 passenger, 100

recommended
kilometers per hour, is being viewed as promising and
\

for production; ...^

Orion - average speed 60 kilometers per hour, 80 passengers,

also recommended for serial production;

Gor'kovchanin - 50 passengers, slow, around 30-35 kilometers

per hour, but viewed as very promising and is

being produced

in large number. All the above ACV's are for inland water

navigation. The navy version, shown in Moscow in 1970, was a

naval
sea-going ACV with approximate capacity for a platoon of

infantrymen.

In spite of the obvious interest developed in the

Soviet

future, and
Union toward ACV of a rather conventional type, the

hence long term research orientation is viewed to

belong to the

referred
other type of "flying vessels" - "ekranoplan" (thereafter
vehicle).
as skimmer, surface skimmer system, wing-in-ground
and
The interest in such a system both from the Soviet Navy
expressed in
Merchant Marine has recently been clearly evident and
pry
1

the Soviet specialized literature. The various countries ,

including the Soviet Union, research efforts so far

clearly

indicated the two design approaches to the problem's solution:

Belavin, Ekranoplany Sndostroyeniye 1968;

N. I. , ,

August
Shipbuilding No. 3, 1971, pp. 14-21: Xrasnaya Zyezda, 21
1970.

ti
32

"""- "
'
'
" '
' ' " ' ill 11
" '" ii»»iin ii« rm wn
i n ,
'

, 'i m... h i- . m. n .M.1. ii un i m .i iii juj i iii i i mww — i. vn ,

 vehicle, with which
(a) "wing" (flying wins, wing-in-ground)

research efforts have been associated,

the overwhelming majority of
Institute of Engineers of^
including experiments of the Odessa

Merchant Fleet, and (b) fuselage, of which the Airfoilboat

68 designed
X-112 is typical. Most of the wing-in-ground vehicles

the Katamaran principle, and

so far followed to a large degree
floats on the ends. Presently,
have a carrying wing with two
of the skimmers are apparently
the aero-dynamic characteristics
plants used, are keeping down
low, and, combined with the power

knots) But the ACT requires

the speed achieved (about 50-80
.

of the same mass and

three times more power than a skimmer
considerably higher than
speed. Moreover, the skimmer speed is
the start, during which
ACV. The major problem is presented by
because of it's air-hydro-
all the above advantages of skimmer,
reduced. The hope for the
dynamic qualities, are substantially
of speed (from 100 to
skimmer use in a rather broad spectrum
only 20-70 HP/ton (presently
200-300 knots) and ranges, requiring
HP/ ton) was expressed. If on
existing skimmers require 75-380
all of an ACV cargo capacity
would be
a distance up to 2,000 miles
would be able to carry 500
used for fuel, a skimmer in addition
69 skimmers useful
tons of cargo. With the increase in size, the

- 1969/1970
Dane's Surface Skimmer Systems 1968/1969
69
Shipbuilu.ing Ho. 3, 1971, p. 20.

4v30

^w>^— t»»p m tm<mw mmt rnprnm m w i

www^.» '
w w r'*w"«'^"^>^-wr.^'^
«* —
load is growing considerably while required power per unit

of weight is diminished. The Soviet development along this

direction would be quite logical. The appearance of a satisfactory

model skimmer prior to the middle of the 1970's is unlikely.

During the current five year plan, the Soviet Union will produce

a number of ACV types, most of them rather small and suitable

only for passenger transportation.

Some Factors Determining

Designs and Construction

Often, while analyzing Soviet shipbuilding, conclusions,

concerning sizes of the ships built, are associated with the

availability of ani sizes of building ways, experience, and the

general level of the Soviet technology. While all these

considerations are certainly valid to a large degree, the economic

factor, the profitability of a ship the Soviet Union plans to

build, its suitability to the planned environment of operation,

are often ignored. However, it was found that all these factors

are closely examined by the Soviet specialist and the economical

ones are often adopted; the search for the optimality, taking under

consideration as many variables as possible, is often conducted

with the finding used in the decision making processes. A very

70
Morskoy Plot No. 7, 1971, pp. 3-5

434
i
'i n m**-w**cmm*imi>i*m* % m \*m » « * -w-««v . »m
>
*»»; r 7
. .
tw
,
-
a ,r, n,., , »'J» . #WLil\.»lW| 'l J Vlt» <*• *.» *-!-,rWI^MMfM
 demonstrative case is the Soviet Union's approach to tanker

construction and the composition of the tanker fldet. The

table below shows the economic performance of various sizes of

Soviet tankers and includes required capital investment and

operational expenditures determined on a concrete example of the

transportation of 1,000,000 tons of oil at the distance of 5,000

miles:

435
/

» ! » — -„ ,, i
,
„
-
,. -.. m*w .
i •- * -*• m ——»,»^ —
* , v in . ««— * y *** "*" "*^ i*+>-
1
 CO
d •P 0)
o d t-«
o
p oh
•H ,Q
3
d O -H »-• CO to •* t"*

P - • (O CO m< •<f

(4O -H fl
o
• • • •

«H O o «h a o t^ <0 lO
o o- o o -h iH
en O rH
•pd iH W O rH
w d a ©• -h
o
O H
«< «n
o -H» iO ^a
H
d
a
o d /-s
•H «H O «!
H -P O *H <D
00 m o lO
d d -p rH rH
o o ^
3 U P JlH^l
-H 3
CD
• * *
d O tfl Q>
^
d a o h *-»
a u <0 -_TF CO
< o CJ P«

•p (0
a •p

rH
a> (1)

O
d^
O W
\

d V rH -H
£j
O H sH "^ CM
P W rH tx, rH
O
e * •

©
*

•H H ,Q en "#
a > k «H 3
h
<* CM CM CM
d a o a
O m h
01

d
d O
ptj CO
o CO
•H
P d I

d CO
3 o rH
h o
O O
•P
m o o O o O a
d o «5 O CO O CD a
o * © C^ CM t> .c
•P
CO lO CO © ©
p rH *H
O cx>
•H
d 3 w
p -p
d
d O
•H o
a O
CO
n -p
© >
<u o lO
«H iH o »
a> d ••
a^
m *•<

co d
Ph

<D
•H
o d
b&
d
U d
d W /-v
a CO
•rt
+>
?J
w P XJ
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0) O O CM CO lO o
.1! d O
a a o O
d d
fc-< CJ ^»
CO

UoU
mm > * ».. > i'iwiP
 For a 25,000 dwt tanker fleet the cost of transportation

of 1,000,000 tons of oil for 5,000 miles is 7,190)000 rubles.

i

The 50,000 dwt tanker fleet reduces this cost down to 5,470,000

rubles, or by 24%. However, the corresponding increase in size

of 50,000 dwt tankers fleet to 100,000 dwt tankers fleet produces

71
considerably smaller increases amounted to 10-12%. All data

representing Soviet cost and are correspondingly valid only for

the Soviet tankers. Operational realities, i.e. ports {cargo

handling capacity, their sizes, depths, storage facilities,

inland transportation, etc.) and requirements of the line(s)

(availability of cargo flow, demand for it, their stabilities,

competition etc.) are factors (variables) considered by the Soviet

specialist in the selection of required ships and their number

to be constructed or ordered.

During the decade of the lS60's the size of tankers

delivered grew from 20,000 dwt to 50,000 dwt.

71 !

U. A. Gnatkov, Giants of the Ocean Roads , Znanie P.H.,

Moscow, 19 G9, p. 4.

437
 Cargo Power Speed Draft
rlass (Country of (knots) M W»)
Construction) Capacity (1,000 (

1,000 tons H.P.) m -

Velikii Oktyabr'
I5 -° y,y
(USSR)

19.0 7.8 15.5 9.2

Bauska (Poland)

20.8 12.0 17.1 9.2

Split (Yugoslavia) .

18.5 10.65
Warshava mwv\
(USSR) 30 5
ju.o 19.0

Leonardo DeVincbi 11 65
11.65
48.9 19.0 17.4
(Italy)

49.4 19.0 17.2 11.6

Sopbiya (USSR)

Source: M. A. Gnatnov,~op. cit., pp. 24-26.

Soviet tanker fleet was composed

At the beginning of 1969, the
or less cargo capacity;
of: about 20% of tankers with 10,000 d»t
capacity ships; and about 50%
about 30% of 15-25,000 Art cargo
72
cargo capacity ships. Meanwhile, the process
of 30-50,000 dwt

the world tanker fleet had

started
of average tonnage growth in
1950's. Most of the giant tankers
during the second half of the

i», tfe* fttlttuwtoe -^r^u^ (Crittli torn &*&&&** «* Jtoiftft****. feutf*

in the U.S.) were built in Japan:

Sinclair Petrole - 56,089 Tons - 1956

Universe Apollo - 104,520 Tons - 1959
Nissho Maru, 130,250 Tons - 1962
Idemitsu Maru, 206,000 Tons - 1966

72
Ibid., p. 24

438
II--"!*-"!,!.. I
- ' —~~.«~...---
.-..-.-.— >» li OT Xl U' l. | «»|H»»»»I»«.
 closing of the Suez Canal. With
This trend was accelerated by the

more than 50% of the oil imported by

Europe coming' from the Middle

found, and was. The answer

East, cheaper transportation bad to be

was even larger tankers with huge

capacities making it economical

to go around Cape of Good Hope

(approximately 11,000 miles) to

Europe or America. These tankers outgrew both the Suez and

Panama Canals. Even if previously announced plans to deepen the

tonners would be able
Suez Canal materialize, no more than 200,000
were
to navigate it. (In 1968, 326,000 tonners - Universe Island

and a plan to design

built in Japan, 400,000 tonners were designed

a 1,000,000 ton tanker was announced.) Such a trend, could not

help but influence the leader of the Soviet

Merchant Marine and its

subsequently
scientific- research and design institutions, and
construction
probably s, peed up the consideration for the larger tanker

favored. Even
Initially, in 1968, the 100,000 dwt tanker was
was selected, which
the name of the head-ship in the class, Moskva ,

design. However,
indicates the completion of at least preliminary
appeared arguing for
at the end of that year a number of articles
headline: "What the
a larger tanker and debates under the general
started. Among
new large tanker shall be?", lasting a whole year,
all branches
the participants were representatives of practically
and a number
of the Soviet Merchant Marine, shipbuilding industry,
Many meetings
of scientific-research institutes and design bureaus.

439
and conferences at scientific and technological councils of
\
I

various organizations., including the participation of hundreds of

officers of the merchant marine, designers and scientists, were

held. While tens of various conclusions and opinions which were

published indicated different approaches to the technological

details of the proposed ship, the same concerning the size and its

justifications were quite, and even surprisingly, similar.

Leaving the technological arguments aside, the arguments' of the

second group concerning the size can be summarized as follows:

- the tanker should be able to enter major domestic

73
oil ports;
_

- the tanker size and its draft should present no problem

in the passage of major canals (Suez, Panama)

- the tanker must be able to navigate through major straits,

particularly Bosphor, safely, without assistance from tugs and

interruption of other traffic;

- the ship should be able to profitably participate in

foreign trade, transportation of oil among domestic ports and 1

while being chartered.

The following arguments were submitted by the TSNIIM?:

73
The approved Souzmorniiproekt plan visualizes the
increase of guaranteed depths of many Soviet ports, assuring
entrance of ships with the draft up to 17 meters. Morskoy Flot
No. 12, 1969, p. 20.

MQ
^ In spite of the fact that giant tankers will definitely

be built during the decade of the 1970' s and will carry a

substantial portion of crude oil, there is no reason to expect

that they will represent the basic nucleus of the tanker fleet

of the future, because "they are vulnerable during the war "

(emphasis added - N.S.) for their low speed, poor maneuverability

and the huge target area they-. present for the submarine and

aviation;

possibility of catastrophic consequences in case of

accident (damage or wreck)

they cannot comply with the existing International Rules

of the Road (they are not maneuverable at less than five knots,

cannot be stopped in less than two to three miles and hence/

can do little by themselves to avoid collision in the event if

another ship is negligent)

they can be used only among few ports, which are specially

equipped and require a depth of not less than thirty meters;

the losses of time for any reason are too costly;

the construction cost, per ton of deadweight while decreasing

with the growth of tanker tonnage up to 300,000 dwt, with further

increase in size begins to increase (because the necessity to

assure longitutlnal strength, non-optimum coefficients dictated

by the desire to reduce the draft)

urn
v The institute draw the conclusions, that during the 1970' s,

the basic deadweight of tankers will be between 100,000 to 300,000

tons. Tankers with 125,000 - 150,000 dwt will have the advantage

of passing the Suez Canal being loaded, while tankers up to

74
250,000 dwt will bo able to navigate it while in balast.

At the end of 1369, the Collegium of the Ministry of

Merchant Marine considered the arguments, and "mainly, on the

basis of economic considerations", selected the tanker designed

by the group beaded by chief-designer, N. N. Rodionov. The

main characteristics of the tanker are as follows:

150,000 dwt (about 180,000 tons displacement);

propulsion plant - steam-turbine, 30,000 h.p. with the

reduction gear and variable pitch propeller;

speed - 16.5 knots;

dimensions - L=293 meters; B=45 meters; L/B ratio around 6;

draft 16-17 meters;

endurance - 20,000 miles (80 days);

unloading time approximately ten hours, considerable degree

/
of automation (machine watch - one man) and computerized navigation,
!

75
crew 36.

id
TSNIIMF, T ransactions , Vol. 133, 1970, pp. 60-63.
i

Morskoy Flot No. 12, 1969, p. 20; Nedelya No. 48, 1969;
Izvestiya 4 December 1969; Le n ing radskay Pravda. 1 January 1971;
, ,

Sovetskaya Possiya 21 February 1971; Sudostroyeniye No. 4, 1970, p.

,

18; Votinyy Transport January 8, 1971.

,

W2
 The design incorporates the typificatiou of general

solutions and larger variations of the tanker, in definite limits,

f

can be built after experience in building and service is obtained.

This would probably not happen before the second half of the

1970's. So far, the MIR will be the largest ship ever built in

the Soviet Union.

A similar approach has been taken in consideration of other

types of ships, particularly ore carriers. The Soviet Merchant

Marine, up to the end of the 1960 *s, in reality did not have bulk

carriers. Their role has been assigned to the universal ships,

76
such as the 23,000 ton Zvenigorod class. The first relatively

large bulk carrier, Baltika with 35,800 ton cargo capacity v/as

built in the Soviet Union in 1968. The larger bulk carriers are

presently being built and bulk carriers up "to 80,000 tons are

planned.

In the dry cargo ships category, the largest ship up to

the end of the 1950 's, was the American built Liberty class.
i

During the decade of the 1960's in addition to foreign deliveries

i

(14,150 dwt Omsk class - Japan; 14,480 dwt Beloretsk class -

Denmark; 12,375 dwt Vyborg class - East Germany) , the Soviet

shipbuilding industry built several classes of dry cargo ships:

76
M. A. Gnatnov, op. cit., p. 18 and 33.

;
'

H3
'
' '
ii !•» imwm*H*« i
in . m i
-
i n
 v Leninskii Komsomol - 16, 080 dwt
Bozhitsa - 12,640 dwt
Kapitan Kushuarenko - 15,768 dwt x

Slavyansk - 12,680 dwt *

*"*""--
all with speeds of 17-18.5 knots.

Both domestic and foreign built ships were produced by a

large series. The optimality concept, i.e. size, power, degree

of automation, determined by the concrete conditions of operation

with the goal to achieve maximum possible profitability, has been

77
fully applied.

In the never ending search for the improvement of various

modes of propulsion at sea, nature gives man a good indication

for optimality: among the many thousands of soa founa, none

lives permanently on the surface. At the present, there are

two general tendencies in the development of sea transportation

(the naval, carrying weaponry, should be included in such general

term) in order to increase speed and to achieve optimum utilization

of consumed power - to go up, above the surface, or down, below v

it - both clearly indicating the attempt to break away from the

service. Following the first principles, hydro-foils and air-

cushioned ships have been under development. As for the hydro-foils,

tens h.p.'s per each ton of its weight is needed to maintain it

above the surface and there is no noticeable decrease in the

77
M. A. Gnatkov, op. cit., pp. 33-35.

r
'
'"• -
'"
—"~»-*^
-'•— •„•„-
"^rr.rr.^.
'"""" "r„„
t
 increase in the, size of the
specific power requirement with an
of thousands,
hydro-foils. For the large hydro-foil ships hundred

and maybe millions horsepowers

will be required and the weight

of machinery and necessary

fuel will exceed many times the cargo

capacity of such ships. It is logical to conclude that the

be limited mainly
application of the hydro-foil principle will
not exceeding 1,000 tons
for passenger ships with displacement
speedy delivery of which is
or for small amount of valuable cargo,

required (including relatively light

packages of weapon systems

on board of naval hydro-foils)

promising situation,
A somewhat similar, although more
specific power
exists with air-cushion ships whose initial
much from the
requirement per ton of weight does not differ
weight of
hydro-foils. However, with the increase in size and
are diminishing,
air-cushion ships, specific power requirements
construction of
raising the expectation that in the future,
achieved.
relatively large air cushion ships can be
of sea transportation
The second tendency in the development
not
is more promising. To begin with, the submerged ships are
under more favorable
handicapped by weather, their propellers work
higher. The low
«
conditions, and the propulsion coefficient is
high speed in
speed submersibles are less economical than the

445
ii—n ""
comparison with the surface ships. The high cost of construction

of subnariae transports, particularly the cost of nuclear propulsion

systems and more complicated navigational equipment, coupled with

the absence of urgent need for high speed sea transportation for

the majority of cargoes, ai*e at the present the major obstacles

for wide application of submarine transports in the mercantile

practice. The situation, however, might be different 10-20 years

from now. Various pronouncements in the Soviet specialized

'
press give reason to believe that the Soviet shipbuilding industry

is working on the solution of submarine transport navigation,

particularly for certain areas such as Arctic, and for highly

specialized ships, such as the submarine tanker, and perhaps

the submarine container carrier. An original proposal for the

solution of the pi'oblem was presented by Soviet scientist U.

Plenkin (Nikolaev Institute of Shipbuilding) for which two patents

78
were granted. Even the construction of submersible fish catching

ships is not excluded in the future and the concept has been under
79 1

discussion accompanied by some drawings. As for the under the

surface submersible, in spite of the obvious attractiveness of

conventional power plant utilization and some savings in construction

78
Trud, 3 August 1968.
73
Shipbuilding No. 4., 1970, pp. 12-14.

/
1

446
cost, the large vet surface of such ships and considerable volume

of displacement requiring use of ballast greatly reduces the

propulsion advantages. In spite of the fact that the idea was^

80
discussed by the Soviet specialist, its application is doubtful.

In summary, the development of larger air-cushioned ships

and submarine transport can logically be expected by the Soviet

Union, and the appearance of .experimental ships of this kind

somewhere in the mid 1970' s would not be surprising.

The efforts of Soviet shipbuilding research and develop-

ment institutions is supported by a good experimental base which

includes some specialized ships. In 1968, a small 600 ton ship,

Issiedovatel' (Researcher) , made an equatorial voyage testing

various equipment in tropical climates. The results of the voyage,

according to a number of articles, exceeded all expectations and a

decision was made to build a "floating base for comprehensive

research Y/hich will permit sharp acceleration in the process of

introduction of new equipment to shipbuilding". Named Izumrud,

the ship was designed by Kherson Tskb (Central Design Bureau)

"Morsudoproekt" and built by the Nikolaev Ship Yard. The ship has

10 scientif ic-x*esearch laboratories, 27 research sections (groups) ,

and was designed to test main engine and auxiliary mechanisms,

80
Morskoy Plot Ho. 6, 1971, pp. 49-53.

n !— i
!-, »,, ii | i Ml W
, | |Hi||ni| H MW It^pw.! KWpij nn
.i I I >.. . | | «% «» » I
w
PUiiW XMn im^^MM/ . , |« ^W WJ WWI H J «| < »H I |I|WW F fii r^ » ****8W»lMgpMlg|
,
various electronic equipment, crew living conditions, vibration,

The ship the

new shipbuilding materials, structures, etc.
is.

only one of its kind in the world shipbuilding practice

known to

81
this writer.

The specialists of the Soviet shipbuilding industry

presently are often used to provide technical assistance to other

countries' shipbuilding industries. The methods employed can be

-
well illustrated by the example of Egyptian Ship Yard in Alexandria

a modern shipbuilding enterprise incorporating some of the

latest

achievement in the Soviet and world shipbuilding practice - built

with Soviet assistance. The assistance was provided by a group of

Soviet specialists from various enterprises, but mainly from Kherson

Ship Yard. In addition, the main effort in the assistance was

devoted to the training of Egyptian specialists and workers

through three methods: by sending them to the Soviet Union for

institutions;
training on the Soviet yards, educational and research

by organizing Alexandria's ship yard training center

with the

men
capacity to train 600 people per year; on the job training (350

were trained in 1969-1970) . With the participation of Soviet

ship)
specialist, the first ship Alexandria (13,000 ton dry cargo
82
Similar
was built over a two year period and launched 23 May 1971.

assistance has been granted to other countries.

81
N
c edelya No. 29, 1989.
82
Trud, 10 Junel971.
/

v. <j i...i ...... .-

... >. . »
< » - -
 Conclusions

The Soviet shipbuilding industry is centrally controlled

by the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry and builds naval,

merchant, fishing, river, and research ships. Historically the

Russian, and up to the middle of 1950' s, the Soviet shipbuilding

industry was heavily deviated toward naval construction with only

15-30% allocated for civilian* production. Starting with the

have been allocated

late 1950' s, considerable shipbuilding capacities

to civilian construction and the appearance

of a reverse trend is

unlikely. In addition to achieved levels of technology and

general and the

experience, the capacity of the Soviet industry in
crucial
shipbuilding industry in particular have been playing a

role in determining the output of the Soviet

shipbuilding industry

sense. The intensity

in a quantitative as well as a qualitative
in turn, has
and the composition of the Soviet naval construction,
systems,
been dependent upon the availability of weapons
for the
occasionally producing a temporarily available capacity

additional civilian construction. Orders abroad have been

fishing, and
crucial for the civilian, i.e. merchant marine,
I

important
research ship construction, and in certain times j

construction.
(particularly for propulsion systems) for naval
industries
Together with the Soviet Bloc countries, shipbuilding

of practically all European countries and Japan

have provided the
/'

443
*! ^ < PI
I
W^W»W
 deliveries of hundreds of various ships
Soviet Union with massive
(particularly in propulsion - dieseis) As a
and assistance
.

corollary to this, the

utilization of foreign yard capacities-

of a possible future over

capacity
seems to guarantee avoidance
powerful
industry. The industry has a
of the Soviet shipbuilding
supporting it. A number of
scientific research institutions
production technique, and
innovative methods in shipbuilding,
implemented. Future growth of
both
original solutions have been
production
should further stimulate the
naval and mercantile fleets
resulting in the construction
and experience of the industry

of better and more

sophisticated ships.

450

-. .., ,. . ,, i
— ~— .- » ». mim" m m * mn
i • ^mw < ~»-w
 !

CHAPTER IV

1
OCEANOGRAPHY

Introduction

Besides the number of geographical discoveries by, the

Russians, many of which were associated with

commercial under- •

the northern and

takings, the first Russian expedition to study
seas, the Great
eastern shores of the country and to describe the
and conducted
Northern Expedition, was ordered by Peter the Great
Around-the-world
after his death (1725-1730 and 1733-1743) .

voyages of the Nadezhda and Neva, under the

command of Kruzenshtem

produced
and Lisyansky (1803 and 1806 respectively) also
for the
oceanographic work which was of considerable importance

time |

Predpriyatiye
During the around-the-world voyage of the

(1323-1826) /the physicist Lents measured water temperature,

1 the terms
In the Soviet literature on the subject,
and
oceanography and oceanology are used interchangeably
Soviet
aresynonomous. The latter seems to be preferred by
scientists. :

/
-151

., .-I ,.,.,,.,„ „ ,«,.,.., ,

-
^~^- w>-«. .^www«w-„ ^-«.^
y
 2
salinity, and density. The famous scientific cruise of the

British research ship Challenger (1872-1876) had a considerable

influence upon the development of oceanography and especially the

Russian approach to it. The Challenger expedition, in effect,

established a methodical approach which has been used in general

up to the present time. The Russian expedition aboard Vityaz,

in which a young S. Makarov .participated, was the first Russian

attempt to follow it.

The collection of data and facts mainly through expeditions

is still considered to bo one of the major tasks at this stage

of development of oceanography. Up to the quite recent past,

hydrography and meteorology were the two best developed

disciplines, for they were in fact the ones needed most for

navigation. The level of development of science and technology,

particularly the latter, had been the major limiting factor to

the scope of oceanographic work. The growing world population,

increased industrial output, the scarcity of 'various raw materials,

the rapid development of sea transportation, military requirements

and man's unrelenting drive to discover the new have been the

major factors stimulating the development of oceanography.

After "tforld War II, particularly during the'1950's, it

2
Medvedev Suda dly a Is sledo vaniya Mi rovogo Okeana
,

(Ships for the Research of the World Ocean) Sudostroyoniye

,

Leningrad, 1371, pp. 215.

!j52
became clear that in addition to making the traditional ocean

surveys to produce maps and charts, including those of the bottom,

oceanography had to find, or help to find, ways to solve a number

of problems: a fresh water from the sea, which contains 96-97%

of all the water on our planet; power from the sea, where

considerable energy sources (waves, tidal, nuclear - deuterium)

exist; protein to feed humans and animals; extraction of

minerals from the world ocean, where they have hardly been

exploited at all (with the exception of off-shore oil) . In

addition to the 36 different elements claimed to found in solution

in sea water in quantities known to exceed those in land deposits

(gold, nickel, silver, molybdenum, iodine, etc.), the surface

of the bottom is covered with a layer of iron-manganese nodules

(concretions) , estimated by some Soviet scientists to total

o
•3
hundreds of billions of tons for the Pacific Ocean alone.

It was also claimed that the world resources of cobalt

on land are about a million tons. There are about a thousand

i

million tons of it in nodules alone. The most logical *way to ;

/ !

reach the mantle is from the ocean plateaus, where the earth's

crust dwindles to five-six kilometers compared to 35-40 kilometers

4
oa the continent.

Academician L. Zenkevich Th e Wealth of the Oceans ,

,

Nauka i Zhian', No. 3, 1967, pp. 16-22.

4
1 bid. •/

453
»«—r u n i ! mi v m*i u n,wm n 9n n m mmmn +m
v **<.< * *>**»,-,.. «>« " i
«. <*V^ --m » * *«»' «, P ,i M.H^rr***- *> * ^ r ^ ^.^.—.» — .—* «,-» «
, .
 The enormous effect of the ocean on the thermal conditions

in the atmosphere and, hence, climate is well known. By

comparison, the thermal effect of the surface layer of land is

negligibly small. On the other hand, the circulation of ocean

water depends to a great extent on the movement of masses of

air above the ocean. Many Soviet scientists call the climate

of the earth an oceanic climate. Man has started to explore

the expanses of both outer space and the ocean, inner space, at

nearly one and the same time , in the second half of the 20th

Century. It is safe to assume that the world ocean has greater

significance for the life of man than outer space.

The first International Geophysical Year of 1957-1958,

and particularly the second International Oceanographic Congress

held in Moscow (30 May - 9 June 1966) provided detailed information

on the scope of Soviet oceanography, and attracted world

attention to the Soviets' intensified efforts in the field.

During the Congress, the Soviet Union proudly announced the

creation of "the first system in the world which fully automates

the process of obtaining and processing oceanographic data right

on board ship". They refer to the new Soviet research ship,

Akademik Kurchatov. The reports by Soviet scientists on research

in the Arctic and the Antarctic dominated the Congress. Considerable

progress achieved by Soviet oceanography was evident in the

154
-.-.,,, m .„-,— , «, .„ , , .. ., , . .
.
-~-~«-»~ «mm.*>, -^~~« — -».^..»_ .~ .
relation to the Atlantic Ocean basin (particularly the- physical

oceanography of the Mediterranean, and the Black, 'North and Baltic

Sea), the Pacific Ocean arid, to a lesser degree, the Indian Ocean,

although the Soviet Indian Ocean expedition (starting with the

cruise of Vityaz in 1959) was among the first, if not the first,
5
to begin work in the Indian Ocean.

At the end of 1968, a U. S. Congressional source reported,

in somewhat alarmed tone, that in the Soviet Union "200-

oceanographic vessels are assigned to applied and basic ocean

research. Nine thousand scientists are utilized in a variety of

oceanographic programs". The continuing construction of new

scientific vessels by Soviet, Polish, and East German yards was

emphasized. The study also referred to the requirement for all

Soviet ships (naval, merchant, and fishing) "to contribute to

the country's overall oceanographic effort", a requirement as

old as sea navigation. One of the study's conclusions was

noteworthy; "The Soviets also have been in the ocean studies

business in a more serious fashion for a longer time than the

United States or its Western allies".

5
Morskoy Sbornik , No. 8, 1966, pp. 74-78.
6
"The Changine Strategic Naval Balance; USSR vs. USA",
Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives 90 Congress,
December 1963, U.S. Government Printing Office, December 1968,
Washington, D. C, p. 38.

t55
' — '
" * —~* ~ '.
-
!
>
.!, . ,. ». ,.
 Soviet oceanographers were the first to collect data for,

and to publish a detailed bottom map, of the Pacific Ocean and

to prepare basic data for a biological atlas of the Indian

~^
7
Ocean. Extensive writings in Soviet specialized literature and,

more important the Party and government press, arguing for the

intensified exploration of minerals and oil from the ocean, and

the directives of 24th Party Congress for the 1971-1975 plan,

setting tasks for the work on the Continental Shelf, are

testimony that the Soviet Union is on the verge of extensive

efforts to explore the ocean wealth.

The Soviet Union is already engaged in researching the

super-deep areas of the earth. More than 20 wells over 5,000

meters deep have been drilled. Preparations are underway for

drilling five 15,000 - 18,000 meter wells; one of them will be

8
sunk in the Kuriles.

Soviet oceanography will be considered according to the

following outline:

(1) The development and major work of Soviet oceanography;

j

(2) Oceanographic vessels;

(3) Underwater research and equipment;

(4) Research and plans for the exploitation of minerals

'Nedelya No. 11, 1971.

Science and Technology - 71, APN, 1971, Moscow, p. 21.

456
' i
i
« » i . . ., ... * *
•
 in the sea;

(5) Organization

The Development and Major Yfork

of Soviet Oceanography

During the first few years of Soviet power, the activity

of Soviet oceanography was, for obvious reasons, very limited,

and centered around hydrography. The desperate food situation

»

in the country generated the necessity for Kara Expedition of

1921, the success of which was assured by a well organized

hydrographical support. In 1922 the Soviet flag was raised

over the first scientific research ship, the modernized schooner

Persey, which became the center of the newly organized Polar

Floating Marine Research Institute (Plavmornin) ..

Naval (military) hydrographers, whose corps was established

in Russia in 1827, fox'raed the backbone of early Soviet work

which was performed mainly in the northern seas. During the

t

summer of 1920 they performed a series of current observations

/ i

in the Kara /Straits and Yogorskiy Shar. In 1923 a polar

i

The use
I

observatory on the shore of Matochkin Shar was opened.

j

of aircraft, in addition to ships, for ice observation began in

I

1924 along the track of the Kara Expedition. During the Second
i

International Polar Year (1932-1933) , rather extensive oceanographic

-

:
/

457
" *"' """»— " '

. ,, .ii . i. .„ . i
,--..., ,. , .„, , H— ~i .. m., ., m ~ -.. ."
'
. ,.«. .. I .. ; .^..^... ""Triii^r ."ir. 7- . - -, .,. , ,„,, ,. L
 .YUHCttV&ii "\ra-s ocmiiuotad. b.y; the Soviet Uaioa. The study of the

White Sea by naval hydrographers resulted in the publication of

two atlases, Tidal Currents , 1929, and the second on the

9
Ice Conditions , 1932.

Work in the Black Sea started in 1923, where the Black

Sea Oceanographic Expedition was organized and conducted its

work up to 1935. The promoters and the first leaders of the

expedition were well known Soviet oceanographer Academician Yu.-

M. Shokal'skiy and naval hydrographer (later engineer - rear-.,

admiral) V. A. Snezhinskiy.

In the Far East, oceanographic research started in 1924.

In 1928 the work was enlarged, and a joint expedition of Soviet

Navy hydrographers and the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by

L. F. Rudovits, was organized. The expedition, using two ships

assigned to it, made oceanologic stations in various seasons of

the year in depths between 3,000 and 3,500 meters. In 1932-1933

the Bering Sea party of the Pacific expedition made instrument

measurements of the currents in Bering Strait to determine the

water exchange between the Bering and the Chukchi Seas. In

1936-1937 the expedition made the first hydrological survey of

the entire Kara Sea.

9
fttorskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1967, pp. 42-50.

/'

/
/
U58
u 1 1 i ii
m i
n ii , — i hi i
, i
"

, V^ 7
,^ , - -
, xpeditiOTS in *. o— ——
— — -
-X
r
~
bAsan B

*-
oottl

surveys o, *.
hydrolo gical
oasis *»
importance in provide toe
rk „s
Tb o work was of 6great -^
Sea Route. The
forecasts w» Northern
t. along the •

began its .or, in Kay 1037 in the vicinity of

in
the
mW .

dri ft station

North Pole. the

Soviet oceanographers undertook
1030's
Dur ing the
,ave motion
of the coastal
-

ndwaves
.
waves, and surveys
study off wind
conducted.
in the Gulf of Finland were
Sea and d
in the Black
1
Soviet QnHats v. Makkaveyev
scxentxsts, .

II, two
prior to World War wxnd
d xn
in the theoretical study of
were involved
,

aud V. Shuleykin
has been
u
method f„r wave forecasting
for ,

oaves
waves, he Makkaveyev
Tine
sxuuy v-»-
actxon
-«'c
s ^vnerimental
exper
i
Shuleykxn
widely used since. of
employing a model
f wind on
waves. included
xnclude
,. a
a method

v>nc;in was built in

^"« _ ^^

„.«,« ... <=-«"- »»»• *" "°"' "

|

was widely used. ,Jwblv

^v^inded consxdeiaoxy
expanaea ^
observations «f tiaax phenomena
of tidal ?
The

1967, P- 46.
10 Mox^y^WnikNo. 7,
* i

\
/
\

453

^.. .W ,.! .!.

. ! ' .* „, ~~~«~-
resulting in the publication at tho end of the 1930' s of

tables and handbooks containing tho characteristics of tides

i

for all the tidal waters around tho Soviet Union. In 104

the Hydrographic Directorate of the Soviet Navy published lido

tables for all the oceans and seas in the world.

Soon after the war, Soviet oceanographic work began to be

intensified. In 1947 Soviet scientists began their work aboard

ships of. the Slava Whaling Flotilla during its operations in

the Antarctic. Almost 1,000 hydrologic stations were made in

Antarctic waters during the period 1947-1957. In 1943, the then

largest research ship, Vityaz, entered into service. In 1949

Vityaz operated in the Japan, Okhotsk, and Berlciug Seas. In

the following seven years, the ship made 3,500 oceanologic

stations, mainly in the Pacific.

Soviet oceanographic research in the North Atlantic

began in 1951, utilizing fishing trawlers. It was sharply

increased in 1954, when the observations began to be conducted

simultaneously by several ships, assuming the character of

oceanographic surveys. Soviet oceanography was very active

during the International Geophysical Year, 1957-1959. The

research performed from Vityaz resulted in detection of the mixing

Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1967, pp. 47-49.

/
if
otj
" ' IU, .'H»I I| I
I I
'
I
M . ., !
..-—
i ' '
 of the various layers of water in the Pacific Ocean, resulting

in an intensive propaganda campaign launched by the Soviet Union

t

against burying radioactive wastes in the deep water depressions.

The achievements of Soviet oceanography were noted at

the first and second International Oceanographic Congresses

(1959 and 1966 respectively) , where Soviet scientists were among

the most active participants. Congresses and various international

programs helped to extend the international scientific and

*"
professional connections of Soviet oceanographers, who, thanks to

the extensive Soviet oceanographic work, were becoming more and

more authoritative and competent.

In 1959 the expeditionary ship M. Lomonosov discovered

the subsurface current named Lomonsov in the low latitudes of

12
the Atlantic' Later in 1963-1964 the study of the Lomonsov

current as well as of the subsurface Brazil current was continued

by the ship.

In connection with another international program, the

Soviet ships, Shokal'skiy, Gromova, and Zhemchug (later joined

by Vityaz) in 1965 began the study of the Kuroshio. The material

collected during the expeditions provided Soviet oceanographers

not only with vast amount of data, but it stimulated the

J ?
current crosses the Atlantic from west to east in
'

'The
the region of the Equator, is about 2,600 miles long and has a
maximum speed at the depth of 100 meters of almost 80 centimeters
per second.

461
— —* " ' ' " , i . ,
i,,.,. i« i .i .» i»
,
«; , ,.. ; . ;
,,',
development of the theoretical basis of oceanography. The so-callcc

energy method for calculating tho e lemon ts of wind wavow, worked

out during the war, was further developed at the end of 1950's

by the addition of the statistical approach. The theory of oceanic

circulation was also implemented by a new approach, dealing with

the interaction of speed of flows and density of waters in the

ocean and the mechanism of their mutual accommodation, called

the dynamics of the sea's baroclinic layer. A number of basic

works was published, including N. Zubov, Dynamic Oceanology ;

-"

Berezkin, Dynamics of the Sea ; Shuleykin, Physics of the Sea

(Third Edition) ; Morsk oy Atlas (Maritime Atlas) , and the new

Soviet Physical-Geographic Atlas of the Y/orld , 19 64

A method for computing the vertical distribution of the

speed of the tidal current (a mean vector from the surface to

the ship's keel) was proposed for application in shallow seas

as a practical aid to navigation. Later, an equation was

obtained for determining the vertical distribution of a tidal

current speed at any point of the seas as well as for determining

13
the speed and direction of ice tidal drift.

The Soviet contribution to the studies of the equatorial

system of countercurrents in the world oceans is considerable.

13
Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1971, p. 73.

**62
 During the 1960*8, seven years of continuous study of the

Lomonosov current employing 94 buoy stations with automatic \

current meters produced 1.5 million readings. About 1,000

deep-water hydrological stations, with observations at 22 levels,

14
have been established. In 1969 the research ship Akademik

Kurchatov observed a new powerful undercurrent more than 3,500

miles long moving in a southeasterly direction along the

Antilles Islands.

A method developed by A. Sarkisyan permits computer

calculation of stable currents (mean - annual and seasonal) . It

was reported that attempts to calculate the stable currents for

all the world's oceans on computers were made in Moscow, Leningrad,

and Sevastopol. The differential equation of mathematical

physics for an entire energy interdependent "atmosphere -

15
ocean-earth surface" system were used.

The findings of the oceanographic research effort also

have important military implications especially in undersea

warfare, where underwater acoustics continues to be the major

means for detecting submarines. The sound propagation in the

water depends to a large degree on the velocity of sound. The

14
Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1970, pp. 81-82.
15
Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1971, p. 81.

/ i

463
" ' i i. i . ..i .
 , .

velocity, in its turn, is a function of water temperature?

pressure (which increasos with the depths), and (salinity. WhJLlo

the salinity is more or less uniform through various layors.

of water and the pressure increases uniformly with the depths,

the changes in the temperature in various layers of water are

not uniform. So, the temperature is a major factor which in

certain layers violates the. general rule of increased density

with greater depths.

The surface (upper) layer of the ocean waters mixed

by atmospheric influences has a more or less even temperature.

The deep layer, not being subject to atmospheric influences,

also has a practically uniform temperature. Between these two

layers there is an intermediate layer, whose depths and vertical

dimensions vary, with a rapidly decreasing temperature, and,

correspondingly, rapidly increasing density. Russians call this

phenomenon the density jump, or density leap layer. It is also

known as the thermal barrier, thermal layer, and thermocline.

It has a complex multiple-stage structure, whose individual

sections, in which the density increases sharply with depths,

are mixed with sections having constant density values.

Knowledge of the depths of the upper limit of this layer, its

vertical dimension, or at least the thickness ox the ocean's

upper layer is very important in antisubmarine warfare (ASW)

HGH
"—-
' 1

1
«-.
 Soviet oceanographic expeditions have in recent years

collected considerable data on water density. A dense network

i

of temperature and salinity observations has been made for the

North Atlantic, the northern and southern regions of the Pacific

Ocean, the southern part of the Indian Ocean, and the Carribean
16
Sea. Based upon previously collected data and current weather

observations, the Soviet hydrometeorological center makes up

to two-day forecasts of the information necessary to determine

the depths of density or temperature layers in the various areas

17 —
of the ocean.

The systematic investigation of the Baltic Sea in

accordance with a unified international program began in 1964,

when a synoptic hydrological survey of the sea basin was first

made. The work continues in cooperation with several countries

(Finland, Sweden, East Germany, West Germany, and Poland)

Soviet expeditions are not only becoming more numerous

and of longer duration, but are involving sizable groups of ships

for the fulfillment of given tasks. For example, a 1968-1969

Soviet Navy expedition headed by Admiral Vladimivskiy aboard the

hydrographical ship Polyus lasted 273 days. During the 54,000

16
Morskoy Sbornik No. 3, 1971, p. 80
17
Ibid., p. 78.

465
mile oruiso, the Soviotfl Pitnrlierl currents (
tli« chpfnJfsnl

composition of water at various depths, surface phenomena, winds,

raiu-squalls, etc., in many areas of tho world ocean.

During 1970 the Soviet Union staged an unusual experiment

at the center of the Atlantic Ocean, involving the simultaneous

participation of six ships, Akademik Kurchatov, Dmitry Mendeleyev,

Sergey Vavilov, Akademik Vernadskiy, Petr Lebedev, and Vilkitskiy,

representing various Soviet oceanographic institutions {the

*'
Institute of Oceanology, Acoustics Institute, Marine Hydrophysics

Institute, and Hydrographic Service) . In the area of study,

which was 120 x 120 miles, seventeen buoy stations carrying

automatic instruments were anchored. Every 10 to 30 minutes, the

buoys measured the speed of the current and the temperature of

the water at various depths up to 1,500 meters. All information

was relayed to the computer centers of Dmitry Mendeleyev and

Akademik Kurchatov. The belief widely held prior to the experiment

of the existence of stable currents in the area, and particularly

i

of a current driven by the northern tradewinds was not confirmed.

/ !

A similar study on a smaller scale was carried out by

18
Soviet scientists in the Indian Ocean in 1967.

18
The experiments were reported in detail during a joint
assembly of the five leading international oceanographic
organizations which was held in Tokyo on September 13-25, 1970, and
also in Sovet skaya Rossia, 27 October 1970; New Times No. 42,
1970; and Pravda 4 May 1971. , / *

i .

"
- • —
- '* '
1
1
-— —— .. . ... ,.'.... ..^;
 Siuce 1968 the Soviet Union has been conducting research

under the Polar Experiment (Polyamy Eksperiment) 'program. The

Polar Experiment is an independent Soviet program within the

framework of Soviet participation in an international program

for the research of global atmospheric processes, and is planned

to continue for several years. The program, which is being

conducted in areas located north of the 50th parallel, includes

a series of general expeditions in the northern areas of Atlantic

and Pacific Oceans by the research ships of the Soviet

Kydrometeorological Service and other organizations, expeditions

to the central Polar Basin, satellites and aircraft observations,

and also standard observations from meteorological and aerologicai

10
stations of the Kydrometeorological Service.

It was reported that the Leningrad branch of the Central

Economic-Mathematical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Science

and the Institute of Oceanology are working at cx*eating a

mathematical model of the world oceans. The basis of the model

is a system of special equations for determining horizontal and

vertical currents, temperature, and salinity of the water.

Initial tests of the model on the BESM-3 computer in 1369 produced

20
satisfactory results when checked against known paramenters.

19
Mo rsko y Flot No. 1, 1971, pp. 44-48.
20
Vodnyy Transport, 12 April 1969.

U67
i^w>+.fm*w>*
ii
•mt im r* " i*+mrv <•• --
 Satellites and orbital stations are destined to play an

important role in oceanography, in that they could determine the

4

state of the sea, the ice condition, the degree of water pollution,

___location of schools of fish, etc. Thoir role in ocoan

reconnaissance and ASW may already be significant. The work

connected with the study of the oceans were performed during

21
flights of the Soyuz space ships. In 1970 the processes in

the ocean depths and in the lower and upper layers of the

atmosphere were studied simultaneously for the first time from

the Soviet research ship, Akademik Shirshov, by the crew of space

22
ship Soyuz-9 and the meteorological satellite Meteor.

During the last sixteen years the Soviet Union has been

involved in an extensive program in Antarctica. The Russian

expedition of 1813-1821 with two sailing ships, Vostok and Mirnyy,

commanded by Bellingshausen and Lazarev, claimed to have discovered

23
Antarctica. The first Soviet Antarctic Expedition took place

during 1955-1956, when the first Station Mirnyy was established.

Annual expeditions usually take place between November-February.

21
Aviatsiya i Kosmonavtika (Aviation and Cosmonautics)
No. 12, 1970, pp. 34-35.
22
Komsomolskaya Pravda , 26 December 1970.
23
It is very difficult to prove or disprove the claim,
since, in addition to the Russian ships, American and British
ships were sailing off Antarctica during 1820.

!|G3

-
- -" —--- « —«—., .
... , ,
..n,,.-,......^.
In addition to Mimyy, the following stations were subsequently

established by the Soviet Union: Vostok, PionorsKaya, Oaais,

i

Sovetskaya, Lazarevskaya (later superseded by Novolazarevskaya) ,

Bellingshausen, Molodezhnaya, and Leningradskaya. As of the

fall of 1971, a new Soviet Antarctic Expedition, the 17th,

including three ships, the veteran, OB, an icebreaker, and

24
research ship Professor Vize had been under preparation. Not

all stations are manned permanently and the personnel are

replaced each year upon the arrival of the expedition. The

stations are well equipped and there have been wide use of

aircraft, helicopters, and sled trains.

While the overall scientific research in Antarctica is

supervised by the Soviet Academy of Sciences, a few dozen Soviet

scientific research institutions are involved in the work, of

which the Arctic and Antarctica Scientific Research Institute,

the Scientific Research Institute for Geology of the Arctic, are

the most active. The Hydrographic Service of the Soviet Navy also

sends its ships to participate in expeditions on occasion. Y/ide

ranging and apparently high quality research has been conducted,

and the Soviet rich experience in the Arctic has been put to

broad use.

24
Leningradskaya Pravda , 21 August 1971.

h n
G9
" »— " *~- •'*— » W^> W-*. *-! "».« W w ? ^ m, .^, <!W
' '
' '
V ! HI m i '

^«»M- ^> - 1

.i ..., . l i
W l ^ w^w*** *
*.
 A certain degree of specialization was established among

the stations mentioned above. For example, Mirnyy Station

conducts extensive meteorological research and Molodezhnaya and

Vostok Stations, aerological research, including rocket probes of

the atmosphere. The meteorological data from the satellites,

related to the Mirnyy Observatory and the Molodezhnaya Station,

are being used. The data are- transmitted to Moscow and other

meteorological centers of the world. At Molodezhnaya in 1969

a study was made for the first time of the atmosphere's electron

density with the aid of artificial satellites. The glaciologists

and geographers at the Vostok Station carried out deep drilling

in the ice to a depth of 509 meters, obtaining unique samples of

ice said to be formed from snow which fell 30,000 years ago.

A quite extensive study of the Continental Shelf, the Continental

Slope, and the geology of the sea floor has also been conducted.

An assessment of mineral resources for future utilization was

probably done through geological prospecting. While doubting

Antarctica's immediate value for such resources, Soviet specialists

25
do not exclude their exploitation in the future.

Undoubtedly, some military application can be made of the

Soviet research in Antarctica. For example, gravimetric and

25
Pravda, June 15, 1969.

470
"- '
— " ' —
 of value to missilery. Up to
geodetic data collected can be
violation
the present, however,
nobody accused the Soviets of any

The Soviet Union research in

of 1960 Antarctic Treaty.
to be published) has been
Antarctica (at least that selected
26
periodicals and special reports.
widely publicized in various

in general, the research

work in Antarctica is marked by _

Soviet-American-French-Japanese-
satisfactory cooperation among

Australian teams.
has continued, too, witb__the
The research in the Arctic
being made in 1970. A
largest Soviet expedition, Sever-22,
included geological prospecting
study of the ocean floor which
Pole
conducted from a drifting ice field not far from the
wa s

the "Little Scientific Town on Ice". Helicopters flying

named
were employed to deliver
150-200 kilometers from the camp
27 of skin divers
research parties. Starting in May 1970, a group
28
observations. An air expedition,
participated in under-the-ice

26 c^ for Sovi^tJVnjta^ctic
A. V. Nudelman, ~z~.
See, tor Pxamole-
example. «.
Phprnov
tnrr iQM pt-T Nauka Moscow 196o A. <jt. untiuuv
ar a r -,

,.^.

S
Trudy Sov etskoy^tarotgchegkog Ekspgditsii
Moscow 1966
toLroti TiSSSSgT-Sgra, Znaniye, (Vorks of t»e
H. "riatskxy. Vol. 18,
s.ov

Intaractic KxpedTtiolT)7^dited by V.
Publishing House, 1965.
Leningrad, Hydrometeorological
|

27
Nedelya No. 11, 1971.
28
Izvestiya , 26 March 1971.
/
i

/
<

471
wm • . m« n -w pwy-ia-. ro .i — "
Sever-23, was planned for the end of 1971, which, in addition

to resupplying drifting stations SP-16, 18, 19, and 20, was to

1
29
establish twenty automated radioraeteorological drifting stations.

Oceanographic Vessels

The first Russian research ship, Audrey Pervosvannyy

was built in 1898 in Germany, for research in Barents Sea. Renamed

after the Revolution, Murman, and later Mgla, the ship was used

by Soviet hydrographers for more than thirty years. Two other

ships, Taymyr and Vaygach, were built domestically prior to the

Revolution to study the Northern Sea Route. The first Soviet

hydrographic ships, the Okean class, the Kamchadal class, and

the Ost class were built prior to World War II. At the beginning

of the war, the Soviet Union had 73 hydrographic vessels, many

of which were later used in combat for minelaying, amphibious

operations, and transportation of military cargoes. V/hile close

to fifty of them survived the war, the condition of most of them

30
was poor. During the 1950' s, many surveying vessels of the

Soviet Hydrographic Service were ex-German minesweepers, converted

ex-Japanese naval ships, and even a number of former United States

steel-hulled fleet minesweepers of the Admirable class. The

29
L cningradskaya Pravda , 16 August 1971.
30
Sudostroyeniye No. 1, 1970, pp. 63-66.

H72
'
' " » — *"" ' -' — ».—p.^—
I». W t^ '» WI^. ^ »^-t ^»
n.^J f -1 1
Soviet hydrographic fleet was considerably reinforced during

the decade of the 1960's. 18 units of the Samara class with a

displacement of about 1,000 tons and a speed of 16 knots were

built in Poland (1962-1964) . Later, 9 units of the Moma class

with a displacement of 1,800 tons and a speed of 16 knots were

31
added (1967-1968)

In 1957 the Mikhail Lomonosov was built in East Germany.

The ship, with a 5,960 ton displacement, is equipped with 16

laboratories and is operated by the Soviet Academy of Science.

The first oceanographic vessel designed and built in the Soviet

Union after the war was a naval hydrographic survey ship, the

Nevel'skoy. During the first half of the 1960's, a large number

of oceanographic vessels was built: three naval surveying ships

of the Polyus class, 11 oceanographic research ships of the

Nikolay Zubov class, and 5 or 6 hydrographic surveying and

research ships of the Zenit class. All were built abroad, mainly
32
in East Germany. The construction of the Nikolay Zubov class

series was of particular importance, for, regardless how the

ship is viewed, whether as a hydrographic survey vessel or as

an oceanographic research vessel, her laboratories and equipment

31
Soldat und Technik No. 9, 1971, pp. 522-524.
32
Soldat und Technik No. 8, 1971, pp. 460-464.

hi *

**-— « ...... .
i i i i .. —-•—-^ — . . — -
—
 permit a variety of tasks to be performed,, including measurements

of waves and currents, geological sampling and analysis,

meteorological studies, and hydroacoustic research.

In 1959, two expeditionary ships, A. I. Voeykov, and Yu.

M. Skokalskiy, were added to the Soviet Kydrometeorological

Service. The ships are suited not only for the traditional

oceanographic observations, but "for broad general meteorological

33
research as well".

"
The growth of the Soviet Navy, the Merchant Marine, and

the fishing fleet required an intensification of hydrometeorological

research and better support from the Hydrometeorological Service,

34
which, in 1966, had little more than 40 ships. A series of

research ships of the Akademik class were ordered and at least

eight were built in East Germany. Originally called the Professor

Vize class by Soviet Hydrometeorological Service, which received

four of them, the ships have a displacement of close to 7,000

tons. Each ship can launch meteorological rockets and has 21

laboratories. The Soviet Hydrometeorological Service calls them

"weather ships", capable of conducting prolonged hydrometeorological

and aerological observations at permanently assigned points of

33
Vodnyy Transport , 26 June 1969
34
Pravda, 6 January 1969.

474
" ' -
world ocean. Two such points were planned for the Atlantic
35
Ocean, two for the Pacific, and one for the Indian Ocean. In

addition, nine weather ships of the Passat class (3,700 ton

displacement) with 22 laboratories each were built in Poland. The

ships have complex electronic equipment and an automatic device

for launching meteorological rockets to altitudes up to 80

36
kilometers, and simultaneously perform hydrological observations.

All weather ships are also assigned to study air and water

pollution and have the corresponding equipment. . -*

An extended network of weather stations in the world ocean,

and the use of meteorological satellites and computers permitted

a computer-controlled weather routing system to be introduced

37
at the end of 1960's. It was claimed that during 11 months of

1969, 1, 120 merchant ships were tracked by the system with a

38
savings of 318 ship days and more than 5 million rubles.

A large number of specialized ships were employed since

the end of 1950* s, mainly by the Soviet Academy of Sciences, to

support missile testing in the oceans, projects relating to the

35
Pravda , 6 January 1969.
36
Vodnyy Transport , 26 June 1969.
37
Undoubtedly, it is used by the Soviet Navy in addition to
the Soviet Merchant Marine and is probably similar to the U. S.
Navy's Optimum Track Ship Routing System.
38
Vodnyy Transport, 7 February 1970. *

475
** " '
" " '
" ' l
! - ! - . itr*iniinMig|iwii „,».. - . .
study of the upper atmosphere and space and to observe

satellites. First were four Sibir' class missile 'range ships,

i

converted ore carriers. At the beginning of the 1960's two

Desna class ships designated as missile range instrumentation

ships were added. In raid 1960 the Soviet Academy of Sciences

acquired the following vessels: Dolinsk, Bezhitsa, Ristna,

Aksay , Kirishi and Borovichi classes, all of them either

converted former merchant ships or built on the basis of an

existing merchant ship design., Eight units of the Kirishi class ^

and four units of the Borovichi class were built in Soviet yards
39
on the basis of Vytegrales class timber carriers. In 1967,

the Kosmonavt Vladimir Komarov was added to the fleet. The

ship displaces 17,580 tons, is 140 meters long, and in addition

to 114 crew members, accomodates 126 scientific and technical

personnel.

In 1970 a new Soviet vessel, Akademik Sergei Korolyov,

was commissioned. The ship built in the Nikolayev Shipyard is

182 meters long and displaces 21,250 tons. Accomodating 300 crew

and scientific personnel, the ship is well equippedfor the

research of the upper layers of the atmosphere, independent guidance

of earth satellites and space craft, and launching of scientific

39
Soldat und Technik No. 8, 1971

i*76
 40
rockets.

Akademik Sergei Korolyov

yov did not longi I

enjoy the title of

world's largest research
ship,
*' for
° r duri
durinng , ..
the summer of
1971, a
new Soviet research shin v n ~
ship, Kosmonavt
Y Uriy Gagarin,
built in
Leningrad, joined the
service
Ce and h„ became the flagship
of the
Soviet expeditionary
fleet
leet. R,m + essentially
Built
for the same
purpose as Akademik
Sergei Korolyov,
yuv, tne

^
the new ship
.h is more than
-ce as large with a displacement
^
—
,
Qf 45ooo toQg
^ ^
e ers -she is by f
*• - -«-
2 Ivories
; ;
t scieQtific ship
BitS
and the aeW est e

P-uctio, Une, but from research

quipment coming not f
_^
aQd deveiQpment
an. is capab xe o f

space ships fl ying

controIUng not OQly earth

to the 41
moon-
^^ ^
iQstitutioQs

Also, during the

sumner of 197i the Sov .

^^ ^^
^^
et
-e arch fl eet was
augmented by the „
^^ ^
sfaip
Vaiversitet (Moscow „
niversity) . ,„ ^ & ^
iab0rat0ri6S the VeSSel
* "« ». «™ computer center, aQd is
e q uippe d
wit ,. two underwater
pQrt hoies and pQwerfui 1^
^
—
devices, for the
visual study Qf
iife< m ^^ ^^ J
^rri^ir ^ 5 state university
« Pat Jg in
40
y^^yy^E^sport, March 2, 1971.
41

\J
477
the scientific research aboard the vessel. It was reported

that the Soviet Union is building or is planning io build a

special ship for drifting in the Arctic ice. The ship's hull

would be able to withstand the pressure of ice, and have a

high-capacity (possibly nuclear) propulsion plant, a number of

laboratories, rocket launching devices, and a computer center

42 - .
as its main features.

Presently, there are no universally recognized standards

for research ships. There is tendency in the Soviet Union to

divide research ships into two broad categories, expeditionary

ships and so-called universal ships. The former are capable

of performing comprehensive oceanographic research in any area

of the world ocean, particularly in the less known areas. It

is recognized that such ships are very expensive and, apparently,

their number would be limited. The latter are divided into two

sub-categories: scientific- research and oceanographic ships. They

are said to be capable of performing both basic and applied

research according to a prescribed program. The main feature of

this type of ship is their equipment, which permits not only

universal application, but replacement upon the fulfullment the

task of a program. Apparently, cost considerations are forcing

42
Science and Technology, Znanie, APN, 1971, Moscow, p. 21.

478
 the Soviet Union to
adopt a more ration.!
rational approach to
the
allocation of fund«3 and
anH +~
to assure better utilization
of existing
and future ships. A
number of publish** proposals
01 published
dealing with
the design and
construction of research
shm, „bear good testimony
search ships
to that fact.
43

Xn general,there are two

approaches to man's li vlng -

aud
-Hang underwater for prolonged
periods: adaptation to the
underwater enviroment
or complete isolation
from its iQ fi ueQce
-inly Pressure. Both
approaches have a long
history of
development, but only
recent technological
progress has registered
some noteworthy
achievements. While the
second approach has been
-Presented by the development
of various sizes and
designs of
submarines, the first
approach essentially has
been the
sophistication of various
diving technics and
e.uipment. T he
-erican "Men in the Sea
Program" is the most
illustrative' of
the latter.

/
soviet experimentation

o* I960.
in this field started
in ^ ^^
For years a number
Qf ^^^ „
J
uQderwater resea fa

—
f

clubs were arguing

for the need for such . n
Program. One of them,
43
__
I

Oceana"
d^ZTslLrl^^^^^^^SBO
Leningrad, 1971,
pp. 2 15.
'

Ocean), _Sjidp^troyenie,
;

479
the Donetsk Club, built the underwater habitat Ikhtiandr-66

which was tested in August of 1966 off the Crimean peninsula

at a depth of 11 meters. Three aquanauts worked in this habitat

for a total of 168 hours. In the following year, a somewhat

44
improved version, Ikhtiandr-67, was also successfully tested.

Simultaneously, the Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute

in cooperation with Acoustical Institute of Soviet Academy of

Sciences built the underwater laboratory Sadko. The spherical

laboratory has a diameter of 3 meters and a volume of 14 cubic

meters, and is suitable for two men working at depths of up to

50-60 meters. The laboratory was tested in the Black Sea, 120
45
meters from shore at the depth of 42 meters.

During the summer of 1967 a more sophisticated underwater

laboratory, Sadko-2, was tested. Sadko-2 is composed of two

spherical bodies 3 meters in diameter joined by steel cylinder

with a hatch. The upper sphere is used as a compartment for the

aquanauts and the lower, as an auxiliary compartment. During the

initial test, /the laboratory was secured at the 25-raeter depth,

and two aquanauts spent six days in it.

The Sadko-3 laboratory, designed by the same organizations,

44
Sudostreyeniye No. 1, 1968, pp. 26-28 and No. 5, 1970,
pp. 18-22.
45 16-19.
Sudostreyeniye No. 8, 1967, pp.

480
was tested in October 1969. Compared to the previous two, the

Sadko-3 is more sophisticated and has more reliable means for

i

decompression as it permits docking with a decompression chamber

46
ashore. It has three chambers joined together, one above the

other, and accomodates four aquanauts. Three men worked in it

for four days during the initial tests, followed by two days of

decompression

During the summer of 1968 the southern branch of the

Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Soviet Academy of

Sciences tested another underwater laboratory, Chernomor, an

8.4 meter long horizontal cylinder with a diameter of about three

meters and an underwater displacement of 62 tons. The laboratory

accomodates five men and is capable of operating in depths of

up to 30 meters. Research was conducted within hydro-optical,

hydro-physical, geological and biological programs. Five crews

spent a total of 140 man-days in the laboratory, leaving it for

47
up to 3.5 hours to the distance up to 100 meters.

In the summer of 1969 an improved version of the underwater

laboratory, Chernomor-2, was tested. It was 12 tons heavier than

the prototype, the capacity of its electric batteries was 100

46
Sudostroyeniye No. 7, 1970, pp. 19-21
47
Sudostroyeniye No. 5, 1969.

481
times greater (Chernomor-1 , due to the low capacity of its

battery, could sustain the work of the crew for only two days)

gas-mixture reserves were increased fifty times (Chernomor-1

*
had an oxygen reserve for three days) , and water reserves were

increased six times.

The Chernomor-2 is a self-sustained underwater habitat

connected with a ship or the shore only by telephone cable,

which also can be abandoned and communication maintained via

radio buoy. The habitat can be placed under the water at depths

of up to 35 meters, but aquanauts can work down to depths of

60-70 meters. During August-September 1971, Chernomor-2 was

used for a 52-day experiment involving 4 men at a depth of 15

48
meters. It has been considered as a "lead prototype" which

can be mass produced. The cost of the first mass produced

habitat was given as 100,000 rubles, which would drop to 65-70,000

49
rubles in mass production.
. i

The opinion was expressed that the application of such

underwater laboratories or habitats is not limited to oceanographic

research.
/
It was stated also, that, whenever underwater work at
I

depths of 30 meters and below required sixty man hours or more

48
Izvestiya , November 12, 1971
49
Izvestiya, October 11, 1969.

482
of labor, the use of an underwater habitat similar to Chernomor-2

is economically justified.

In August 1970 an underwater laboratory, Ikhtiandr-70,

/

was used for extensive tests on special diving suit designed for

a prolonged stay underwater. Medical physiological research

on the condition of divers during a prolonged underwater work

was conducted at the same time. A -special diving suit designed

for this purpose has a dual life sustaining system. The main one

sustains breathing by a hose connected to an external breathing

mixture source. The second, which is autonomous, is carried by

the divers and is incorporated in the suit. Special clothing

worn under the suit provides good ventilation of the body as well

as warmth. The diving suit incorporates a sanitary system as

well as a communication system. During the experiment, two

tests, one with a duration of 26 hours 15 minutes and a second

of 37 hours 40 minutes, were conducted. ^

Medical-physiological tesrts confirmed the possibility of a

prolonged (up to 38 hours) stay underwater in such a diving suit.

The opinion was expressed that such a diving suit system can be

used for underwater work for a period of two or three days, when

the installation of an underwater habitat is impossible or

economically not justified. A plan was announced to build and

test a completely self-sustained system, without a hose, which

483
 50
will permit work at greater depths.

A number of submarine-like devices have also been developed.

t

Sever-1 (the Soviets call it hydrostat) is an apparently one-man

submersible which is towed by a cable from a mother ship. The

apparatus was used in the Barents Sea by the PINRO Institute

for extensive geological observation of the bottom. Maintained

at .5 to 1 meter from the bottom, the observer was able to

observe a strip 10-20 meters wide, to photograph it and' to take

geological samples. It was claimed that the experiment produced

rich results and is being used for the geological mapping of the
51
Barents Sea bottom.

Another Soviet underwater apparatus, Sever-2, was

developed in the late sixties, and was tested in the Black Sea.

During the test, the apparatus reached a depth of 2,185 meters.

The apparatus is delivered to the operations area by a parent ship.

It is self-propelled, and one vertical and two horizontal screws

give the apparatus good maneuverability, with a horizontal speed

of a running man. A crew of three can observe the enviroment

/ •

through several port holes, take samples by means of manipulators,

]

and store them in special extendable containers. The instruments

50
Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya, 11 March 1971.
si I

Leningradskaya Pravda, 19 January 1971.

Wl
carried aboard permit testing of the water, photography, and tape

recording of sounds emitted by marine life. The apparatus was

i

52
designed by the Leningrad Institute, Giproryhf lot . -^^
Another apparatus for the observation and photography of

underwater objects, the two-man AMS-200 with maximum submersible

53
depths of 450 meters, was developed by the same institute.

The AMS-200 appears to be a further development of Atlant-1,

54
widely tested in 1965-1966.

The underwater laboratory Bentos-300 has been under

development since 1966. Designed by Giprorybflot Institute, the

self-propelled laboratory is 20 meters long and displaces 360

tons. It has crew of ten (a 15-man crew was also reported) which

can stay submerged for ten days at depths up to 300 meters. After

being towed to the area of operation, the laboratory can

submerge independently, stay at the prescribed depths for

prolonged period of time or lay on the bottom. A battery-powered

motor provides a speed of 1.5 knots. A special compartment which

can be separated from the laboratory provides crew with an

emergency rescue capability. The Bentos-300 can be used for

52
Prayda, March 22, 1969.
53
Sudostroyeniye No. 2, 1968.
54
Sudostroyeniye No. 7, 1967.

485
oceanographic research in cooperation with another submersible

apparatus, TINRO-1 or TINRO-2, designed by the Pacific Research

Institute of the Fishing Industry. Both were called submarines

by a Soviet source. TINRO-1 can reach the area of research

under its own power, while TINRO-2 has to be delivered by a mother

ship. Another apparatus, similar to TINRO-2 and called a midget

submarine, Gvidon, was developed by the VNIIRO Institute and

55
tested in 1970 in Black Sea.

The Moscow Aeronautical Institute also developed and built -"

a miniature submarine, MAI-3. A crew of two can conduct the

research in depths up to 40 meters. The apparatus is made of

aluminum alloys and plastic. Two propellers driven by battery-

powered motors can develop speeds up to three knots; the operating

56
time is 1.5 hours.

The design for an underwater automobile "Makrel", capable

of carrying divers and with a speed of 6 KM/h sustained over

several hours at depths up to 40 meters, has been developed by

Giprorybflot Institute.

The number of manned underwater apparatuses the Soviet Union

55 Sudostroyeniy e No. 8, 1965 and No. 2, 1967; Ekonomicheskaya

Gazeta No. 32, August 1967; Komsomolskaya Pravda November 23, ,-

1967, and March 20, 1971; Vodnyy Transport April 17, 1971.
,

EC
Seewirtschaft (Maritime Economy) , Leipzig, July 1967,
p. 578.

486
has been developing is, to say the least, proof that the problem

has been recognized. Obviously, not all of them are either very

sophisticated, nor will they be mass-produced and find wide

application. But at this, still embryonic stage of the

development, the number of organizations involved and the variety

of models produced is impressive. Following the pattern of the

usual Soviet approach, it is logical to expect that the

development of such apparatuses will be centralized in a few

specialized organizations. The decision to centralize the

construction of the accepted apparatus in one ministry, the

57
Ministry of Shipbuilding, has already been made.

In December 1958, Severyanka, a W-class submarine converted

into a research submarine, became operational. The torpedo

compartment, converted into laboratory, has a number of port holes,

searchlights, and electronic sensors. The Soviet Navy has two

research submarines, Lira and Vega. Both are called hydro-

graphical submarines and are in extensive use. During the summer

i

of 1969, Vega, accompanied by a tanker and motor ship, made a

cruise of 2^9 days' duration through 8 seas, and the Pacific and
i

Indian Oceans. Apparently, the submarine is assigned to the

58
'

Soviet Pacific Fleet. Another submarine, Lira, assigned to

57 !

Komsomolskaya Pravda , 23 November 1967; Trud , 20 November 197i-

58
Soviet Military Review , No. 10, 1970, p. 31.*.

487
the Northern Fleet, was also involved in research cruises, one
59
of eight months' duration in 1970. ;

In the fall of 1970 the existence was reported of one_

more Soviet research submarine designed to be "mobile, autonomous,

independent of weather and service" underwater laboratory.

It is probably the result of the conversion of one more Soviet

Navy combat submarine into a research vessel operated by one of

the Soviet Oceanographic organizations. The crew of the vessel,

composed of "several tens of experienced specialists, the majority-

of whom -serve on submarines". The first (torpedo) compartment

of this submarine has a special chamber for aquanauts. A special

system of hatches and a lock permits the aquanauts to leave the

chamber and, hence, the submarine, and return to it. Aquanauts

used various diving suits, and during the experiment performed a

variety of tasks around the submarine and on the sea bottom.

The helium breathing mixture and all the power for the life

support system are supplied by the submarine.

. The chamber is

also used for decompression, after which the aquanauts leave it

and enter the first compartment of the submarine. During

decompression, the aquanauts can communicate with the crew and,

through a special port hole in the chamber, can see their

colleagues and can be seen by them. The chamber accommodates

59
Xrasnaya Zvezda, 21 July 1970.

488
 at least four aquanauts. Hot and cold food can bo supplied

from the submarine compartment through

a special arrangement.
Apparently, the experiment was very
successful and met all
expectations. The wide use of the submarines
with similar
arrangements for aquanauts in the near 60
future was predicted.
Concurrently with their own development,
the Soviet
scientists are eager to obtain foreign
technology. After an
unsuccessful attempt to buy an American
research submarine, the
Soviets turned to Canada. An agreement was signed between
Sudoimport, purchasing agent for the
Soviet Union, and International
Hydrodynamics Company, Canada, to build a
midget submarine called
Pisces, capable of diving to 6,000
feet.

A variety of pew instruments for

the oceanographic research
and apparatuses have been recently
developed. Two devices for
measuring hydrophysical parameters,
the LKI-3 and LKI-4, the former
for depths up to 200 meters and
speeds up to 18 knots, and the
latter for depths up to 300 meters
and speeds up to 15 knots, were I
developed by Leningrad Shipbuilding 62
Institute.
At least two deep submergence
apparatuses with television

60
Krasnaya Zvezda T 19 and 20 August, 1970.
61
New York Times . March 17, 1971.
62 o ,
Sudostroyenive No. 11, 1968.

489
cameras and manipulators were developed. The first one, krab,

used primarily for examining underwater structured, was developed

'
63
in 1967. The second one, called Underwater Geologist, is used

primarily for geological sampling to the depths of 4,000 meters

(originally the depth was limited by the cable lengths to

64
3,200 meters)

Istok , a probe for depths up to 2,000 meters with "super-

sensitive instruments" for measuring hydrophysical parameters of

the water, was developed by the Marine Institute of Hydrophysics,

an affiliate of the Ukrainian Academy of Science. The readings

are instantaneously transmitted via cable to the Dnepr-1 or

65
Minsk-22 computers, where they are processed and stored.

The Special Design Bureau of the Sakhalin Scientific

Research Institute developed a number of automatic devices for

underwater seismological soundings. For example, an automatic

buoy station can either store the information or transmit it

to the ship, where it is processed. Considerable savings in the

cost of the research work are expected thanks to the use of such

devices.
66
'
/
63
Trud , 12 November 1967.
64
Sudostroyeniye No. 1, 1969.
65
Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya , 18 June 1970.
66
Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya, 26 August 1971.

1490
 Many devices used by Soviet
oceanography are powered by
radioactive element as energy
sources. A number of such
generators, using Cesium-37," were
built during the period '

67 "^^>
1963-1967. Another series of isotope
generators using mainly
Strontium-90 was developed in the
late 1960's. for example,
Beta-3, with a capacity of 880
.kilowatt hours, 'can be used for
ten years in areas with
temperatures down to -70 degrees
centigrade. Another generator,
Ephir. can operate in an
enviroment with temperature ranges
from plue 60 to minus 60 •

68
degrees centigrade.

Research and Plans for the

Exploitation of Minerals in the Sea

While the growing world industrial

output has generated
an increased demand for
minerals, only a tiny fraction of
1% of
them come from the sea.
Off-shore extraction of oil, on the
other hand, already represents
close to 20% of world oil '

production. In addition to the hundreds

of millions of tons
dissolved in the sea water, there
are known deposits of minerals
in the bedrock of the
subsoil and right on the sea floor
in
quantities estimated to far exceed
anything known on land. Up

67„
Sovetskaya Rossiya . 10 January 1970.
68
Sotslalist lcheskaya Industrlya
. 18 March 1971
*

U91
 to the recent time, the level of technological
development
represented the major obstacle. The present, and 'particularly
near-future, technology should be capable
to provide accelerated .

process of extracting minerals from

the sea.

The Continental Shelf is bound to

be the first place
where there will be wide extraction
of minerals. However, the
distribution of manganese nodules
(concretions), is, in general,
beyond the Continental Shelf. Soviet oceanographers have been '

working for years to determine the

distribution and concentration "
of manganese nodules, particularly
throughout the central Pacific
Ocean. These strange concretions, which look
like tubers, are not
large, ranging in length from a fraction of
a millimeter to 15

centimeters. The biggest sample found by the Soviet

oceanographers
weighed 136 kilograms. Their concentrations on the ocean floor
are variously estimated to be from 100
to several hundred
billion tons. Copper, cobalt, and nickel are also found in

addition to manganese.

The Continental Shelf of the Soviet Union,

representing
close to 1/3 of the world's total,
covers 6.6 million square"
kilometers. What is more important, approximately half
of it
lies in depths not exceeding 50
meters. However, the greatest
part of the waters over the Soviet
Continental Shelf is frozen
over during the winter, and in some
areas ice is found eight or

492
 nine months out of the year.

During the last several years,

research and development
on the exploitation of minerals
in the sea has been considerably
intensified in the Soviet Union.
Some initial steps toward
actual extraction have already
been taken. Experimental
exploitation and enrichment oftitanium
ore has been undertaken/
in the Baltic, and a marine
geological enterprise scheduled
to start operation in 1972 was
formed. % special expedition to
the Laptev Sea in 1967, after
extensive prospecting, made""
experimental exploitation of cassiterite
and its enrichment
possible. The decision was made
to form a marine geological
enterprise for cassiterite extraction,
with operations starting
in late 1971 or early 1972.
To speed up the exploitation of
cassiterite, a special vessel dubbed
"Floating Geological Combine"
was proposed which was to
have all necessary equipment and
living
quarters for workers -aboard and
be powered by nuclear energy.

The training of marine geologists

in the Soviet Union
accelerated/odessa University in 1971
graduated the first group
of marine engineer-geologists.
A special laboratory dealing with
problems of engineering geology
was organized at the university.
Conducting experimental work on
the floor of the Black Seal
the

Izvestlya . 2 September 1970.

'

I /
i /
I

433 'I
 scientists of Odessa University are
using the theory of geological
similitude and modeling, developed by
them. To improve methods
of geological prospecting, a model
of the Black Sea Continental
Shelf and computers have been used. 70

The Scientific Council of Moscow '

State University
coordinates tbe efforts of several
departments 'involved in
geological research in the Pacific
Ocean. A special laboratory "

of the Moscow Geological Institute

is working on the solution of

technological problems connected with -

underwater extraction'of
minerals, and is developing special
equipment to that end. The
departments of 13 universities, the
Ministry of the Non-Ferrous
Metal Industry, and several other
Soviet institutes were
cooperating in this endeavor. A specially equipped vessel, tbe
Tura, which is suitable for
experimental exploitation and
enrichment of minerals, has been used
in the Pacific. Experimental
exploitation of cassiterite and gold has
been conducted, and new
technology tested aboard the vessel. 71
j

In the Soviet Far East, a new

research center, the
Sakhalin-General Scientific Research
Institute, subordinated to
the Far Eastern Scientific
Center, was organized and is very

70
Vodnyy Transport , 6 October 1970.
71
Izvestiya . 2 September 1970.

I •

m
 active in marine
geology. 72
The need for clo<^ ^
close cooperation
geologists hnc k«
e-isxs bas been stresseda
between land 'andd
mar ine
i -
+h« o
in the Soviet Union t+
emphasized that Under WaS also
" und^ c ^tain
conditions
* ua5 th*
the sea extM^f,--
i
of minerals mizht h~ extraction
lght be Reaper
u
than the land
«• "traction, for in
j
former, there i.

considerable savings
vings in m transportation can
be ach,„ -
achieved.
high
S °c^t
OSt ^* ^ The

-h
of de velopment

considerations.
in Siberia i-
'^ w
* *"" *. "

ThS S ° Vlet Uni °

Particularly in tbe
no
n has
^tensified off-shore
northern seas and
^oil
~
0l1 *««Pecting

^ the Caspian
the Far East in ^ •
S

Sea. where off-

for many years,

shore

m
tne
, 6XtraCti0n
haS b -
-undin gs to date
uaxe for oil
,1 and
natural „*
the
e Bar * * W#W cond "cted in
BareP nt
Qts and Kara
Seas
eas ' Th«
Th « area of Pechnm
ecnora r, u
Guba is viewed
-the most promising
as +h~
for both oil 73
andgas .

The possibility
o1 Arctlc •..
. exploitation is beine |

s ri „
seriously , .

considered
^ered, despite
dec •*
the unfavorable
favorable climatic -r
•

the only re 4
y restraining
ra< .

f actor Qaffl
conditions,
xar being: cost m»,
The
solution of the ™ e tp.h
te chnological
,
problems u,h* u W °
Uld bG asso
'"> such expioi, «
cn exploitation ^ated
—___ is ho-i™
bSlng ^^ached
optimistically. Xt
I

<

ti nc
 has already bcen proposed
tQ coQsider the
use ^ autoBatad
instaUations which are being
developed by ^^.^ ^ ^
off-shore oi! extraction
in the Arctlc . The construotio ; ^
special ships, including

has also been considered.

lnes< fQr the ^^^ o ^ ind ^
An intensive search for oil Uo u
oil has been conducted
in the Sakhalin
area for ten years.
irectional h^it
Directional drilling, a method of
drilling
wells with a deviation
me vertical
from the ^
vertira! of up to several
thousand meters, was
developed and is in wide -
use in northern -
Sakhalin. The Gipro m omepht
Institute designed a special
Piece of e Q uip m ent which '

would permit concentrating

up to 200
wells made by directional
drilling on a relatively
small oil
island. A floating driUiQg rig>

in sea depths up to
Khazap for ^^^^^^
100 meters is being used]
_
^^
in addition to the
Northern seas, the Far Eastern
waters,
and the Caspian Sea>

Sea, and the Black

certaln areas Qf ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^
Sea are viewed as promising
for future oil
and gas exploitation.
The ~* a
resul+o of
ine results number of test drillings
in the Black Sea
were encouraging. 77 !

74
Ibid.
75
Izvestiya , 14 May 1971.
76
Pravda , 12 July 1971.
77
p ravda , 3 October 1970.

49fi
 The 24th Pnrt„
party n~
Congress Directive
irectives for
*
the Five-Year
Economic Plan included

the Shelf zones

a call "to

of sea^ and
a «,»
e i

oceans for
Pr ° S "^
wor k ia ^^
discovering oil and .„
deposits '- T " e
"•«*
goal seems t0
be
De to star t
M
.. „
on the Continental
exploitation
Shelf
11 at *. +u
de Pths where
existing +technology
u ,
^--4*
^
—
permits and over
the next two h. „
deC

"™°° ~
S t0 PUSh
exploitation on
the Continental
Shelf to the
depths of 200
aepths 9nn meters,
while

The tidal energy of

- , u„„ a „„«. 78
st
^
+
»-tx-afd
,
.

at one billion
7 -t-h^
W ° rld
° Cea ° »- conservatively ~
k± and the energy
*' of all
-vers, 850 raillion
kUowatts<

vxet Union xs
estimated of 200
xlowatt hours per
billion
year. Ia 1968 th 6 ,.
firSt Soviet ^dal
tati
'
power
f«lou. the 5000-KV, Kislogubskava
eubskaya, n
near Murmansk, was ;
built.
•W Pr °Je0ted .

"—
skaya tidal power
^ r stati
station
°n is
i
supposed to
f»er*te 1. 5 milliou
kilowa
aUnUal ° Ut P Ut Of
Ulinn
•Uxon „-,
•
6
kxlowatt hours.
The potential
tidal euer SY 1U tbe •

la area i, White
is assessed at
3 6 billion
kilowatt hours per
year.™

78 n
Zizvdz, 12 July 19
71
79

^arrSfff^ *>• •. 1 970 , pp . 23 . 26 aQd

^^
4-97
 The Organizat ions

The overall coordination

of Soviet oceanographic
aha
related work is centered in
the State Committee for
Science^ .
and Technology under the
Gosplan
^ ""' Tho
lae r
Committee m
.n t has a Scientific
Council for the study of oceans
and seas and the utilization
of their resources. The Council, together with
other specialists
of the State Committee,
is directly involved
in the coordination
of oceanographic research
and its application. The
research
itself, however, is directed
by the Academy of Sciences
of the
USSR, the Ministry of Fishing
mdustry, the Ministry of Merchant
Marine, the Hydrometeorological
6 v-io. Service
oervice, and the u
h th= m
Hydrographical
,,

Service of the Soviet Navy.

Basic research is conducted and
supervised mainly by the Soviet
Academy of Sciences through its
Oceanographic Committee in the
Earth Science Department. 80
Most of the basic oceanographic
research is conducted
in various specialized
institutes of the Soviet Academy of
Sciences, such as the Shirshov
Institute of Oceanology, the

80 T1 .
j-
Wldel y claimed in Soviet scientific
S
th»t < circles
esearch ^Hth* ^
VaStly broadened »«*>pe of
neither the Scientific Council oceanographic

^X
aor thf A C
"ould L?

>e appuea

U May 1969.
y
s
T°
,

!na
a '

f
1 aQd coordi
E^™
of

-
the
S raPhiC Con »"teo of the Academy of
State Committee
Science^
te tb * e«»rts ofloviet
?** neW organizational principles should
example, Pravda, 25 March 1971, and

1*98
 ». -*-. ,„«„„,.
***'*»< cne
,b
'•*""•
/;Acoustic
- -- •*—.
t««*-o.
^st.tute, and there>
Various state
lw ""l„, such as
university
Unl
universities
«
S
* "
nr.,4 4.L.
d the Aca ray of
Moscow and Leaia
^
UJ-"L,raa
d ^
Sciences of th »

'""*" - — <— .
— ^" institutes of

. .„«„„„. „
th*» *Mo»,.i

,
"s
'

"grapny, independently
as w.ti .
S JOintX
cxvxUan
civilian counterparts, ^ wi " their
particularly
***/ in th.
the «inters*:*
merest of submarine ,-v-p «.

operations
UQS ' *„+*i-submarine
ant u -

6 warf^
warfa re, and the
' employment
Payment of
«* various
weapons.

In addition
*°n to +h~
the specialization
ins+<+ *4
of SMo
some scientific M
institutions, such as the Arctic

—
„
and Antarctic Scientific
Search lQst i tu te, there

-
e ,
is trend toward

orientation of the
a

reSearch institutions.
^ "*«*«* For

tSk Sea and h ^ its own fleet of

—~
'
research
earoh vessels -
"» fou owing iustltutB
institutes are subordinated

—
to the center:
the "

rr al
^ 0OeaDOS
-lo.ical
eophy slcs iMtltute6<
_^
«

SakhaiiQ
^^
and .

499
 81
Research Institute. I

In 1967 the All-Union Scientific Research

Institute
of Marine Geology and Geophysics was organized in Riga,
Latvia.
The institute has 12 expeditionary ships incorporated
in the
82
Baltic Expedition. A branch of the Oceanographic Institute

of the USSR Academy of Sciences was recently established

at
Odessa with its own expeditionary fleet. The Institute of
Biology of the Southern Seas has its branch in
Odessa, too.
Branches of the Hydrometeorological Service and of
the
Hydrographic Service of the Navy are also found in all
major
basins. Considerable applied research is conducted by the

fishing and the shipbuilding industries and the

Merchant Marine.
The Geographic Society of the USSR, one of the oldest
in
the world (it was founded on August 6, 1845) should be mentioned
The Society consists of the geographic societies
of 14 union

republics, 160 branches and departments and three scientific

research institutes, and incorporates 18,600 members. 83

The
I

society has a/long record of association with the Soviet Navy.

/
During its Fifth Congress in December 1970,
!

Commander-in-Chief

81
Pravda 25 March 1971 and Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya,
26 August 1971.
>
~~
82
Vodnyy Transport , 7 June 1969.
83
Morskoy Sbornik No. 5, 1971, pp. 93-95.
i

5C0
of the Soviet Navy S. G. Gorshkov stated that "the problem

of studying and mastering the world ocean is becoming one of

the greatest scientific-technical problems of the 20th Century",

and that the Navy's direct link with marine geographic

research "is still far from complete". Several Navymen,

including Gorshkov, were elected to the Scientific Council

of the Society.

It can be seen that the extensive organizational network

incorporates numerous scientific, industrial, and operational

bodies dealing with the oceanography.

501
 Conclusions

Between the Revolution and World War II, Soviet

oceanographic research, primarily hydrographic in nature, was

conducted mainly in the contiguous seas. Although not far behind

the world level of that period, Soviet oceanography did not

distinguish itself, except for the scope of the Arctic research

and the resulting knowledge. After World War II, however, the

Soviet Union gradually and steadily intensified its oceanographic

efforts, placing initial emphasis on expeditions and the

collection of much needed data. The Soviet research fleet has

been considerably enlarged. While the fleet was previously

composed of modified cargo, fishing, and ice-breaking ships,

during the decade of the 1960's a considerable number of specially

designed oceanographic research ships were built, and modern,

often unique equipment was installed in their laboratories.

The scope of Soviet expeditions was greatly increased, and Soviet

research ships are now operating in all areas of the world oceans
/
The expansion^ of both basic and applied research has been

accompanied by an increase in the number of scientific

i

organizations involved in it and in the number of scientific

workers employed and of those graduated from the educational

institutions. In the applied research field, Soviet oceanography

, /

5C2
has probably been able to satisfy the demands of an expanding

navy, merchant marine, and fishing fleet. During the last

x

decade, considerable attention has been devoted to the Continental

Shelf and the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources.

There are indications that efforts similar to the "Man-in-the-Sea"

program are underway in the Soviet Union.

While it is difficult to differentiate between what is

purely military and what is purely of civilian interest- in

oceanography, Soviet attention to particular ocean areas, the

participation of the hydrographic ships of the Soviet Navy, and

the nature of the research suggests the fulfillment of Soviet

Navy requirements, particularly for submarine operations. It

is difficult to judge whether the Soviet Union is ahead of the

United States in oceanography, but the near future will tell.

The scope of Soviet oceanographic research and their extensive

cooperation with other countries in the field have resulted in

wide international recognition, and have placed Soviet oceanography

in one of the leading positions in the world. There is every

indication that Soviet oceanographic efforts will be intensified

in the future. .

503
 CHAPTER V

FISHING INDUSTRY

General Developments

Fish has always been an

important part of the Russian
diet. Prior to the 1917 October
Revolution, fishing was rather
well developed in Russia,
especially in the areas adjoining
seas
and along large rivers and
lakes. Expensive fish such as
sturgeon and fish products
such as caviar were among the
famous
Russian export items. Most
of the catch was brought by
individual
fishermen, though fishing by
specially formed communes and
fishing villages was also
quite common. The amount of "fresh
water" fish far exceeded
"salt water" catch. Immediately ,

following the Revolution/the

Soviet Government initiated a number
of measures
Resigned to increase the supply of fish. By
special
decree of the Council of
People's Commissars, dated December
9,
1918, the Main Directorate for
Fishing and the Fishing Industry
-own as Glavryba, headed by a
special collegium, was organized.
Soon, however, due to the ineffectiveness
of that organization and
the urgent need to
increase the fish supply, another
decree of the
/

5C*
 Council of PcodIp'c
people s r>~ j
Commissars of uMay 31
»^y ox, 1901 ..
ly^l, liquidated
14
the
state monopoly on
fishingS and gave
eaV P Glavryba n
greater independence
in the administrative,
financial and
financial,
,
an * kbusiness aspects.
.

Starting in 1926,
Gosplan issued thee f
^
irst Vont
xirst control, +]
figures"
for developing the fi
shing plaQ i»<so, the first
.

Five Year
Plan for the development
P ent of *h» * .
the fishing • •

industry was worked out

Tne main goals of the
plan were:

^^
accelerated catch growth,
reduced cost of fi shiag

complete removal of
developmeQt
,
Qf ^^
private Soviet "
et capital
canital from the fishing
industry (foreign
concession rights were
left temporarily
^touched), under a new
order from the Soviet
Covernment, however
the Five year Plan
for the fishing industry
was drastically
changed in 1 929 .

more than two times

The new requirement

over
ver origin*! m and by 1933 to
original plan
_ ^ ^^ ^
achieve a
^
2.6 times higher catch than X
the pre-revolutionary
level
Obviously, the plan was
not fulfilled. However,
the very
intensive wor k of many
enterprises and organi za
tions resulted
" S ° me ±aCreaSe
^ ^fish -tch, in modest
introduction of '

of new technology
and in the building
aing ot
of a MBfi1 -, J,
considerable number of
fishing vessels.

_J^30j^ rst Soviet steel f sb

ng
, .

^^^^ ^^ buiit

"Ribnoj^jcho^astvo (Fishing Industry)

No. 2, 1971, pp. 6 . 8 .

GC-5
in Leningrad. They had installation for the production of fish

meal and canning, as well as storage capacities for salted and

fresh (refrigerated by ice) fish. In 1934 the first Soviet ....

floating canning factory, Lagan', was built for service in the

Caspian Sea. The ship was capable of receiving fish from

trawlers and processing it. In 1937 the first fish processing

factory ship was built for the Northern Basin.

During the second half of the 1930s, the construction of

fishing vessels was slowed down due to the lack of shipbuilding

capacities, which were taken up by naval construction. The

2
total catch for 1940 was 1.4 million tons. During the war many

fishing ships were mobilized by the Soviet Navy. However, fishing

3
continued even during the war, though at a lower intensity.

After the end of World War II, the Soviet Fishing Industry

was in a bad state. Many fishing vessels had been lost in the

war, and those which remained were in poor condition, with worn

machinery and hulls in need of repair. The problem was aggravated

by the fact that a considerable portion of the Soviet shipbuilding

and ship repair capacities, was either destroyed or severely

damaged. Moreover, the agricultural sector of the Soviet economy

2
Vodnyy Transport , July 10, 1971.
3
Shipbuilding No. 12, 1969.

Old
 was also in extremely bad shape, and the
country was in dire
need of foodstuff. Consequently, the fishing industry was
once
again presented with an extensive plan
for a fish catch/
Starting in 1947, the Soviets succeeded
in building a
series of medium trawlers (SRT) for side trawling and for use

of drift nets. In the late 1940's the pre-war

"catch level was
achieved. The greatest portion of the catch
was obtained from
internal waters (rivers, Lakes) and close,
off-shore, waters "

of the adjoining seas. Most of the fishing vessels of that

time
were represented by small seiners, employing
fishing methods and
gear which were not very productive.

The turning point occurred about 1950,

after which there
was an accelerated development of high
sea fishing, resulting
in steadily growing catches.
Restoration of the war-damaged
industry and achievement of pre-war level
of production together
with growing shipbuilding capacities in
East Germany and Poland
assured rapid build-up of the fishing fleet. 4

It is well known in the Soviet Union that

for the same
amount of protein, fish product requires
considerably less capital

4
Emerging capability of the Satellite countries to
ships, particularly fishing vessels,
build
were very important for
the Soviet Union because its own
shipbuilding industry, though
mainly restored and even growing, was busy fulfilling orders
of a extensive naval shipbuilding
program, initiated in 1947.

5C7
 investment than that needed

recognized that in order to

for meat products ^ ^^ j

achieve a large incase in the Soviet

catch, the hi gh seas fishing
operations would have to
To he efficient those
operations required a special
fishing fleet
consisting not only of trawlers,
out mother ships, factory
ships,
refrigerator-transports, and support
ships such as tankers, tugs,
etc. A number of such ships
were built in the second
half of
1950 -s in the Soviet and
foreign yards.
The Soviet fishing fleet
appeared for the first time -
in
the Northwest Atlantic
near Newfoundland in 19 56
and latetT OQ
the Western Edge of George's
Bank. The similar development
took
Place in the Soviet Far East.
These efforts resulted in
the
steadily growing Soviet
catch: 1950 - 1,627,000
tons; 1955 -
2,495,000 tons; I960 - 3,051,000 6
tons. !

The experience of operations

in remote fishing grounds
convinced the Soviet specialists
that the larger trawlers
with
refrigerating or freezing
facilities were needed to improve
the
efficiency of^the fishing
operations. Also, the absence
of any
overseas base's and the remoteness
of fishing areas forced the
Soviets to develop methods
for processing the catch
on the fishing
The d6Cade of the ^60-s
^^__ witnesse d a stea d y increase

5 i

Sudostroyeniye No. 12, 1969.

6
FAQ Ye ar Book of Fishing
i

Statistics . 1962. ,
/
I

5C8
 in the size and capability of Soviet
trawlers and the development
of the auxiliary fleet, capable not only
of supporting a large
group of such trawlers for months,
thousands of miles away from
the Soviet shores, but also of
processing the fish afloat. The
following measures were initiated to build
such an efficient
fleet: Soviet domestic yards continued to build
medium trawlers,
but their size was doubled compared to
those built in the 1950's,
J
all of them have either refrigerating '

or freezing facilities.
In 1963 the Soviet Union started to
build two classes of
trawlers, the Mayak and the Pioner. Both trawlers have a
displacement of over 900 tons. In 1967-1969 two more classes of

trawlers, the Ol'ga and Sargassa, were built, both

with a
displacement of around 1,000 tons. All four classes are capable
of using a variety of fishing equipment
such as drift and seine
nets, trolls, and purse seines. At the end of the 1960's the
first series of Soviet stern trawlers was
built. The Sudoiinport
Agency ordered hundreds of vessels abroad.
In the early 1960 's
a series of over eighty Soviet-designed Tropik-class
stern-slip
freezer trawlers were built by East Germany.
This was followed
by the Atlantic-class stern trawler,
successor to the Tropik, also
built in large series. Both classes of ships are equipped with

the Vostra powered rudder, which gives

them exceptional

7
Sudostroyeniye No. 12, 1969.

rrC-3
 maneuverability, a„ d sophisticated
hydroacoustical gear for fish
detection, in both the 8
horizontal and the vertical
planes.
A Polish yard built a
large series of
Mayakovskii-class
stern trawlers under Code
B-26, designed and
originally bull/"
by the Soviet Union.

During the 1960's, the five

classes of stem-slip trawlers,
the Pushkin, Mayakovskii,
Leskov, Tropik and Atlantik,
were
delivered in large quantities
to the Soviet fishing '

industry.
They are called BMRT (Bolshoi
Morozilniy Rybolovniy Trader) " ,

or large freezer fishing

trawler, and are capable
of independent
operation for sixty-seventy
days in remote areas of
the oceans.
Supported by .other ships,
not only BMRT's, but SRT's,
caa stay
in the fishing area much
longer, provided the crews
are relieved.
in addition to freezing
and refrigerating equipment,
the
trawlers have fish processing
plants. On the fishing grounds,
the trawlers are
supported by factory-mother ships
equipped with
Processing lines and refrigerated
storage and able to supply
the trawlers with
food, fuel, water, and medical
and recreational
facilities for its crews.

Typical of the factory-mother

ships is the Zakharov-class
«hich displaces 16,400
tons, has facilities for
canning and freezing
fish and producing
fish meal for animal and
plant food. She is

8
U «?
JLJS. M!
OI
Naval
detailed description of these
\\I nstitute fishing traWleiS
Proceeding November 1970?
.
trawlers '
^
See

r- 1 r»
capable of receiving fresh, chilled or frozen catches simultaneously

from up to eight fishing vessels, moored alongside .'

Another
i

class of mother ships, the Severodvinsk, built in series by. the

Polish yards since 1955 (under modifications coded B-62 and

B-64) , is used as a mother ship for 20-30 trawlers. Construction

of a more advanced class of mother ships, the Professor Baranov,

in a Polish yard under Code B-69, started in late 1967.

Displacing 10,000 dwt, the ship has a fifty per cent greater

capacity than previous series, with twenty fewer men in the

crew thanks to the high degree of the automation. Her processing

plant is capable of preserving about 200,000 cans of fish per

day in addition to packaging and processing fish paste and fish

meal. Together with attached trawlers, she can operate at sea

9
up to nine months.

The fish transports also have fish processing lines and

refrigerated storage and, in addition, deliver turn-around crews

for fishing trawlers. Typical of such transports are the

Bratsk-class with a 2,500-ton displacement and the Pervomaisk and

Sevastopol classes, both displacing 5,000 tons.

-

The older whale factory ships, Slava and Aleut, were joined

by newer ones, Sovetskaya Rossiya and Sovetskaya Ukraina, 33,000

tons and 46,000 tons, respectively. Whereas the former two were

9
U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, March 1971.

511
 built primarily to process
whales, the latter two
are a
combination whale and fish
factory. The experience
gained
in operating the whaling
& "flotillas"
xxoxiiias «h+k '

with +the
,
k ,
whale
*.
factory
ship as conunand and .other
ships, mad e a considerable
contribution
to the Soviet experience
in developing the
expeditionary type of
fishing operations and in
designing and constructing
appropriate
ships for that service.

The next step in '

sophistication in fishing m ethods '

and
operations introduced into
the Soviet fishing
industry was the "
combination stern trawler-factory
ship, Kataliya KoVshova.
Built by France as the lead
ship in a series, she
was the largest
trawler in the world, with
a very sophisticated
production
Plant. The cannery is equipped
with the PTU-100 Soviet-built
industrial television system
She can re.ain at sea
without
replenishment for 120 dav<? -in in ^.
days in ^
independent operations. The
diagram below illustrates
one day's
dy s ca
caoacitv
Pacity rt
of *• u
* a fish
processing
Plant of the ship and the
types of product turned out:

j
•
• 512
 5 tons- Fish Catch 20 tons
60 tons

Fish Meal 35 ts Freezer

Factory Factory

Cannery

«P ^
Fishmeal Fish Oil Frozen
for .5 t. Fish
Animals 20 ton
4 t. r
type S type N si
50,000 cans 50,000 cans

Source: Sudostroyeniye No. 9, 1969.

513 1

/
 All these measures brought about a considerable increase

in the Soviet catch, which reached 6,030,000 tons in 1966.

;

The
Soviet high seas fishing fleet, the socalled Expedition Fishing

Fleet, in 1966 accounted for more than 90% of the total Soviet

fish catch. Forty-five per cent of all the Soviet fishing

industry catch was processed afloat. The Soviet emphasis

on the larger trawlers and self -sustained fishing fleets paid

off. When operating near the Soviet shore, e.g. the Barents Sea,

one of the best Soviet trawlers would bring in one and one-half tons

of fish per casting, while in the Atlantic a casting brings in

fifteen or twenty tons. Therefore, the big trawlers could make

a profit even if the trip to and from the fishing grounds takes

a month, and costing from 2 to 2.5 million rubles to build were

amortized in 2.5 years.

The Twenty-Third Party Congress in April 1966 endorsed

the recommendations to increase Soviet efforts in developing

the fishing industry, and increased appropriations to that end

by eighty-four per cent for the period 1966-1970. This was

a powerful boost which accelerated the development of fishing

industry even more. The direction taken was toward more sophisticates

and more specialized ships.

10
Morskoy Flot No. 7, 1967.
11
Soviet Life , April 1966, and Morskoy Flot No*. 7, 1967.

514
 in August of 1963, the Soviet Union was
host to the
Internationa! Fishing Industry
Fair, Inrybprom-68! held
in
Leningrad, in which twenty-two
countries, including the USA,
England, all the European
countries, and Japan
participated.
Soviet participation in the
fair was very extensive.
Twenty-five
ministries and directorates,
more than fifty scientific
research
institutes and about 150 enterprises
represented. The Soviets
exhibited ten fishing ships,
including the fish factory
Uborevich,
whose automated
xea processing
oropp^cino' i-;„~~
hoes are capable of producing 300,000 '

cans per day. 12

The Soviet search for more

efficient and productive ships
in the 1960 -s resulted
in the building of the
first and only
catamaran fishing trawler,
Experiment. The specially designed
fishery system for Experiment
has permitted combining two
kinds
of fishing, seining and
trawling, and one of the trawl
can be
used constantly, while the ship is only 130 feet
long, it has
a beam of seventy feet,
which gives an unusually large
deck for
its size, and permits a
large working area for its crew
of
twenty-five. The extensive tests
not only met, but exceeded,
the
design specifications, and
the decision was made to have
a jspecial
shipyard in one of the Baltic
Republics to specialize in the

12
Sudostroyeniv e No. 11, 1968.

I
/
i

515
 construction of catamaran 13
vessels.
In 1969 the largest
g St flshl
f-ich-i«~ ship
*g u- m the world with a

^^
displacement of over 41 nan '

43,000 tons was launched

»-

in the Soviet-
Union. The vosto, factory
ship combines in it
the

capacity of over 13,000

tons; a fish factory
ship, with the
capacity to process 300
tons of raw ma teriais,
including the
Production of 150 ,000 cans
and XS0 tons of fro.en
fish, fi shmeal
and industrial oil; a
passenger s[]ip & ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^
600; a tan.er, and a refri

four months in tropical

g erator ship.
She is able tQ
waters without replenishment.
But
^
the most unique
feature- of the vostok *»,>+„
factory ship is the
fourteen Nadezhda-class

^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
fishing hoats carried
aboard. The
Nadeshda-class fishing boat

null is made of
plastic. T hey can he deployed
from a mother ship
to their fishing stations and,
while fishing, are
supported by a
helicopter from aboard
the Vostok.

independent as well as e
The Vostok is

x peditionary fishing
Qf^^
in the most remote
areas of the world
oceans.

At the end of 1960's,

the Soviets also

^^ ^ ^ ^
increased the depth
^etrawlln., Du ring the 1950s and
^
13
Nedelya No. 9, March
1969, p. 21.

516
 special large
refrigerator trawler
Wler th. Meridian-class,
the M ,

.
'
was
designed. A more powerf.,1 n
fUl propuls
*°° Plant drives
a

to
speea of six knots

Z.200-1,500 meters
«•
whlle
14
t
the ship

The trawl _ .
/
The Mendian-class
„ ,„
was f<>
number
r of
ox super
<5iin<~»v .*.>.•,
*
trawlers. The f lrst o
St 8 onn tons
000 .

' '
Gorizont-class
has an underway
speed of fif
"teen
teen k
'
,
knots, ls equipped with
the
processing plant
producing thirtv
6 thirty-fxve
.
**, *
tons of f ish per
d

the tropics,
while a third th» Baren
the n
15
' t^vo More, i„ northerQ
. t
waters. According to the
1971-1975 m»„ Sovie
5 Pian .
t fishermen
,.
to fxsh to are '

depths of 5,000
meters and the e oorres Ponding
„.„, and equ ip
vessels
fishing
m ent are heing 16
planned.
A »" « - -11 and modern fishiag
,_,_ ^ f
Io ed seas
- suoh
- - —• - - .**
!^^-r
:;; ;

14
^°s*™yeni2e
-lers

No. 12, 1969.

have heen design and ^^
se aS , aQd a i SO

^
l6
iSSinii^felca^Pravda, April
Nedelva No. as, July
30>

5-11,
^
i 971 .

517
 increase in the tracer fleet has been
accompanied by a
corresponding increase and
sophistication in fish 'processing
factories and refrifrpM+ a ^ transports.
a refrigerated *-
'

The fish factory,

Korablestroitel' Klopotov, has
a fish processing
plant with
a seventy-four percent
higher productivity than
that on the
Zakharov-class. Displacing
Piacmg is inn +~
15,300 tons, the ship has a
crew of
only 120, thanks to the
mgn
high de^rpp
degree o-p
of automation. The ship is
designed to operate only i„
northern and temperate
latitudes.
For wor, in tropics and
e q uatorial waters,
another ship, the
Khaharov, displacing 22 600
, tons, was built. The ship production
plan is designed for sopriaiiv^n.
specializing in expensive fish
•

and producing
high-quality canned fish. To sat-i^fv +-h«
10 satisfy the growing Soviet
need
for fish meal, a series
of Pos'et-class fish
processing factories
is being built.
Displacing 28,200 tons, the
Pos'et is equipped
with special submersible
fish pumps, and is capable
of receiving
np to 800 tons of
fish per day from the trawlers.
Its plant
turns out 120 tons of
fish meal per day in addition
to other
varieties of fish products,
including fillets and cans. 17 I

A series of twelve 12,500

dwt refrigerated transports
has
been ordered and is
under construction in Prance.
The ship has
a very powerful
refrigeration plant providing a
temperature of
»^s 30°c and a powerful propulsion
system which drives the

Sudostroyeniy e No. 12, 1969.

:

518
 ship at a speed of nineteen knots. Some of the ships of the

series, which have already been constructed,

are planned to be
used on the Soviet Far East-Black Sea line
to deliver fish

products to the European part of the 18

Soviet Union. A series
of refrigerated transports, the Karl Libnekht
class, is being
built in East Germany for service in
the Soviet Northern Basin. 19

i The world-wide extension of fishing

by the Soviet Union
through the socalled expeditionary method,
which employs
large fishing flotillas centered around and supported
by
factory mother ships, considerably reduces the unit cost of

sea food by processing the catches afloat.

Besides the obvious
economic advantages, self-sufficient
flotilla operations represent
the most logical solution, for the geographic
factor dictates it.
The Soviet Union has no overseas bases from
which fishing
20
operations can be conducted.

'
Vodnyy Transport. July 8, 1971, and November 24, 1970
19
Vodnyy Transport , February 18, 1971.
20
During the decade of the 1960 's Soviet
n an
efforts resulted
agreement with Spain to use a port in the
*s an overseas
Canary Islands
operating base. Cuba can be mentioned as a
;econd such place. A number of countries such as Nigeria and
.auntius, provide the Soviet fishing
fleets with the right
o make port calls,
where some minor repairs can be performed.
«, in general, those are rather minor exceptions compared
Uh the magnitude of Soviet fishing
expeditions, some of which
^voive up to several hundred
vessels in a given area

519
 The operations of a large
fishing flotUla.for example
in the southeastern Atlantic,
described recently resembled the
operation of a large naval fleet
headed by the colander' (chief
of the expedition) and divided
into formations (flotillas)
^"
each headed by its own commander.

A captain's conference
held via radio resulted in
the
"
decision to switch fishing
grounds to an unidentified area
nearby Walvis Bay. A number of
ships were sent ahead for fish
reconnaissance. After searching
for fish with the help of
hydro-acoustical gear and supported
by data obtained earlier
from research ships, oceanographic
details, and fisheries
exploration data, the reconnaissance
ships reported its
findings to the mother ship,
which supplies direction and
guidance to fleet operations.
After schools of fish were
found and caught, the trawlers
headed to the mother ship or
the refrigerated transport,
where the catch was unloaded.
According to a schedule, some
fishing vessels went to Lagos,
Nigeria, where their crews were
relieved and flown back home.
The expedition lasted for
the six months. 21

The operations of each expedition

and fishing flotilla
are controlled from
Moscow, where the main information center

*«ma^ 5?!'^
1
iis
i
y i

s;!;.
T '"" , " triTj
''
*<»*«". »*>. «*

520
 of the fishing industry not only has
the ___location of each fishing
vessel, but collects and analyzes the
amount and qualities of the
catches and, hence, the effectiveness of
the operations/ The -

center was described as follows:

behind the panels of computer
tbere is a huge operational map of the fishing fleet.
The
information showed that in the distant
waters there were
1,929 Soviet fishing ships, of which 1,420 were
fishing, 103
were underway (to or from fishing areas) and 149 were in ports. 22
Their catches for a day, a week, and from the beginning '
of. the"
fishing cruise, as well as loads
including fish, fuel, and other
supplies, were known. The center resembles the work of
an
operations department of a naval
staif
In 1970, 7.2 million tons of fish was caught in
the seas
>nd the oceans (not counting the
catch in the internal waters) -

» increase of close to fifty per cent

over 1965. The growth
)f the Soviet Fishing Fleet and
its technological sophistication
)bviously contributed greatly
to such a catch. However, the
enlevement would not have been
possible without the tremendous
ffort of the Soviet scientific research and development

rganizations supporting the Soviet

Fishing Fleet. Now we shall
xamine the history and
the development of the Soviet efforts
11
this area.

22
Sovetskaya Rossiya , May 19,1971.

521
 Research and Development

It is now generally accepted that

the success of fishing

industry depends upon two factors: efficiency and knowledge^

While the former, efficiency, mainly is a
product of
technology, which was briefly discussed above,
the latter,
knowledge, comes from the marine science
research. Many experts
in the field are agreed that the quality and
emphasis of Soviet
research in support of fisheries exceeds
that of any other
country and, especially in recent times, the Soviets have made

considerable progress in the application of

modern science to
23
ocean fishing.

The first Soviet Scientific Research Institute

of the
Fishing Industry, Plavmornin (Floating
Marine Scientific
Institute) was organized in 1921 with the
tasks of "broadly
ranging research in the Arctic Ocean 24
and adjoining seas". The
importance attached to the research in the
interest of the fishing
industry can be illustrated by the
following: the decree which
established Plavmornin and was signed by
Lenin provided the

23
See, for example, Marshall D. Shulman, "The Soviet Turn
En if^x'' ^^-^Ji^Seas (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
1968) '
and Gilbert McL. Chapman, Fishery Resources in
Tti L
^ishore Waters", The Law of the Sea Offshore Boundaries
:
a nd
illiLZpnes (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967).
24
Pybnoe Khozvaistvo No. 3, 1971. '

522
nstitute with equipment, fuel, and food on the same basis

s "utmost important state agencies". As a result of more than

t

hirty expeditions in the Barents, White, and Kara Seas aboard

*»

he Persei, the first Bathymetric chart was created, the current

ystem was studied, and considerable knowledge of the biological

roductivity of the waters and the sea bottom was obtained.

uring the period 1921-1926 a network of specialized laboratories,

ubordinated to the CentraOL Institute of the Fishing Industry

n Moscow and serving the fishing regions around Murmansk, the

ar East, the Caspian, and the Black Sea was created.

Of considerable importance for the development of fishing

n the Barents Sea was the organization of GOIN (State

ceanographic Institute) at the end of 1929. In 1932 the

pecially organized Murmansk Herring Expedition established

he possibility of drift fishing for herring in the Barents Sea.

t the end of 1933. this expedition was merged with the Murmansk

etachment of GOIN, and the PINRO (Polar Scientific Research

nstitute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography) was created.

i

In 1926 the Pacific Scientific-Fishing Station was

Tganized "to study the fish reserves of the Far Eastern seas

or the purpose of commercial fishing". In the late 1920's,

he Pacific Station concluded studied of the biology and

distribution of Kamchatka crabs. Based upon the findings of the

59 7
OZ
station a rather sizable industry for catching, processing, and

canning of crabs was established in the area. In'the 1930's,

canned crab was one of the important items of Soviet export.

In 1930 the station was reorganized into the Pacific Scientific

Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography (TINRO)

In the late 1920' s and early 1930's, considerable

attention was devoted to the study and improvement of fish

processing methods, including salting processes, and quality

of salt. The work of the fishing industry research institutes

made an important contribution to the development of the Soviet

salt industry, thereby precluding the need for importation of

salt from abroad. (Salt used to be an important item in Russian

and later Soviet import) . The institutes also developed new

technological processes for the processing of caviar-the first

item of the fishing industry sold on export.

The fishing expeditions of 1936-1939 proved the profitability

of herring fishing in the open sea and discovered rich herring

grounds in the Northern and Pacific waters. The methodology of

long-term forcasts for bottom fish and herring was worked out.

As a result of work of the scientific institutes prior to World

War II, the Soviet Union had developed a good picture of the

nature and volume of the fishing resources in the seas adjoining

her waters.

52H
 In the

^ ^^
post-World War
Perl ° d „
scientific institutes WOrk °* the
was «.
con centrated
.

develo P^nt ^
—
sea and oceanic *
fishin, as
wishing of
u
* *—
well as
ac «,k ,
whaling in -m~ .,
*

a
T ne ir " *<=
•
contribution to •

the
«""- *- the re raot e ar
teas
eas of th
" -""*-"»
the world
"ey have been
constantly
ctutxy inv
" immeasu "»le.
involved

—
,
in f^H re
tne discovery
ot aev wishing <=°-aissance and
grounds, th*. *+ ^

- - «, «,«„„„„;:;,;"* -*• - •

'" methods of f thS deve '

lopment of
iishmg,
ish ,„
including
iU 6 th
tnea use n-p «t
lght aDd el6Ctrioal
*-*»,.««* sounds
' ««.«.
_

*""
" -
—
Today there
are eight

-iet
ry.
reSear0h
Their wo r
wonc is conducted
Ac ade.y Q f
iQSUtUteS ° f
* n n

^'^
- *~«

——
Sciences and
d
^-eteorlogical i nstltute
UteS
—3. IB addit
additl0Q to the
.
"
above m P n + -
to the other

'
-t important institut
institutes are:
'"" "* ™>
VNIro - Cth^ h

sSSrr^ -^Tt £ &*-«**

'
° f FlSheri
'ftJSiJS and
ta
A
SOieUUfiC Resea
in d„ str y '
-
-

-«i
n* ° Scien.ti£c Research
PiihiTiii"
S ann
and n °oeanography * ese arch Institute
t
of
AzcherN'IRO a
a ^ne HaSFi ;.~S!. Ck Sea Scie *tif
ic Research
and 0ce anography research Institute
r

>riii - Las Pian

Scientific
C R««*
Rese arch
a u
Institute of
 KIKIMBP - ScicntifX „
the FiSiTlHdustry ° Resea rch and Design
Institute of

o* ^terprises
and iJSZ^STA^^
w "* ^«—
/ xne Fishing
Industry *

Giprorybflot - Stato n~ •

=an be seen ea oh
major Soviet basln
has ° ne lnst "ute
assigned to it.

- PINR0 lMtltate
-

pres ; ntly conduots .

— ^
up to
—ions annually, during
wMch ^^^ socaii ^ |
;;
e

biological r
eraPhl
° "*«~ « d and large amounts
of
'

data collected ' '

"-tj-eciea. Cm
(Mass survey
urveys nf
of fish
*,• ,. ~
are nearing
1 ic„ „„„
1,150,000 samples per year)
Th» lnst
< u
"utes owns sixteen
'

ships. research
Sear °a
Siaoe 1958 •
lnstl baS beea conducting
.
'

+ . work on
acclimatization of Pari in „
Pacific salmon in 25
the White
lte and »
anrt Barents
Seas
The TINRO owns a
fleet „f tM ,
thirty-six research ships and
conducting research

la the Pacific
Ocean.
on all known or
potential
^ ^^
—
*»e Soviet Fishing
Research. Xastitutes
work out new

:z::r*
-
B processing especiaiiy
factory ships.
-
V° ltage
fi6ld iQ section
Such methods include
smoking i n a ^J
with head processing
Processing usmgmfra-red • '

rays
ays. Th „ gamma
The radiation process for „= '
•
canning is under
development, and an
experimental
tax installation
installs-
._
_ called Stavrida
25„.
fishi ng Industry No.
3, 1971
"
- / .. '.
/
I

I
was successfully tested in 1970 aboard the scientific ship

Akademik Knipovich, built in 1964 specifically for research

in the remote areas of the ocean, where the potentialities of

future fishing grounds are determined. Research work has

begun on determining the best means of utilizing Antarctic

Krill for human nutrition. (This represents the first attempt

to use plankton as a human food). The ship's processing plant

produced a special cheese containing krill protein.

In addition to the surface research ships, the industry ""

since 1958 has been using a converted W-Class submarine, Severyanka,

for the research. This submarine gathered considerable data on

fish habits as well as the efficiency of trawling methods.

In May 1971, the decision to build two more submarines for

fishing research was announced. One will be of long range and

26
endurance and the second, a midget type for short dives.

Also the Soviets are using anumber of submersibles, such as

Sever-1, with working depths up to six hundred meters; Sever-2,

a self-propelled type equipped with a manipulator and working

depths of more than 1,000 meters; and the Gvidon self-propelled

"underwater laboratory with submergence depths of several

26 Nedelya
No. 21, May 17-23, 1971.

527
 hundred meters"
wcto An rt +u
. Another devirp aiding
aevice a-;^,-*,
in the study of the
behavior of the trawls
as well
^11 as of fish
f u A•

is the Sathyplane
Atlant, which, with
aboard is +™
a man aooard,
towed * .
behind the fishing
vessel and is capable

fishing process itself.

°* "—
aphing and reporting
on the

The Atlantic Scipntifi«

o^xenriiic Research
r>
*

Tn<s^ +,, + ~ has

U1 institute u
special
department of marine
electronics
tromcs. Th«
The „department
designed and
developed a number of
underwater
erwater TV «equipments •

which automatically
observe the behavior
of the trawl and
transmit th the picture to , '

the trawler. c,,^

Two such equipments,
^
IGEK and PRITSEL, are
said

^
to improve trawx
productive by more thaQ
- thirty per ^^
toe latter is capable

of meters away
of seeing

from the *rawi.

trawl
28
a „.
A u
^ ^ ^^
number Qf sophisticated
sonars for finding
b schools
cnools of fish
f*~u have
u
been developed.

o- of them, the Kala?r

, is ^^ Qi detecUQg a siQgie
at depths up to
800 meters. 29

I- order to attract
fish and to concentrate
a fish school
»USt prior to the
tra w l, a special
rocket W hich spreads
an

!r!^l!27 c
en USe
" ° riginally '
the "<**** -re
|

SpveJskayj^Rossiva, July 12,

1968.
28
^^XJ^n^port, April 29, 1969.
^P^£2^niye No. 12, December 1968,
pp. 27 l30.

S2&
 propelled by solid

Later, a special
UGland
fuel

steam
an n — ° f the. were expendable.

«~t. « can be used

propell^ rocket

p
" was
—*" which

06 iS US6d t0
«tuat. the sprayer. 30
It was reported
that by imit,*-
"bating sounds of
Soviet fishmg
fish- predators
Ve SS ei s can
force *«.„ t0* the "ottom,
ho**
bottom where
trawl catches
*"-" es th=them. in tha*-
that ,„
way, the effectiving
of the fishing "octiveness
K ear is
S gear 1= •

increased by 300-500%
An .
tb. Caspian Sea
tested the zne effe „
effectiveness
" *
of }-i<rh +

—X. at the °°
cost
St of abo
b «t one-third
that of
" ^
* ° f a net operation.
31
""^
Tho
The previously
genera
V generally n
accepted belief
that th»
*« a limitless source of
f ish ^sources
re is now disputed.
of the reasons One
for this is that -„
W ° rld fiShiQ
expand-
expanding at such
a rapid rate
S e are "^s
that th
* -stain
F
iX
it

actofl ifee *
'

F
The ddepletion

For
•
,
of f
fish«*.„

°r example, in idaa ~
he " ^ —s became the

S takeQ 1G N
" ° rthe
- Atlantic, while in
1 969 the ° t
*ount to a little atch
over two million
tons T« + u
the
art
rt of *
Nor theastern
h
th e Atlantic
.
wher* f ishing
c, where ^ u
_ is perfonaed
priinarily ^

523
 the Soviet Union,
Iceland Denmark,
'celand, n
"erring catches
decrea.^
^creased
and Norway

catastrophically
the ^^
: ,

Iceland, more than lq *

3 tlmes •

57,000 tons); ( f ™m 770,000

to
gggH:. close to seven times-
0£SR_l more than ><, +• tJ rae s, -

75,000 tons). tlmeS (fr °°>

500,000 to
Each side bl ames
the other. 32 . .

The Soviet Union

ordered complete halt to
herrin*

——-
exists in the S«
».«»...«.„
•
„ tio
s
„u situation
.
2* " '»

..

Soviet *ar East,

where
vvnere at th
the end of the f-i-p + -
ti.
there were lour
fn,^ huge
u sixties
of h^
schoolss ot he rnng, and •

now thp~ 1S ° •

°™ in the Okhotsk
Sea.
Uly

S °viet
scientists warned
J
the flsh
xne f is h mg •

industry on the
Possibility
7 of
0± th«
tne ^Pletion
, ,,
of Pacify
i-aciiic herring-
h
t^~
for conservation practices necessity
practice was wpIi „~
-co g n lzed by Soviet
dentists a lol0ng tin e ag °- '

*° 1938 (!) Academician

r0te
' KniD
^nxpovxch ,

"There used to
--

be a tlm
oe time
e when
„
even bio- „„
^enti ficworldwere .
.
x
U Uallmited
^ ^ C ° nSider th
* »-lt h o* the
'

- ™° time for such

naive iUusi
lllUS1 ° ns
»evit ably the
results
are - «<*
tS ° f a s
"Perficial knowledge
is pas^p,] se of
ox nat
nature,
'

Passed irreversibly" 33
,-
qq
»
But
I1+
eve n at the preset
U-. present n '
time the
32
isyestiya, December
j
13, i 970 .

^^^i^naya Gazeta No
"O. 4 2
42, n *
October 15, 1969.
,

/
/

S2n
 opinion of scientists concerning the maximum level
of fishing

which the oceans would be able to sustain differ

widely.
Some conclude that the world fishery production
could be
increased up to two hundred million tons without any
radical
development such as fish farming, and the ocean would be
able to
34
sustain it. Other scientists, including many Soviets, put the

maximum sustainable level somewhere between one hundred

million
and 150 million tons. But the growth in world population, the

steadily increasing number and size of ships involved in -

fishing
together with the sophistication of fishing equipment, and,

finally, the growth, though at a slower rate, of fish

catches,
have convinced the majority of the scientists that,
if the present

practice continues, the ocean might become a biological desert.

Moreover, it was clearly stated in the Soviet press that the

traditional methods of catching fish in the world oceans will

not meet human needs in the future. It was also emphasized

that in spite of existing possibility of increasing catches in

inland waters considerably, its capability, will be limited.

Strong arguments have been made in the Soviet Union for drastic

changes in fishing, to switch from the methods of simple hunting

of fish to rational and scientifically based methods

of fish

34 ,_
Milner B. Schaefer, "Economic and Social Needs for Marine

New York: Wiley, 1968, p. 6.

— —
Resources," Ocean Engineering: Goals, Environment, Technol ogy,

531
 35
harvesting. m order to achieve such a rational use of the
ocean wealth the following has been proposed: »

- to study and master those areas of

the ocean and catch
those forms of the aquatic life which has
not been used
intensively;

- to increase fishing in the middle layers as well

as
pelagic fishing were considerable resources
of anchovies,

mackarel, tuna, marlins, sharks, and other types

of fish
exist;

- to improve methods for determining fishing resources in

order to establish maximum sustainable level of

catches*
- more rational fishing in relation to the size and
the
age of the fish caught;

- considerably increase catches of small previously not

used fish and such form of sea life as krill, for

production
of protein or fish protein concentrates (FPC)

- to increase the practice of transportation of certain

fish from one area of the ocean to another (primarily

off-shore
i

areas) and to assist fish in acclimation;

- to intensify the use of the Continental Shelf and to

create there a sort of aquaculture which would potenially

become
a major marine food production areas.

35.
Vodnyy Transport , July 1, 1971.

532
 Presently, to exercise conservation practice, research

hips are being sent to the prospective fishing grounds, ahead

f the arrival of the fishing fleets, where they determine not

nly the quantity and type of fish available, but also measure

ish size and determine fish age. This procedure is claimed

o minimize the possibility of catching young fish and decreases

36 --

he chances of over-catch. As was stated above, the production

rocess for fish protein paste from krill has been developed

ad the needed equipment tested. It has been claimed that

he catches ofkrill measured in protein units may produce twice

37
s much protein as presently obtained from all world fishing.

Some steps are being initiated in the direction of

eveloping aquaculture. From the experimental grounds of

zcher-NIRO, some forms of sea life and sea weeds are being

arvested at half the cost of the conventional methods at sea.

oviet scientists have long been working to improve the breed

f the fish, and recently a major success was reported. A

rolonged experiment had resulted in the hybrid of a beluga and

sturgeon. It was claimed that nature's barrier had been -

vercome, and a new fish called bester, whose "parents" are the

eluga and the sturgeon is very viable and fast growing. In

Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya , July 13, 1971.

37
Vodnyy Transport, July 1, 1971. r

533
1966 the second generation of this fish was developed from the

roe laid by the bester. It is now claimed that the bester came

out of the experimental state long ago and is ready for natural

breeding and reproduction, prospects for which were considered

very favorable.

Fishing by -Kolkhozes and in Inland Waters

In addition to the fishing enterprises subordinated to

the Ministry of the Fishing Industry, there are hundreds of

fishing kolkhozes (collectives, organizationally similar to

the agricultural collective farms) , involved in fishing in

inland waters as well as at high sea. Under the Model Statue

of the Fishing Kolkhoz, approved by the Council of People's

Commissars on 16 February 1939, all motor and sailing boats

used for fishing and transport, machinery, fishing gear and

net-making equipment were collectivized in the Fishing Kolkhoz.

An important role in the operation of Kolkhozes used to

be played by the socalled motor-fishing stations (MRS) . By

the end of the 1950' s however, the methods of allotment of

technical production equipment to Kolkhozes by the MRS were

found inadequate, and the system was changed. All equipment

formerly belonging to the MRS's was sold to the Kolkhozes, and

the MRS's became technical stations for the repair. Since that

53^
time, the ships, fishing gear, etc. have been sold to the

kolkhozes on a cash or credit basis.

In 1969 the total kolkhoz fishing fleet had about 10,000

fishing vessels and accounted for about one-quarter of the total

Soviet fish catch. Only in Kamchatka and Sakhalin are there

more than five hundred fishing kolkhozes, and more than 180

of them are involved in sea and ocean fishing. Their fleet has

a relatively small number of large freezer trawlers (BMRT) , a

few hundred medium refrigerator trawlers (SRT) and a few hundred

ocean-going seiners. Working for the kolkhozes there are over

2,000 captains and navigators with regular certificates. The

reason that the kolkhozes fish in distant waters (concurrently

and quite often together with the expeditions of the Ministry

of the Fishing Industry) is not for their love for navigation

or even the better quality of fish there, but the absence of

fish in nearby off-shore waters. The Far Eastern regions of the

Soviet Union are a classical example, but their case is especially

typical for another reason. Several years ago, not to mention

the p re-World War II period and the first decade following i fish

was found in abundance in those waters, but ever greater plans

i

for catches, the real demand for fish in the country, good pay

(frequently many times over that in the agricultural collective

farms) promoted not only a rapid development of the fishing fleet

535
in the kolkhozes, but unreasonably large catches which often

considerably exceed the processing capacity of the fishing

industry. In all fairness, it should be stated that the Soviet

fishermen are not alone responsible for the overexploited waters

of the Okhotsk Sea, around Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands;

Japanese fishermen made their own considerable contribution.

Soviet scientists made, what appeared to be, a correct prognosis,

set a quota of fishing and warned against excessive catches,

38
but they were ignored. As a result, all that could be done was

for the kolkhoz fishing fleet to follow Ministry of the Fishing

Industry and to fish all over the world.

However, to that end a qualitatively different, much more

sophisticated and expensive fleet of ships was needed, which

was developed but to such a degree that it does not now differs

much from the fishing fleet of Ministry of the Fishing Industry.

The kolkhoz fleet uses the same type of refrigerator-transports

and similar methods of fishing used by the Ministry's flotillas.

i

The economics of the state-owned fishing, enterprises and the

/ :

kolkhozes, however, differ sharply, as does the pay received

!

by the fishermen, as illustrated by the following, hypothetical

example: Let us assume that Ivanov is a fisherman of the

i

State-Owned Fishing Flotilla, and Petrov is a fisherman of a

38
Literaturyaya Gazeta No. 39, 40, and 42, of October 1969
/

ob
Kolkhoz. From the very beginning of a fishing cruise they are

in unequal positions. While underway to the fishing ground

Ivanov receives socalled "navigational pay" of approximately

160 rubles per month; Petrov is paid nothing. If the fishing

is extremely poor and Ivanov catches little or nothing, he will

still be paid his guaranteed salary (seventy-five per cent of

navigational pay), plus an "area differential".

Length of service in the state fishing industry is well

rewarded. For example, in the northern areas, fishermen receive

a ten per cent increase in their basic pay every six months.

Petrov receives none of those benefits and is paid only for the

fish caught and delivered ashore or aboard a ref rigerator-transport

It is true that kolkhozes pay their fishermen more per unit

of fish caught than the fishing industry pays its fishermen, but,

on the other hand, the State pays the kolkhozes considerably

less per unit than it' pays to the State owned fishing enterprises.

How do kolkhozes manage to exist under those conditions?

The "secret" is quite simple - by the considerably higher

productivity of their fishermen, by better and cheaper maintenance

and repairs, primarily performed by their members, and a very

normal desire of the Kolkhoz fishermen to make money. Kolkhoz

fishermen are making 400-600 rubles per month, considerably more

537
 than the average wages of a Soviet worker
of 140-160 rubles per

month. A smaller administrative superstructure

and simplicity
of accounting methods and control make
Kolkhoz overhead costs
considerably lower than those of the State owned 39
enterprises.
It is a common practice that fishing
kolkhozes in the
Soviet Union are assigned to a State owned fishing
combine
(fish processing factory), whose existence
is to a large degree

due to the kolkhozes. The system was designed in order to get

kolkhoz monies into the State budget, and works

as follows;
The combine acts as a broker between the kolkhozes
assigned to
it and buyers of fish the kolkhozes caught.
Regardless of to
whom the kolkhoz catches are to be delivered,
whether a domestic
or a foreign customer, this catch is counted as partial fulfillment

of the combine's plan, and the combine is paid

for it by the
buyer. From the money received, the combine in turn pays the

kolkhozes, but a considerably smaller sum than received

from the
buyer. By just such a practice, in 1969 in Kamchatka alone

the combines "-received" from the kolkhozes

twelve million rubles.
But being on a self-accountability basis and
because of their
lower productivity, in addition to the twelve million
rubles
i

they received a nineteen million ruble subsidy

from the state.

Proponents of the new economic reform launched in the

i

39
Li teraturnaya Gazeta No. 43, October 22, 1969. /

r;^
iR
Soviet Union in 1965 raised the natural question: If kolkhozes

are managing to pay for their own operation and make a considerable
t

profit, and in effect are subsidizing the combines, maybe it is

40
more logical for them to own these combines. Naturally, this

question remained unanswered, because if the proposed "transaction"

were to go through, the next logical step would be to buy

regional, state-owned fishing enterprises and ultimately to

buy out the Ministry of the Fishing Industry. Another idea

proposed in the Soviet Press was to assign only off-shore fishing -

to kolkhozes, reserving pelagic fishing for the State-owned

fishing industry. But, as stated earlier, there are not many

fish left in the off-shore waters around the Soviet Union.

The notoriously inadequate Soviet price system is hurting

the kolkhozes badly. The July 1967 price reform elevated the

prices for metal and metal products. A seiner which used to

cost 400,000 rubles prior to the reform cost 750,000 rubles

after reform and a BMRT which used to cost 2.5 million rubles,

now costs 3.6 million. Even though the prices for a ton of

fish remained the same, the kolkhozes managed to operate at a

considerable profit by exercising initiative and ingenuity.

For example, after ship repair prices were raised, the kolkhozes

began to repair their ships themselves, and established a number

40
Literaturnaya Gazeta No. 43, October 22, 1969..

539
of their own small repair yards, saving up to 100,000 rubles

on the repair of a BMRT compared with the cost of the repairs

'

at a state-owned ship repair yard. But because the socalled

"state interests'* always prevail, the initiative of the kolkhozes

in these directions is constantly being restrained. In spite

all of these, the kolkhozes catches are large, and the operational

cost lower.

The efforts of the State Fishing Industry and the- fishing

kolkhozes resulted in a steady increase of Soviet catches during

the five year period 1965-1970, with the total catch for the

five years exceeding 34 million tons, or fifty-five per cent

more than the preceding five years period. The annual Soviet

per capita consumption of sea food increased by 36.5%, to 17.2

41
kilograms (thirty-eight pounds) in 1970.

But sea fishing, though known and practiced in Russia for

centuries, has only recently become the predominant, for (

traditionally, a considerable amount of fish was caught in the

inland waters (rivers, lakes, and other fresh wa.ter bodies) as

well as closed seas. In contrast to the steadily growing

I

catches in the seas and oceans, the catches in inland waters

are steadily declining. For example, the catches in Sea of Azov

were: 1936, 158,000 tons; 1946, 52,000 tons; 1956, 25,000 tons;
i

41
Fishing Industry No. 4, 1971, pp. 3-6. :

/
/

540
and 1965, 14,000 tons. The picture is not better in lakes and

rivers: prior to the Revolution, in 1913, 614, 006 tons of

t

fish were caught in them: in 1962 the figure was 426,000 tons,

and in 1968, 270,000 tons. (These figures reflect the catches

42
of only expensive fish, such as sturgeon, beluga, sterlet, etc.)

The declining catches have been the direct result of depletion

in fish stock, which have assumed alarming proportions. Compared

with 1937 the catches of certain fish decreased as follows:

sturgeon, two times; sundre, seven times; salmon, five times;

Caspian herring, thirty times. Continuous pressure from ever

increasing plans forced inland fishermen to catch more and

more small fish. In 1937, 254,000 tons of small fish were caught,

while in 1967 this figure reached 560,000 tons. B ut it is

well known fact that large fish eat small ones, and because of

the catastrophic decrease in the latter, the potential damage

to overall inland fish resources increased considerably. The

problem was aggravated by the pollution inevitably accompanying

industrial development, which, in addition, required more and more

electric power. Consequently the large number of hydroelectric

,

stations and dams built on the Soviet rivers violated the regular

fish migration routes. It must be said that a number of provisions

to eliminate the problem were planned and implemented. Bypasses

42
Literaturnaya Gazeta No. 30 and No. 50, 1968, and No. 10,
1969. /

541
and elevators were built at the dams, but fish quite often

refused to take a free ride on elevators or follow prescribed

channels and stubbornly tried to return to their spawning

grounds through familiar ways which were blocked by concrete.

Complaints are being voiced that the best scientists and

experts have been employed by the fishing industry involved

in the sea and ocean fishings and not enough funds have been

allocated for research in the interest of inland fishing.

Another problem, and this is of a typically Soviet nature, is

the administrative or organizational problem. It is impossible

to determine who is responsible for the inland waters, their

purity, and the preservation of fish. This was admitted by no

less an authority than the Minister of the Fishing Industry of

43
the RSFSR. The Soviet Ministry of the Fishing Industry is

nominally in overall charge of all matters concerning fishing.

Keeping waters free of pollution lies with the corresponding

ministries of the various industries, to whom the fulfillment of

the plan is the primary goal and anti-pollution measures, in

spite of the existing regulations, a remote, secondary goal at

best. The Ministry of the Fishing Industry, overwhelmed by the

problems associated with sea and oceanic fishing obviously does

not and, in all objectivity, probably cannot pay enough attention

43 Pravda, May
31, 1969.

542
to inland waters. For these reasons, the republic ministries

and administrations are arguing that they alone should be

entrusted with matters associated with inland fishing, and not

only responsible for the catches and fulfillment of plan. In

reality, the arguments, of course, are centered around of control

of funds research facilities. At the end of 1960's, only four

per cent of total capital investment in the Soviet fishing

44
industry was allocated for the development of inland fishing.

Certain measures aimed at correcting the existing situations-

have been undertaken. At present, the Main Directorate for

Fishing and Fish Farming in inland basins coordinates the efforts

of republic fishing ministries and directorates in their fish

preservation efforts. Ten scientific research institutes of

the Ministry of the Fishing Industry of the USSR and a group of

scientists from the Soviet Academy of Sciences are searching for

a solution and are experimenting in order to stabilize inland

water fish resources and to promote their growth. One hundred

and twenty fish factories and farms have been established J One
/ !

such enterprise occupies an area of 13,000 hectares and is capable

of producing 18,000 tons of fish for consumption and to growing

more than eleven million fish to one year of age.

The fresh water fish in the Soviet Union have traditionally

44
Pravda, May 31, 1969. , .

i '

*3
U
4 VJ
been considered a better fish, and certain types definitely

are. The possibilities for well organized fish farming in the

Soviet Union are very bright indeed. Its largest republic,-^^

the Russian, has 400,000 kilometers of rivers, about twenty

million hectares of lakes, and more than four million hectares

of artificial water reservoirs. At present, it also has close

to 40,000 hectares of fish ponds.

In 1971, the Ministry of the Fishing Industry of the USSR

inaugurated a new scientific industrial enterprise which is

charged with the task of increasing fish resources in Sea of

45
Azov and the Don River. In 1970, sixty-eight million juvenile

sturgeons, 760 million salmon, and about six billion other fish

were produced by the above mentioned 120 fish factories and farms

and released into Soviet inland water basins. A low catch limit
46
for the inland waters has been established.

45
Izvestiya , Ma'y 24, 1971.
46
Fishing Industry No. 4, 1971, pp. 3-6

5W
 Organization

The Ministry of Fishing mdustry

of the USSR is a Union
Republic ministry. In contrast to All-Union
Ministries, which
have administrative power
over the entire territory of
the
Soviet Union, the Union Republic
ministries coordinate similar
industries in the Republics T>ut
directly control only a specified
number of enterprises, the list
of which has been approved
by
the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet
of the USSR.
The Ministry is headed by the
J
Minister assisted by the
central apparatus.

On representations made by the

Minister, the Council of
J

Ministers of the USSR approves the

collegium of the Ministry for
"collective examination of the most
important matters relating
to fisheries". The collegium is chaired by the
Minister, and
its members are the Deputy
Ministers and senior officials
of the Ministry appointed by the Council
of Ministers. Decisions
of the collegium are implemented by the
Minister's orders.
The structures of the Ministry
|
(USSR) comprises five Main
Basin Administrations,
four Main Branch Administrations,
fourteen
Administrations, six Departments
and two Main Inspection
Apartments.

The Main Administration of Fleet »

|
Mainte nanr^ is to assure
'lanned, preventive repairs of vessels and the
manufacture of

545
spare parts."

The Main Administration for Fish Breeding and Conservation

i

(Glavrybvod) is concerned with the preservation of fish stocks,

the designing and implementation of measures for their

reproduction and the regulation of fishing.

The Main State Inspection of the Fishing Fleet (Glavgosryb-

f lotinspektsiya) ensures the observance of the Soviet Merchant

Shipping Code in the fleets of the fishing industry and. the

fishing kolkhozes fleet, as well as of rules, regulations and

instructions concerning the safety of navigation and fishing.

It also administers the salvage service. Glavgosrybf lotinspektsiya

carries out the tasks assigned to it through Basin State

Inspection Departments.

Main Basin Administrations of the Fishing Industry were

established in 1962 for local direction of the fishing industry.

These Main Basin Administrations ( Zapryba - Western Administration

#

of the Fishing Industry - in Murmansk; Dal* ryba - Far Eastern

j

Administration of the Fishing Industry - in Vladivostok; Kaspryba -

Caspian Sea Administration of the Fishing Industry; and -

|

Azcherryba - Azov-Black Sea Administration of the Fishing Industry •

in Sevastopol) are a part of the central apparatus of the

i

Ministry.

Production administrations of the fishing industry of

:

c
46
Union Republics or territories are directly subordinate to

the Main Basin Administration. For instance, Zapryba is in

iirect charge of the Estonian, Lithuanian, Latvian and

(aliningrad production-administrations, which in their turn

iirectly control shore fish-processing enterprises, fishing

seaports, plants for repair of ships, etc., within their respective

•egions, as well as trawling, refrigeration, transport and

tuxiliary fleets.

The Administration of Industrial Fishing pursues a uniform ^

echnological policy. The Administration is responsible for:

1) adequate distribution and maximum utilization of the

ishing fleet; (2) opening up and developing new sea regions

or fishing operations; (3) introduction of modern fishing

ethods; (4) perfecting sea-exploitation projects and fishing

ear.

The Shipbuilding Administration lays down the technological

olicy for the construction of fishing vessels, for the utilization

ad development of the production capacity of shipbuilding yards

i

ad controls the implementation of the shipbuilding plan.

The principal functions of the Administration of Fleet

nd Por ts Utilization are: (1) development and improvement of

leet and fishing ports activities; (2) introduction into the

leet and fishing ports of the latest achievements of sciences

5 it 7
and technology; (3) distribution and full utilization of the

refrigeration and transport fleet. l-

The Administration of Fishing Kolkhozes is responsible for

the full exploitation of fish stocks by kolkhozes. It carries

out the following functions: (1) examines the work of the

kolkhoz fishery fleet; (2) participates in developing of new

types of vessels and fishing gear.

The Administration of the Sea Transport Fleet, Mortransf lot

is responsible for taking delivery of vessels built for the

Ministry of Fishing Industry at Soviet and foreign shipyards,

and to carry out production tests on the vessels so delivered

during the guarantee period. It gives technical assistance for

training crews of foreign firms which have purchased the Soviet-

built fishing vessels.

There are also: The Main Administration of Material

and Technical Supply; the Administrations of Economic Planning,

Finance, Fish Produce and Modern Technology ,.

Personnel and

Training Institutions, Capital Building and Projects, Scientific

Research Institutes, Wages and Labor, Reserve Cadres," External

Relations; the Department of Signals and Search Techniques,

the Transport Department.

The Ministry of Fishing Industry is widely represented

abroad. In addition to various representatives in the UN

5i*8
organizations, those involved in the foreign trade and ship-

building, observing fulfillment of various agreements concerning

fishery, there are three important categories of representatives

whose existence and duty are illustrative, for they show the

scope of the Soviet fishing industry activity.

In accordance with bilateral agreements between the

government of the USSR and the governments of certain foreign

states, the Ministry has representatives residents abroad, whose

duties are defined by the contractual obligations of the Soviet

Union in each particular case.

The Ministry's representative at Dakar, the Republic of

Senegal: (1) supervises the performance of Soviet obligations

under the provisions of the Soviet-Senegalese Agreement on

Cooperation in the Field of Marine Fishing, of 22 March 1965,

and of obligations under certain other agreements to the extent

that the Ministry of Fisheries of the USSR is involved in them;

(2) attends to making arrangements for the calls of Soviet

fishing vessels in Senegalese ports; (3) coordinates with

Senegalese representatives all matters connected with the

servicing of USSR fishing vessels in their ports; (4) takes

care of the interests of Soviet fishing vessels in Senegalese

ports; (5) assists Soviet fishing and cargo ships in the

implementation of fishing and fishery-production plans; (6) helps

5^3
Soviet foreign trade organizations to solve operational problems

connected with delivery of fish produce to Senegal; (7) acquaints

the captains of Soviet vessels with the local port, customs,

sanitary and other rules and formalities, and with the

arrangements for servicing and supplying their vessels; (8)

renders the Soviet captains assistance in the organization of

"politico educational and cultural" work among the crews of

their vessels; (9) is authorized to represent the Ministry

in its contacts with the Senegalese; (10) is responsible for

the strict observance, by the crews of Soviet fishing industry

vessels, of Senegalese regulations, statues, instructions, and

legislative acts.

The representative in Cuba: (1) ensures the performance

of Soviet obligations under the Soviet-Cuban agreements on

cooperation in developing marine fishing and in constructing

a fishing harbor; (2) directs the servicing of Soviet vessels;

(3) deals with questions connected with the processing and

deliveries of fish and fish produce to Cuba; (4) supervises

the servicing, repairs and supply of Soviet fishery vessels

based in the fishing harbors; (5) assists in and controls the

activities of the operational group of the Kaliningrad Expedition

Base of the Oceanic Fishing and Refrigerator Fleet; (6)

coordinates and directs the activities of all Soviet fishery

.550
specialists in Cuba; (7) looks after the interests of the

Soviet fishing fleet in Cuban ports. \

The operational group of the Ministry in the United Arab

Republic: directs the activities of Soviet fishing, transport and

scientific vessels engaged in fishing and fishery research in

the waters of the Red Sea and in the northwest part of the

Indian Ocean. The second "operational group" is stationed in

Suez, and is charged with the training, on board of Soviet

47
vessels, the UAR citizens.

Problems, Trends of Development, Plans

In just the last five year period (1965-1970) the Soviet

fishing industry received 3.5 billion rubles of capital

48
investment, of which seventy per cent was spent for ships.

The interest of the State in the development of the fishing

industry and the importance attached to it can be seen in the

hundreds of rewards to fishermen- usually presented during a

specially proclaimed holiday, Fisherman's Day, celebrated in

July. The Soviet fishing industry annually receives thousands

of young specialists educated in the numerous institutions

47
Volkov, Morskoe Pravo (Maritime Law), Pishchprom,
A. A.
Moscow, 1969, pp. 29-31, 58-73, 84-88.
48
Vodnyy Transport, July 10, 1971.

551
subordinated to the industry. There are five institutions of

highest learning, fourteen marine schools and other educational

institutions, with a total of 60,000 students and cadets. Two

maritime academies are training future captains and navigators.

And yet, in spite of the above figures, which apparently

represent the power of the Soviet fishing industry, there are

a number of serious problems. The nature of these problems

can be divided roughly into two major categories: the first

is associated with the Soviet centralized system of planning

and control, and the second, with the fast development in the

industry (what the Soviets called "problems of fast growth")

The existing problems resulted in the violation of certain

proportions in the development of various branches of the

fishing industry and the declining effectiveness of capital

investment in recent years. For example, in 1965 the State's

income from the fishing industry exceeded expenditures by 168

million rubles, while in 1968 expenditures exceeded income by

twenty-one million rubles. The main reason for the declining

profit, and, in fact, operating at a loss, was found to be in1

the ineffective use of the existing fishing fleet and the

declining catches per ship. For example, in 1965 the average

catch for a BMRT was 7.3 thousand tons, while in 1970 it was

6.7 thousand tons. The time spent on the fishing grounds by

552
 ships dropped from 71.3% in 1962 to 64.3% in 1968.

Complaints have been made concerning the availability

of refrigerator-transports, especially in the Far Eastern

enterprises. Although these ships are badly needed on the

fishing grounds, they spend fifty-five to fifty-eight per cent

of the time in ports waiting to be unloaded or under repair,

and only seven to eight per cent of time receiving fish at sea.

Effective utilization of refrigerator-transports is handicapped

by the low capacities of the Soviet ports as well as of the

49
railroad system.

Available ship repair facilities obviously do not meet

the needs of the fishing fleet. Tire Ministry was accused of

spending too great proportion of allocated funds for
shipbuilding,
neglecting a corresponding increase in ship repair facilities.

Previous major repair of a trawler required 146 days, presently

227 days are needed.

In 1969, 90,000 ship-days were lost because
50
of low quality of repair. Even- the -decision of Ministry to

build mother-ship, Vostok, the ship which evoked such epithets

as "fantastic" in the world press, was severly critized in the

Soviet press and on seemingly good economic grounds.

According

49 T
Izvestiya , March 20, 1970.
50
Pravda, April 8, 1970.

553
 to estimates, Vostok was supposed to cost 37.5 million
rubles,

but, as early as the spring of 1970, it was clear'' that the ship

could cost no less than 50 million rubles, for which fifteen

to sixteen BMRT's could be built with the capacity to catch

2.5 to 3 times more fish than the mother ship Vostok.

The Soviet price system as well as the wage system have

also adversely influenced the productivity of the Soviet

fishing
fleet, and urgent calls for modification have been made-. The
*

centralized command of the Soviet fishing industry frequently

interferes with the decisions of captains by switching ships

and sometimes whole flotillas artibrarily from one fishing ground

to another. The time lost because of this practice is probably

considerable. Another factor is still poorly organized fish

reconnaissance. It is argued that a good reconnaissance preceding

the arrival of the fishing flotillas would eliminate the

unnecessary concentration of large numbers of ships whose

fishing capacities far exceed the? available* resources at a given

fishing ground, and minimize losses of time spent underway from

one fishing ground to another. Also, some of the fishing gear

has been found to be of low effectiveness, and the electronic

equipment employed to control them are in short supply. The

51
Izvestiya, March 20, 1970.

554
necessity for to swtich from the over-fished
Continental Shelf
zone into the deeper areas of the world ocean is
oeing well
recognized. The development of the Soviet fishing industry
has
clearly demonstrated adherence to such a trend. The trend would
in turn continue to generate a demand for the
construction of
primarily medium and large-. fishing vessels. As far as number
of large fishing ships, the Soviet Union is already in first

place in the world with 2,900 totalling 3,605,000 5

GRT. ^ Also,
the further remoteness of the fishing areas from home
bases
would certainly require an even more accelerated development
of
ships for the auxiliary fleet such as refrigerator-transports,

fish processing ships, tankers. The total tonnage of the world

fishing fleets during the last ten years grew 2.8 times, but

catches only 1.8 times. The Soviet Union expects this trend

to continue and, according to their forecasts for 1980, despite

the predicted growth of fishing fleet by 2.5 times, catches will

grow only 1.5 times, and, hence, fish will cost more.

It is expected that new methods of fish processing and

canning will be introduced soon, including pasteurization by

i

irradiation, freezing by liquid nitrogen, and so on.

I

Containerization of fish cargo and solution of the problem of

handling containers at sea, if necessary with the help of

52
Sudostroyeniye No. 9, 1970, pp. 14-19.

ERR
artificial suppression of waves, is expected. To elevate the

catch level two measures are proposed: (a) man's active

i

assistance to "King Ocean" through more rational fishing and

development of aquaculture, and (b) increased harvesting of

other forms of sea life, including krill, the shrimp-like

53
creatures which are frequently mentioned as the most promising.

The future development of the fishing industry during

1971-1975 is planned along these lines:

more complete and rational mastery of the world ocean

wealth and intensified fishing in inland basins;

the 1975 fish catch is planned to reach 10.3 million

tons, representing a growth of forty -seven- per cent over 1970;

Soviet per capita consumption of fishery produce is

planned to reach twenty-three kilogram per year;

the main attention and primary fund allocation will be

to further development of ocean fishing, but considerable

development of inland fishing is,- planned as well;

special attention will be paid to the development of

fishing farms on ponds and lakes, with production of 2.5 to 3

53
Sotsialisticheskay Industriya, May 29, 1971. The
Soviets estimated that approximately 150 million tons of krill
were formerly consumed annually by Antarctic whales. With
the near disappearance of the whale, krill have multiplied
considerably, and 150 million tons is mentioned as a possible
catch level.

556
tons of per fish hectare of water;

it is planned to build and reconstruct forty-three

fish growing enterprises and their annual production in 1975

should reach the level of 150 million sturgeon, up to 850

million salmou, and up to nine billion other young fish;

- more than 900 new ships for the fishing industry will

be built in Soviet shipyards and ordered from East Germany,

Poland, Denmark, West Germany, France, and other countries;

- to change the designs of all basic types of fishing

54 ,

ships operating in the high seas.

The main design organization of the Soviet fishing industry,

Central Design Bureau, Morpromsud, in Leningrad, is already

working on the design of ships for the next Five Year Plan,

1975-1980, including a specialized fish meal floating factory,

a catamaran, a trawler with a displacement of 1,000 tons, a

trawler-factory (canning) ship with a displacement of 10,000

tons, a trawler-mother ship with two fishing vessels aboard, a

I

trawler for Arctic waters capable of working in not very dense

/ I

ice field, a special high-speed ship for fish reconnaissance

55
with modern equipment and two helicopters.

54
Rybnoe Khozyaistvo (Fishing Industry) Nos 5 and 6, 1971;
.

Vodnyy Transport , issues of March IS and 20, 1971 and July 10, 1971;
Pravda Izvestiya , July 11, 1971; and Nedelya No. 28, July 5-11, 1971
55 i
'

Leniugradskaya Pravda , May 9, 1971. T

/

c
57
 The socalled super trawlers with a cargo
capacity of up
to 2,000 tons and speed up to fifteen knots are being developed.

Such ships will be capable of independent operations

up to

10,000 miles from their bases. They will be an improved type

of existing super trawlers, Gruraant and Rembrandt, and an

improved version of the Atlantik-class trawler," Atlantik-3.

Fish canning will be done exclusively afloat, aboard

special
fish processing factory ships and canning trawlers.
The fleet '

of refrigerator-transport will be enlarged and mother-factory

ships with equipment capable of processing 300-400 tons

of fish

per day will be built. The number of ships of the Kamchatskie

Gory class with over 12,000-ton cargo capacity and capability

of
delivering to the fishing rounds about 2,500 tons of fuel and

produce and the production of about 100 tons of fresh water

per day will be increased.

It was also decided for reasons not given to greatly

increase the fishing fleet of the Lithuanian Republic, which

is supposed to receive one hundred fish processing factories

and refrigerator-transports during the current five-year

period.
This new Soviet fishing fleet will be fishing inthe Atlantic,

using the most modern ships and fishing gear (such as

fishing
with electric current and trawls capable of operating
up to
a depth of 5,000 meters)

558
 All large Soviet fishing trawlers
will be equipped with
electronic equipment controlling the
eff ectiveness'of the trawl
'

in the process of fishing. The capacity of ship repair

enterprises should grow more than 1.7

times, the volume of
shore freezers and refrigerators, by
1.6 times, and the capacity
of fishing ports, by fifty-six per cent.

Considerable attention is planned to be

devoted to the
organizational problems of the fishing industry.
Further
development of centralized and computerized,
automatic control
systems (ASU) for the fishing industry is planned.
More
attention will be devoted to scientific
forecasting in the trends
of development and operation of fishing industry.
The role of
the scientific research institutions
of the industry will be
further elevated.

It appears that the Soviet Union fishing

industry well
understands the problem of future fishing in
the considerably
depleted areas of the world ocean, and is
making appropriate
i

provisions for not only sustaining the

present level, but ^or a
considerable increase of catches.

The Soviet Union provides technical assistance

to a
number of less developed countries,
particularly in Africa,

559
 56
to some Asian countries, Mauritius, and recently Peru. Soviet
i

assistance in the development of Cuba's fishing industry has been

substantial. The Soviet Union in return is obtaining considerable

benefits from the countries to which assistance was granted, and

many Soviet fishing vessels are being serviced in the ports

of these countries. In the absence of foreign bases, the right

of the Soviet fishing vessels to make those port calls are of

obvious importance.

56 In June 1971 an agreement was signed by the Soviet

Union and Peru which provides for technical aid to the latter
in the construction of a fishing port, the sending of a
scientific research vessel to study fishing resources in the
proximity of Peru's shores, and the training of fishing industry
specialists in Soviet educational institutions. Vodnyy Transport ,

June 12, 1971.

5G0
 Conclusions

Long before the growth of the Soviet Merchant Marine and

Navy caught the world's eyes, the Soviet fishing fleet had been

seen in various areas of the world's oceans remote from Soviet

shores. A high degree of imagination and innovation in the

development of the Soviet fishing industry, primarily for the

bulk of it operations in the high seas, has been demonstrated.

The first trawlers built in the early 1950's were of rather-

small size, but new programs generated in late 1950' s' and I960 's

produced a fishing fleet capable of operating thousands of <>

miles away from their bases for up to six to eight months.

Whereas the fishing vessels of many Western countries, including

most of the U.S., have to return to port after five to seven

days to deliver their catches, the Soviet fleet processes most

of the fish afloat, right in the areas where it was caught,

turning out all varie-ties of sea food products ready for

consumption. I

/'
|

The fishing gear employed by the Soviet fleet is among

/
j

most efficient and advanced in the world. The development ;Of

i

the industry is not only being fed with considerable

i

appropriations permitting vigorous foreign orders for ship •

constructions and utilization of available domestic shipbuilding

: /

561
 facilities, but is supported by the
world's most powerful
research and development efforts, highly
qualified scientific
personnel and a well developed large
educational system turning
out about 10,000 specialists per
year. It appears, that the
most of the problems associated with
such a rapid development
of the industry, with the notable exception
of "those associated
with the nature of the socio-political
system, have been
recognized, and a search for the
appropriate solutions and
implementation of corrective measures is
underway.
The level of the Soviet catch reached 7.8
million tons
in 1970 and is steadily growing. The Soviet Union is now
catching more fish and other forms of sea
life than the U.S.,
Great Britain, West Germany, France,
and Canada combined. The
fear once expressed in the Western
press that the Soviet fishing
industry would ignore conservation practices
seems to be
unfounded. The advanced Soviet fishing technology certainly

provides an advantage over the fishermen

from many other
countries, and provides the Soviet Union
with the larger catch,
but it can hardly be criticized. It seems, that the Soviet
Union is honestly trying to observe
fish conservation practices
and is an active participant in international agreements,

conventions, and organizations concerned with

research,
regulations, and conservation practices.'
There are now eighty

562
 international agreements concerning
fishery. The Soviet Union
is party to forty of .then.. The present Soviet fishing
industry
is certainly a tool for advancing

Soviet Union and it has great

national interests of the
^
potential not only for supplying
needed protein for the country's
population, but for being an
instrument of foreign aid. --

The military and primarily naval

value of the Soviet
fishing fleet is a less easily '

and clearly defined phenomenon.

While the great opportunity
provided by the fishing fleet
operating in the high seas on a
year-round basis for training
of sailors for the Soviet Navy, and the
fact that many of the
fishing fleet ships have a para-naval
value is certainly
;
recognized, the problem should be
viewed in the light of hard
facts concerning contemporary naval
warfare and existing
geo-political realities. It is probably fair to say that the

only small portion of the Soviet

fishing fleet can be used
effectively by the Soviet Navy in a
case of an armed conflict.
The "side effect" of huge
Soviet fishing fleet in relation to
military is, of course, considerable.
The meteorological and
basic oceanographic research
involving the collection of data
on water temperature and its distribution
through various layers,
salinity, density, and distribution of plankton, the
employment
of modern sonars and other equipment and'
the plotting of the

563
bottom charts, etc. is invaluable to the Soviet Navy. It

may also be true that the thousands of Soviet fishing ships

operating in all corners of the world ocean can be, and probably

are being the eyes and ears of Soviet intelligence. They also

provide good cover for the intelligence gathering operations

of several dozen Soviet Navy intelligence (ELINT) trawlers

employed by the Soviet Navy's special "Intelligence Divisions".

But in any case, the economic and political values of the Soviet

fishing fleet greatly outweigh the possible military factor, and

are, in the final analysis, of much greater importance. The

development of the Soviet fishing industry illustrates the

growth of Soviet maritime power and the nature of its challenge

at sea.

i- ^ i,

0b4
 I

CHAPTER VI

RIVER TRANSPORT

About two thirds of the total

number of rivers iu Europe
and Asia flow through the
territory of the Soviet Union.
They
became natural transportation
arteries around which the' economic
development of Russia, particularly
European Russia, was to a
large degree centered.
Moreover, the vastness of the
territory
and the poorly developed
land transportation system
made rivers
iudispensible for the transportation
of goods, raw materials,
and people. In many areas, particularly
in Siberia, river
transport has been the only
practical means of transportation
in extensive use. During the 18th and 19th centuries,
a number
of artificial waterways
(canals) were built. Use of the
steam
engine on the Russian rivers
dates as far back as the early
19th
century. Ia the second half of the
19th century, the mass
transportation of oil was being
conducted on the Volga River
°a a regular basis.
It may therefore be said that
pre-
cautionary Russia had a fairly well developed
inland water
transport system.

CCr
 The river transport system
was badly damaged by World
V/ar
I. the Revolution and particularly
the Civil War.'. Nevertheless,
a considerable number of river
steamers survived and were put
in
extensive use by the Soviet government,
which nationalised ull
means of water transportation soon
after the Revolution.
The first Five Year Plan (1928-1932)
provided the
beginning of what was termed the
"reconstruction of river transport-
on the basis of wide introduction
of new technology". Although
not much new technology was
introduced, particularly as far -
as ships were concerned, some
improvements in the waterway"
system was achieved, the major such
improvement being the
construction of a large dam on the
Dnicpr River is 1932. A
year later the Belomor (White
Sea-Baltic) Canal was built.
The second Five Year Plan (1933-1937)
demanded a
considerable increase in the cargo
transported by the river
fleets, from 26 billion ton -
kilometers at the beginning of
the period to 63 billion
tons - kilometers, a figure never
achieved, prior to World War II. 1
m
1913 (last year prior to
World War I) 28.5 billion ton - kilometers of cargo
was transported
by the Russian river
fleets, but the figure for 1940 was
only
36.1 billion ton - kilometers, i.e.
there was little growth over

Rechnoy T ransport (River Transport)

No. 4, 1970.

I
a period of nearly tweuty years.

An extensive program for the construction of canals was

planned for the second five-year period. At the end of the

period, in 1937, the construction of the Moskva Canal was

completed. Later, during the third Five Year Plan, the Dniepr -

Bug Canal was rebuilt. During the 1930' s, river passenger service

was considerably expanded.

The war not only interrupted the development of Soviet

river transport, but inflicted considerable losses on it. More

than 4,300 various vessels were lost, and hundreds of river ports
2
and docks, 300 dams, and more than 60 locks were destroyed.

River fleets actively participated in the war, making a noteworthy

contribution to the efforts of the overall Soviet transportation

system.

A decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of

September 1, 1947 approved a special program for the accelerated

development of river transport, which played an important role.

The program envisaged the accelerated construction of new river

/ I

vessels and also the reconstruction of ports and a number of

important waterways.

The directives of the fifth Five Year Plan approved by the

2
Rechnoy Transport, No. 4, 1970.

.'

1)0 i
 19th Party Confess (1956) considerably increased the
appropriations for river transport and
allocated a greater
'
portion of the domestic shipbuilding
facilities for the
construction of river vessels. A special provision was made
for
reinforcing the Siberian river fleets,
a goal which was reached
later by the transfer of a considerable
number'of vessels via
the Northern Sea Route.

But the most rapid development of

Soviet river transport
took place in the sixties, when the
river fleets received
thousands of new vessels. New waterways connecting all the
seas
washing the European part of the
Soviet Union were opened,
making Moscow a real "port of
the five seas". A new mode
of water transport, the socalled
"mixed river-sea" was developed,
and thus river transport gradually
became involved in carrying
foreign trade. In 1969 the river fleets alone
carried more than
290 million tons of cargo with a cargo
turnover about 150 billion
ton - kilometers, and transported
112 million passengers. 3 :

Furthermore, the development of the

rivers in Siberia and the Far
East, so essential for the
exploitation of the rich natural
resources in those areas, was
accelerated. This, in brief, is a
historical review of the development
of Soviet river transport.

3
Recnnoy Transport No. 4, 1970.

568
 The more detailed analysis of the Soviet Union inland

water transportation systom will bo made according to tho

following outlino:

Organization and control structure;

Natural waterways and their navigability;

Soviet canals and the artificial waterways;

Mixed river - sea, transportation;

New ships of the Soviet river transport;

Military role.

Organization and Control Structure

controlled
Up to 1956, Soviet river transport was
the Ministry
either by the Ministry of Merchant Marine or by

of the River Fleet of the USSR. In 1956, in conjunction with

the Ministry
Khrushchev's experiments with "decentralization" ,

to control the
was abolished and in- its stead, organizations
Republics. By far the
river fleet were created in individual
Fleet of the RSFSR
largest has been the Ministry of the River
and Administrations
(Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) ,

Ukrainian, Belorussian,
(Directorates) for River Transport in the

In the Latvian Republic, river

transport
and. Kazakh Republics.

Automobile Transport. The

is subordinated to the Ministry of

bbU
— I

n
river transport in the Middle Asian Republics is subordinated

to the Ministry of Merchant Marine of the USSR in spite of the

\

fact that none of these republics has access to the sea.

This experiment with decentralized administration resulted

in confusion as to the responsibilities of the various organizations

for maintaining waterways and exercising unified policies. For

example, river transport on the Dniepr is divided between two

republics; in the upper Dniepr it is subordinated to the

Belorussian Republic, while in the middle and lower Dniepr it io

subordinated to the Ukrainian Administration for River Transport.

The Ministry of River Transport of the Russian Federation

controls the greatest part of the totao- USSR:, river fleet. This

Ministry has 22 steamships companies organized on the basin-

territorial principle. All major rivers, such as the Volga,

Kuban*, Lena, Ob', Yenisey, and Amur have correspondingly named

steamship companies. Regions incorporating several rivers, such

as the Northwestern and Sast Siberian, have their own steamship

companies. In spite of the fact that the RSFSR Ministry of the

River Fleet is obligated to coordinate the efforts of the various

Republic administrations in charge of their corresponding river

fleets, the administrative isolation of these organizations

handicaps the practice of a unified technological policy.

other
By its nature, river transport should cooperate with

biU wiw
'— i
— i .
i M I
'
modes of transportation such as the railroads and the merchant

marine, both of which are centrally controlled. Starting in

1971, demands were made for a central agency. A special

committee, created by the order of the Council of Ministers of the

USSR, in cooperation with the Academy of Science and with the

participation of representatives of all the transport ministries

made a number of recommendations. One of the recommendations

dealt with administrative problems and the necessity to. have a

central agency (All-Union Ministry or a Main Administration

subordinated to the Council of Ministers of USSR) to control and

4
coordinate activity of all river transport.

The accelerated development of tbc- northern areas of the

Soviet Union and particularly Siberia, elevated the role of

river transport considerably. In spite of a considerable

increase in its cargo turnover, Soviet transport system still

does not satisfy the growing demands of the newly developed

economic regions.

The importance of river transport is also evident from

the low cost of the transportation it provides. For example,

in 1969, ten ton - kilometers cost 4.1 kopeks on large Siberian

rivers and 6.7 kopeks on small rivers. By truck,- the same volume

4
Vodnyy Transport, March 20, 1971.

571
«»wnw»n>iwwi«^«jw«»w^iiwpw>^wri«w<wi»ww«.^,""> l1 "
|l «' u* '
i ii
 5
cost 56 kopeks. .

Another problem closely associated with the administ ration

l

is the automated control (ASU) of river transport. Implementation

of the ASU has already begun, but it is not well suited for the

relatively loosely associated river fleet administrations of the

various republics. In 1966, the first Main Calculation Center,

based on the URAL-4 computer, began operation for the River

Fleet of the RSFSR. At the end of 1969, the Ministry of the

River Fleet already had 11 regional calculation centers and 62

computerized calculating bureaus serving more than 200 enterprises

and organizations, under the control of the Main Calculation

Center. As of the end of 1970 other calculation centers oxistod

in Moscow, Gorki, Novosibirsk, and Leningrad, and work began on

organizing a computerized system of control through various

steamship companies and ports. It is planned to link all

elements of Soviet river transport to the ASU during the decade

•
\

7
of 1970's.

5
/
Rechnoy Transport No. 11, 1970, pp. 1-3 and No. 12, 1969,
pp. 10-11. .

Rechnoy Transport No. 2, 1969, pp. 14-16.

7
Rechnoy Transport No. 9, 1970, pp. 3-4, and Vodnyy
Transport, 24 April 1971.

572
 Natural Waterways and their Naviu'f.blAjLtv

In spite of the apparent abundance of natural waterways

ia the Soviet Union, the growing demand for river transportation

las been forcing the Soviets to introduce larger vousoIm, ami,

;his, in turn, has created a demand for deeper, more diroct, and

>etter navigable waterways. The construction of large hydroelectric

stations and dams increased the navigable depths of many Soviet

Ivers. On the Volga River, this type of work permitted the

avigation of river vessels with a 5,000 ton cargo capacity and

f so-called sectional trains with a cargo capacity of 7,500 tons

nd drafts up to 3.5 meters. When the Volga-system hydrolectrical

tations are completed in the next five to six years, navigation

ill be open to ships drawing up to four meters. The planned

onstruction of six hydroelectrical centers on the Dniepr River

ill increase navigable depths up to 3.5 meters.

»

Intensive economic development of Siberia, particularly

ts western part, generated an enormous demand for river

ransportation. In addition to the large Siberian rivers, a great

umber of smaller rivers have to be made navigable, and very

<ctensive dredging operations and work on straightening the

breams have been underway. During the 1966-1970 period, only

Q
Vodnyy Transport, 13 February 1971.

5 (o
—„,-., „ . — .. .— ... I
..» . ~
 in the Irtysh Basin, with its 17,000 kilometers of waterways,

3,100 kilometers of new waterways were mastered by a tremendous

amount of dredging often done through permaf rosted ground and by

straightening the sharp turns in the rivers. As a result, the

rich oil regions of the Tumen' District and other Western Siberia

areas were connected by rivers with existing transportation

systems. The completion of hydro-electric stations on the

Angara River rapids and construction of Baikal-Angara River

waterway is being planned. After completion of the Middle Yenisey

and Osinovsk hydroelectric stations, navigation to the river ports

will be open not only for large river vessels, but for high sea

ships. In the future it is also planned to connect the Ob' River

-vith the Yenisey River and the Angara with the Lena. When the

Kama River and the Irtysh River are connected, the two great

waterway systems - the European and the Siberian will bo morgod,

and the so-called "unified inland water transportation system"

'
9
ivill be completed.

9
Rechnoy Transport No. 9, 1970, pp. 3-5.

57' i
"* m> ' '
--- "
M l
-
'
'
 Soviet Canals and the Artificial
Waterways

The construction of the canals

connecting various rivers
f

and creating prolonged water-ways

began in Russia in early 18th "

century. Following the Order of 1703 by Peter

the Great, the
first canal was built in 1709, establishing
a waterway connection
between Moscow and Petersburg. A~"nuniber of canal systems were
built later in the 18th and 19th centuries,
but at the time the
devolution, only the Mariinsky Canal System
still maintained its
sconomic value.

The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal, completed in

1933, was
>uilt for non-self propelled wooden
barges with a cargo capacity
>elow a thousand tons. The canal connected Leningrad with

.rchangelsk,. shortening the route between the

two points hy
»ver 2,000 miles (as compared with the route around Scandinavia),

'he canal was damaged during the World War II and,

soon after, it
as restored. During the 1950's and 1960's a number of

odifications were made, resulting in greater navigable

depths of
he canal and an improved lock system,
making the canal suitable
10
or modern vessels.

The next large project was the construction of the Moskva-

Rochnoy Transport No. 6, 1969 and 2x o. 10, 1970. For

T

•ie general description of the Soviet canals as of the middle

JLXties, see also U. S. Naval Inst itute
Proceedings,
B - July 1967 '
P. 33-44.

C7C
olga Canal, thus connecting Moscow to the Caspian Sea through

he major Soviet river, the Volga. The canal was' completed in

937. ...

In 1953 the construction of another important canal, the

olga-Don, was completed thus connecting the Volga River and,

ence, the Caspian Sea with the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea.

t the end of the 1960's, it was decided to increase the depths

if the canal and the Tsimlyansk Reservoir to four meters, which

ii.ll assure the traffic of large river vessels of the Volga-Don

11
ype carrying the maximum load.

The major step toward completion of Unified Inland Water

'.^asportation System for the European part of USSR was made in

!)64 when the Vclga-BALT Waterway was opened. The Volga-BALT

:ivolved the reconstruction of the old Mariinsky System;

onstruction in 1933 of the Lower-Svirsk hydroelectric center, in

])41 the Rybinsk, and in 1952 the Upper-Svirsk hydroelectric

12
enters, and completion in June of 1964 of Volga-BALT Canal.

T.e total length of the canal is 361 kilometers, only 66 of which

£*e repx-esented by artificial canals and 295 by the artifical water

13
fcservoirs. The system connected five seas - the Baltic Sea,

11
Rechncy Transport No. 3, 1970.
12
Rechnoy Transport No. 4, 1969.
13
Vo dn y y Transport, 11 December 1969.

576
Jiite Sea, Caspian Sea, Sea of Azov, ana tho Cluck Soft. In

970 almost fifteen million tons of cargo were transported

14 '

long the Volga-BALT waterway system. Many small and medium

ized ships of the Soviet Navy can transmit this sy^em to and

rom the Baltic and Black Sea and the Arctic Ocean.

Soviet river ships are presently sailing to ports in

ligland, Sweden, Germany, Bulgaria, Iran, and other countries,

n far as Egypt, using what is called the mixed, river-sea,

civigational method (to be discussed later) . The already existing-

c.nal system, carrying over 60% of the river transported cargo,

p.rticularly the White Sea-Baltic Sea, Volga-Don, and Volga-Baltic

cnals, closely approaches the planned Unified Inland Waterway

15
Sstem of European Part of the USSR. Six thousand kilometers of

te existing inland waterway system already permits navigation

16
o ships with draft up to 3.5 meters. The announced and widely

dscussed future plan includes the direct connection of the

Back Sea and the Baltic Sea through existing waterways on the

Jlepr River and the Pripyat' and Neman Rivers. New European

wterway systems, some planned, and some already under construction,

s\zh as the Rhine-Main-Danube, will certainly benefit and improve

14
Rechnoy Transport No. 4, 1971.
15
Vodnyy Transport , 27 February 1971.
16
Rechnoy Transport No. 10, 1970.

577
\o operation of the Soviet-European Waterway System. The

jw European waterway systems will permit navigation from

>tterdam to Ismail and will pass through the Netherlands,

jrmany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Rumania,

17
ilgaria, and the Soviet Union.

The Soviet plan to build a canal in the Far East connecting

le Amur River with the Tatar Strait was announced in 1969.

ie total length of the proposed canal will be 90 kilometers,

it it will shorten the distance from the Amur River to the

cific Ocean (Tatar Strait) by up to 1,500 kilometers and make

18
vigation cheaper.

Mixed, River - Sea, Transportation

The soviet term "mixed, river - sea, transportation" is

If -explanatory and means precisely what it says - the ability

ships, in this particular instance river ships, to engage in

ver, or inland, as well as sea navigation. True, sea navigation

i always, and quite often severely, restricted by the limited

uworthiness of the ships involved. The planned use of the

;rer ships in the direct transportation of cargo from the

i'er ports to seaports began in the middle 1950' s with the opening

?
Pravda , 13 July 1971.
18
Trud, 29 November 1969.

r*78
"' -- -- -- '
* ,— -. — .- —
, , ,
— ——» . !
'
" '
 of the Volga-Don Canal,
and greatly accelerated after
the
opening of the Volga-Baltic
waterway. Mijre d navigation is now
developing by a gradual increase
in the sea areas uaviga'ted
by
the river fleet, and
construction of special seagoing
ships
suitable for navigation on inland
waterways. So-called
conventional ships, either. for sea
or river service, are poorly
suited for this type of navigation;
the former, because of its "

greater cost, and more important,

deeper draft, and the-, latter,'
mainly for the reason of very
poor seaworthiness. The limits
of rational use of such ships
were determined, with the
prediction
that the volume of cargo carried
in the three basins (Volga-Caspian-
Blac* Sea, Volga-White Sea-Baltic,
and Aaur-Sakhalin-Oktots* Sea)
by them will soon reach
20 million tons per year and in
the not
too distant future, -v 19
50 iuj.Ao.ion
million ton<?
xons. at~~ it
Also, •*
,
was argued that
the LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship)
type ships are very suitable for
that mode of transport. With two or three loads of lighters
for
each LASH ship, lt will be
possible to utilize up to 90% of its
time underway and to have 20
unlimited seaworthiness. \

/
19 Se
A
i

? Kovale v, "Direct Water Tra nsports™

* I "
fa- o
Carg g "' Tran «P° rt «°s«™ 1S69
^hf^.°*
do
aeoc.ibes the optimum approach to such a
•

mode of
.
This study' .

and represents the results transportation

of celebrated research SploylS
«apioying
mathematical methods.
20 i

Vodnyy Transport 22 August 1970.

.
•

I
/
! /

J 579
 A number of ships of the river register, such as Project

fo. 791 ("Volga-BALT" class) motorships with a cargo capacity

>f 2,700 tons; Project Number 558 ("Volganeft" class) tankers^

•ith a cargo capacity of 5,000 tons; Baltiysky, Project No. 781,

dl-ore carriers; Project No. 1553, and others were specially

21
esigned and are being successfully used in the mixed navigation.

hese ships are allowed to sail at sea with waves up to 3.5 meters

ud at distances of up to fifty miles from sheltered areas.

art of the river-sea fleet is used in the Baltic and Black

eas during the winter when most of the rivers and canals are
22
rozen over. This service includes carrying foreign trade cargos.

Two categories of ships for river-sea navigation were

ound most suitable. The first category includes ships capable

f navigating year round in the closed seas practically without

imitations, and the second category is composed of light and

aexpensive ships used only during periods of river navigation

ad capable of navigating in off-shore sea regions not far from

heltered areas. Typical of the first category are ships of

i
-IS III SP class with a cargo capacity of 2,000 tons; typical

'f the second category are pushed trains with a cargo capacity of

21
Re ch no y T ran s po •-.-
Ho. 5, 1971.
22
Rechnoy Transport. No. 3, 1071.

5RH
,000 tons, and L'S? class ships (limited in closed sea to fifty
2°
ties from sheltered areas and in the open sea to' 20 miles).

The mixed navigation opened broad possibilities for a new

ypo of activity for the river fleet - participation in

ransportation of export-import cargos, as well as the chartering

f Soviet river ships by foreign shippers. An agreement on the

ransit shipment of Iranian goods via the Soviet Union was

igned in 1963 and an agency, Iransovtrans Ltd., was organized.

a average of 2-3 weeks are saved carrying goods from European

ountries to Iran compared with the traditional route around

urope, through the Mediterranean Sea and the Suez Canal. With

he Suez Canal presently closed, x.ne importance oi this direct

oute is obviously increased. Foodstuff cargoes from Bulgaria,

reece, and other countries are also being shipped to the

24
candnavian countries and ports of northern Europe. Oil, oil

roducts, ore, and metals from the USSR now are carried by the
25
iver fleet to various European countries and even as far as Egypt.

23
Sudostrayeniye No. 11, 1970.
24
Vodnyy Transport , 24 October 1970.
25
Vodnyy Transport , 12 April 1969 and 3 June 1971.

/
t

mm . - ... . .,„,»_
581
 New Ships of the Soviet River Tran-jport

During the 1966-1970 period the construction of new river

ships was accelerated. In 1969, Catamaran Brat'ya Igrotovy,

Project No. R19 GTSKB, was built. The vessel with a thousand-ton

cargo capacity has a cargo deck area of 900 square meters and

is capable of carrying 450 containers, twice as much as a motor

ship with a cargo capacity of 2,000 tons. Smaller Catamarans

26 *

with a 600-ton cargo capacity are also being built.

In 1967 a river motor ship with capacity of 2,700 tons,

Sormovskiy Class, capable of carrying timber and bulk cargos

vas built. The ship made a few cruises from Arkhangelsk to

27
England with a cargo of timber.

In 1970 an experimental river ship with a unique hull made

from the three long cylindrical tanks welded together, was built,

it is a combination of tanker and dry cargo ship with the

)Ossibility of carrying containers in addition to oil. Greater

28 I

lull strength has been claimed for the ship.

The desire to prolong the navigation period has created an

/ i

irgent demand for river ice-breakers, and a number of them were

26^
Recnnoy Transport No.
,

1, 1971, pp. 6-11.

27
Rechnoy Transport No. 4, 1970, pp. 6-7.
28
Vodnyy Transport, 10 October 1970.

582
built. In addition to the conventional method of breaking the
29
ice, a special ice cutting machine was designed and built.
*

Another device permits the conversion of regular pusher tugs into

a sort of ice-breaker, thanks to the special mechanism generating

intensive vibration of the ship's hull and thus crushing the

Lee ax-ound the vessel. With the duration of navigational period

for most rivers not exceeding 55% of the calendar year in the

European part of the USSR and 45% in Siberia, the need for river
30
.ce-breakers is obvious.

The State Committee for Science and Technology recommended

ider introduction of pushed vessel trains "to increase the

31
roductivity of the river transport". It is anticipated that

uring the current Five Year Plan (1971-1975) the use of the

ushed-vessel trains in the Soviet inland water transportation

ystem will be increased considerably.

A number of new classes of passenger ships, including a

umily of large hydrofoil types which have been in operation

since the middle of the 1950' s have been developed and built.

i large series of semi-skimming boats (Zarya class) with water

j$t propulsion is being presently produced. The shallow draft

29
See Chapter, Northern Sea Route, for a description of
tie machine
30
Vodnyy Transport , 20 January 1970, and Rechnoy Transport
N. 4, 1970.
31
Ekonomicheskaya Gaseta No. 28, July 1971, p. IS.
i

r ?
'

-
oo
<j P. .
>f this boat, which carries GO passengers, peraits operation in
32
small rivers with depths not exceeding .6 meters.' Another

lass produced passenger ship is the air-cushion Gor 'kovchanin,

>roject No. 3435. It carries 48 passengers. Presently,

:onsiderable attention is being devoted to the development of

33 •

,ew classes of air-cushion passenger ships.

Plans for the Future

V

In 1970, the Soviet river fleet transported 358 million

ons of cargo. The total cargo turnover amounted to 174 billion

34
on - kilometers. In 1971, according to the plan, the RSFSR

iver fleet alone is supposed to carry 318 million tons, with

argo turnover amounting to 168 billion ton - kilometers. It

s also planned to transport about 122 million passengers. The

argest increase in the transportation of cargo by river fleet

is planned to take place in the northeastern region of European

hssia and the Siberian rivers (particularly western Siberia)

!

(a.rgo for the oil-rich regions of western Siberia through

32
River Transport No. 4, 1970.
33
The development of hydrofoil and air-cushion ships is
Jialyzed in the chapter entitled "Shipbuilding".

34
Rechnoy Transport No. 3, 1971.

584

...... u. .. II " - '

' " """•

 Ob'-Irtysh Basin will amount to five 35
million tons in 1071.
In 1975 total Soviet river transport
cargo turnover is
planned to be 216 billion ton - kilometers.
Considerable
improvement is planned for passenger
service. Presently there
ire more than 150 passenger lines served
by high speed boats
[mainly hydrofoils) .
The number of passenger lines is planned
to
»e increased considerably with primary attention
being paid to
;he small rivers where wide introduction of
air-cushion ships
ith speeds of 50-60 kilometers per hour,
and later up to 250
36
Hometers per hour, is planned.

Until recently, the low cost of river

transportation
as the main advantages of this mode
of transport. However,
uring the last decade, the rate of decrease
in transportation
osts in the river transport slowed down.
While during the six-
:sar period 1960-1966, the Soviet railroad system managed
to
ower transportation costs by 11 percent, the
decrease in river
ransport for the same period was only five per
cent.

Since 1966 there was no trend toward further decrease

in
1-ansportation cost. The most important reasons are the following:

35
Sotsiali sticheskaya Indust riya, 26 March 1971 and P.echnoy
,

l^nsport No. 1, 1971, pp. 1-5. Details of 1971-1975

plan
*re discussed in Vodnyy Transport 19 January 1971
and Rechnoy
T ransport No. 1, 1971.
36
Vodnyy Transport , 24 April 1971.

585
 (J.) The capacity o£ existing port a ttiui Uiuii » ...... «....

does not match the number of ships alroady in operation, and

lags behind in rate of development. More than 36% of navigation

time is spent by ships in ports.

(2) A number of technologically advanced ships designed,

and some even with prototypes tested, were not built or were

delayed in construction due to the lack of allocated shipbuilding

capacity.

(3) The previous plan (1966-1970) to supply river fleets

with new ships was not fulfilled, and 140,000 tons of total

cargo capacity of tankers and dry cargo vessels as well as

380,000 tons of total cargo capacit7 of ncn*-oc2f-pi*opelled

vessels were not delivered to the river transport.

In accordance to the new plan for 1971-1975, accelerated

construction of river ports with the introduction of technologically :r.

advanced cargo handling equipment and increased allocation of

the shipbuilding industry capacity for river vessels were

promised. Party directives specifically projected delivery

of river vessels with larger cargo capacity, including a

considerable increase in ships of mixed navigation. The construction z~z

of dry cargo - tanker ships employing the cylindrical method with

cargo capacity up to 9,000 tons as well as container ships and

self -unloading bulk carriers is being planned.

/ 586
I
 Considerable work to improve the navigability of inland

/aterways along the lines discussed previously are visualized

37 *

>y the plan.

Military Role

In addition to its tremendous economic importance, the

oviet river transport has a number of military applications

hose significance was well demonstrated during World War II.

•

he river ships of the Don and Kuban* Steam Ship Companies were

ubordinated to the Azov Naval Flotilla commanded by Admiral

38
orsbkov, and many were used for amphibious operations.

n fact, all river transport of the European part of the USSR

djacent to the front was controlled by the Soviet Navy. A

umber of river flotillas were organized, and actively participated

n the war. Many of the ships of those flotillas were formerly

iver vessels converted into warships. During the defense of

talingrad, the Volga River Flotilla and river vessels of the

I

olga Steamship Company played a very important role.

At the, present time, the role of river transport in military

i

transportation is still considered important. Special departments

37
Vodnyy Transport , 24 April 1971.
38
Vodnyy Transport, 29 July 1971.

587
mmwm-* **
-
- wmmmao w*-
n charge of military transportation exist in every Soviet

ilitary district. Incorporated in such departments are branches

esponsible for the transportation of troops and hardware on the

nland basins. They are also responsible for maintainance of

iver vessels in a constant state of readiness for military

ransportation, and the majority of river vessels have special

quipment, not used during normal operations, needed for

ilitary transportation. It is also the duty of those branches

o see to it and require that "not a single vessel would leave

heir shipbuilding or ship repair enterprise with defective

39
pecial equipment." Undoubtedly the river fleet is being and

ill be used for the delivery of supplier to- the Soviet Armed

orces. Particularly important are the "sea-river" ships.

The existence of an extensive network of deep inland

aterways makes it possible to shuttle naval ships up to DEsize

s well as some classes of submarines among the various seas of

he European part of the USSR. Seme types of river vessels are

uited for the auxiliary naval combat role in coastal warfare,

acluding mine laying and mine sweeping. Familiarity of the river

leet personnel, particularly their captains and navigators, with

he theater of operation makes them ideal reserve personnel for

he Navy

39
Tyl i snabzhen ie Sovetskikh Vooruzenn ykhsil - Rear Service
ud Supply of the Soviet Armed Forces, No. 1, 1970, pp. 81-83.

588 ii i
m mm n .-
i _ _ . ... .
i. .. i
 t

CHAPTER VII

NORTHERN SEA ROUTE

The Arctic Ocean differs sharply from all the other

regions of the world ocean with respect to its climatic and

especially its ice conditions. The development of the Polar

Regions and the Northern Sea Route, Soviets consider as one of

the brightest pages in the history of Russia. Recognizing the

important contribution by foreigners, historically Russia, and

by succession, the Soviet Union was the major discoverer of

most of the Arctic Islands and lands, and first to achieve

practical mastery of navigation along the Northern Sea Route.

The first complete passage of the Northern Sea Route from

East to West was made in 1915 by two Russian ships, Taimyr and

Vaigach, under command of Captain Vil'kitskiy . The expeditions

/
of 1910-1914/ established a number of routes to the Northern
/ i

Regions of Russia from its Pacific Coast.

In September of 1916 a note by the Russian Foreign

I

Ministry was sent to all nations ascerting the Russian claim to

all territories explored and unexplored, discovered and

I

583 \

i
. ... . . . . ... . ._
i ii ii. i inrr«n .
 undiscovered between the Russian Coast on the Arctic Ocean and

the North Pole, with the exception of previously recognized

1
territories of other nations. Thus, the recognition of economic

and strategic value of the region was clearly demonstrated by

the Russian government.

As was pointed out by Captain 0. P. Araldsen, Royal

Norweigen Navy, "the October 1917 Revolution changed many things,

2
but not the Russian preoccupation with the Arctic". Practically

from the very beginning of its existence, the Soviet government

has recognized the economic and strategic value of the Northern

Region. In January 1919 a commission for the study of the north

was created under the Scientific-Technical I/i recto rate of the

Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKH) . In December

1919 the Russian Academy of Sciences worked up a plan involving

measures for the revival of hydrographic work in the northern

seas. During the same year, the famous Kara Expeditions for the

delivery of Northern Siberian grain, were organized. In the

course of the expeditions, the Northern Sea Route was opened up

from the West to the mouth of great Siberian rivers, Ob and Yenisey

For the details of this diplomatic move see: Constantine

Krypton, The Norther Sea Route and the Economy of the Soviet North ,

(Praeger, New York, 1956), and Ost rov Vrangelya (Wrangel Island),
Moscow, Glavsevmorput, 1946, pp. 35-36.

2
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings, June 1967, pp. 49-57.

530 '
l.l l I
! .
I 1
1

r*t"
udimentary ice service and weather sorvico stations wora

rgaaized along the route of the expeditions.

s

Soon, in the East, the ships also bogan to make raoro or

ess regular voyages from the East to tho mouths of

Kolyma

,nd Lena Rivers. In 1921 twenty-three detachments of the

the
orthern Scientific Fishing Expedition were operating in
3
On
lorthem waters and on the islands of the Arctic Ocean.
be
[ay 4, 1920, the Soviet Government declared the White Sea to

ts internal waters. A year later on May 24, 1921, a degree of

claimed the
;he Council of People's Commissars signed by Lenin

?ight of the Soviets to exclusive exploitation of the fish

in the Arctic
resources and sea mammals in the White Sea and
with Finland to
)cean along the shore from the State boundary
4
Zemlya. On 4 November 1924,
the Northern extremity of Navaya

lay claim to
following unsuccessful attempts of Canada to
by Soviet
ffrangel Island? a memorandum to all states was sent

from the Russian

Government reiterating the 1916 notification
attention to the Eastern
Minister of Foreign Affairs and calling
established by the
boundaries between Russia and the U.S.

3 83-88
Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1970, pp.

C. Krypton, op. cit., p. 32.

5
Ibid., p. 38

o %-> A.

— — —
 6
Convention of 1867.

In 1924 the first ice-air reconnaissance was made in Kara

Sea. Two years later landing and taking off from the ice was

mastered. Gradually, the aviation began regular ice-air

n
reconnaissance and thus Polar Aviation was developed. The

aetwork of Polar Stations had been growing steadily. In 1932,

an expedition headed by 0. Schmidt aboard Sibiryakov completed

a voyage through the Northern Sea Route during one navigational

"
season. In December of the same year, by the special resolution

3f the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, the Main

directorate of the Northern Sea Route, Glav Sev Mor Put', was

organized. This organization, with extremely wide range of

responsibilities, played a very important role in the development

>f Soviet Arctic in general and Northern Sea Route in particular,

[n 1934 the loss of the Cheluskin and rescue operation for the

lembers of expedition and ship's crew, performed by aviation,

resulted in awarding for the first time the highest Soviet

iecoration, Hero of Soviet Union, to the seven rescue pilots.

:n 1936 Arctic Seas were navigated by 160 ships, including some

;hips of the Soviet Navy. In that year two destroyers accompanied

6
Ibid., p. 46.
7
Morskoy Flot No. S, 1967, pp. 9-11.

Roo
by ice-breaker Litke (the Russians call it ice-cutter) , ice

reinforced steam ship Ana dyr 1

, and tanker, Lok-Ba-ftan , wore

transferred from Kronshtadt (Baltic Fleet) via White Sea - Baltic

Canal to Vladivostak where they became the first sizeable

surface ships of newly created Soviet Pacific Fleet. The

destroyer's hulls were reinforced with already tested lumber-

-
8
metal protective layer along the water line called Shuba.

During World War II, in 1942, the transfer of three ships from

Pacific fleet (destroyer leader - Baku , and two destroyers)

9
to the Northern Fleet was achieved. The Soviet mastery of the

route was demonstrated in 1939 when in addition to navigation

by ships of the merchant marine, r.grcip of i^ucise^-aredgers, a

suction-dredger, and a number of tugs were transferred from

Murmansk to Nikolaevsk on the Amur. Those were the ships of

the so-called Technical Fleet, poorly suited not only for ice
10
navigation, but even for off-shore navigation. Prior to

World War II, duration of navigation reached over a hundred days

in the Western part of the Northern Sea Route and over seventy

days in its eastern part. The first and to the best knowledge of

Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1970, pp. 83-88.

9 1966.
Sudostroyeniye Ho. 7, pp. 65-67, No. 8, pp. 69-70,

Sudostreyeniye No. 8, 1969, pp. 71-72.

5S3
_ _ ... - i. i.u iii ri ii |i| u i. M Miii nr il HI 1MM.1
'l -
 this writer, the only passage of foreign warship along the

Northern Sea Route took place in 1940, when after 'signing of

Soviet -German Pact, a German raider, classified as Auxiliary

Cruiser and called "Ship 45" (Comet) made a successful passage

to Pacific, assisted by Soviet pilotage and ice-breaker, Stalin .

While in Pacific the Ship-45, in cooperation with other German

raider Ship 36, and alone sank several allied and neutral

merchant ships. During the war the route was used to all

possible extent, including the transportation of lend-lease

supply from the United States, initially delivered to the Soviet

Far East. Each year tens of ships passed from the Pacific

toward the West being accompanied la the western part of the

route by convoys. German's effort to interrupt this rather

important transportation artery by employing submarines, raiders,

and aviation, though resulting in some losses, was generally

unsuccessful, due to a number of factors among which climatic

conditions, size of the forces employed, and lack of reconnaissance

were the major.

After the war the efforts for further mastering of the

Northern Sea Route continued. Systematic, planned research

in the Arctic was intensified during the period of 1948-1951,

followed by three years of passivity. After 1954 the Soviet

Union has maintained at least two drifting stations on the ice.

»," " » »I H I I J H I II l| . 'l I.M »«M ».

I
-. I. .- .I. I . I, I J M
The total number of these stations in a 34 year period,
11
starting with 1937 I. Papanin Station has been 20 1 Polar
1

aviation was reinforced with a greater number and better

quality of aircraft. By the mid 1950 's the Northern Sea Route

was fully operational.

Icebreakers

The first Russian Icebreaker, Ermak , was designed by

'
Admiral Makarov specifically for Arctic navigation and was built

in England in 1899. Makarov's efforts were supported by the

12
famous scientist Mendeleyev. Many ideas incorporated into the

design of Ermak are still valid and being used in construction

Df contemporary icebreakers. Ermak, which was called the

'Grandpa cf ice-breaker fleet" served 65 years, was awarded

3rder of Lenin and, after final retirement in 1964, has been

iistinguished by memorial in Murmansk.

•
1

Before the revolution of 1917, Russia had eight ice

i

>reakers and a number of steam ships reinforced for ice navigation.

lost of the
/ships survived the revolution and civil war, but

lajor reinforcement of icebreaker's fleet did not come until

11
Vodnyy Transport , 15 December 1970.

Sudostroyeniye No. 9, 19S9, p. 57.

535
1938 wheu four ice-breakers of the Stalin class (presently

Sibil'' Class) wore built.

t

The next reinforcement of Soviet Ice-breaker's Fleot

came in the mid 1950 's when three ice-breakers of Kapitan

class ( Kapitan Belousov, Kapitan Voronin, Kapitan Melekhov ) were

;

built for the USSR by Finland. In 1959 the nuclear powered

ice breaker, Lenin , the most powerful ship of this type, was

ouilt. During the decadeof 1960 's five units of Moskva' class

Lce-breakers were built.

r;c>£
 o o
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CO CN
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53Y
 As of 1970, the Soviets divided icebreakers into three

ajor categories: ,

(1) Harbor Icebreakers with propulsion plant up

to 5,000 - 6,000 SHP (Shaft Horse Power)
(2) Auxiliary Icebreakers up to 12,000 - 15,000 SHP
(3) Liner Icebreakers above 15,000 SHP

ucb a classification reflects Soviet experience in the Arctic,

bere not as much displacement, although a factor, but power

3 needed and icebreakers above 15,000 SHP, preferably in range

13
if 30,000 - 40,000 SHP, are required.

All, but one (Lenin) , post war Soviet icebreakers were

hilt in Finland. Presently, there are only six liner

tiebreakers in the Soviet Union. But, there are only three more

jjebreakers in the entire world fleet which would fall in this

ategory. They are: American Glacier, and two Canadian ships,

Luis S. St. Laurent and John A. MacDonald.

In the decade of the 1960 's, the Soviet Union built two

icebreaker type hydrographic ships - Petr Pakhtusov (1966) and

Gorgii Sedov (1967) - both with 5,400 SHP. A large series! of

Lrbor icebreakers, V. Pronchisctsev-class, was also built in

3
A. Arshenevsky
" Ledokoly " (Icebreakers), Transport,
H'Scow , 1970

SS3
 14
the decade of the 1960's.

Soviet experience in the Arctic, however, convinced then

that more powerful ice breakers and in greater number are needed

in order to prolong navigation along the Northern Sea Route and

make it more reliable. As a result, the Soviet Union ordered

three large icebreakers to be built during 1971-1975 period by

Wartsila, Finland. The 20,000 ton ships will be powered by

diesel-electric plant of 36,000 SHP. They will be among the most

•

15
powerful motor ships in the world. Another Soviet plan visualizes

construction of two nuclear powered icebreakers of Arktika Class.

With their help, it is planned to prolong navigation along the

complete Northern Route up to six months', and to make navigation

in the route's western and eastern areas uninterrupted during the

whole year. In addition, it is planned to double the speed of

16
the ships following the new nuclear icebreakers. But, it would

be incorrect to assume, that nuclear icebreakers would soon

14
There is no internationally accepted classification of
icebreakers. Canada, for example, divides its icebreakers into
two major categories, full icebreakers, and light icebreakers.
Roughly, the first category would include Soviet Liner Icebreakers
and Auxiliary Icebreakers and the second category would include
Soviet harbor icebreakers.
15
Vodnyy Transport , 15 October, 1970.

16
Izvestiya , 21 February 1970.

bsy
represent the backbone of the Soviet icebreakers fleet, More

likely, the conventionally powered icebreakers will continue to

play the most important role. Increased power of their propulsion

plants and improved hulls would make them as reliable as nuclear,

but much cheaper.

No country in the world is afflicted with so much loss

and inconvenience by winter as the Soviet Union. Almost every

sea which washes Soviet territory freezes over. The Baltic in its

eastern part in severe winter is frozen up to 140 days. Even

Odessa, a Black Sea port, is sometimes frozen in for up to 100

days in a year. All this demands constant efforts to search for

new means of cutting ice.

During the last several years, a number of new means to

cut ice were designed. A new type of special vessel, which appears

to have very little in common with the icebreaker, but nevertheless

serves the same purpose, was designed by the Ice Laboratory of the

Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute in Leningrad by a group

i

headed by Professor Peschanskyi. The bow of the ship slopes

/ !

forward below the waterline, forming a kind of slip-way. Mounted

•
i

on the bow are four rows of large rotary cutting discs which
j

bite into the ice and cut out large bars of it as the ship moves

forward. These bars are forced up the slip-way where they are

crushed, picked up by a conveyor system, and thrown ovor the side

i

/
i

SCO ».,..—.
'

mi . II. ..... ... ... i i

,nto the ice, well away from the ship's side leaving an ice-free

aanel. Though, theoretically, the new device can saw through

ze of any thickness, calculations have shown that it would be

apractical to use it on the ice of more than two feet in thickness

icause of slow speed.

Another new method to fight the ice is the water jet gun;

daimed to be capable of pulverizing ice barriers more than three

:?et thick. It was said that the two new methods are planned to

h used for keeping channels and port approaches free of ice,

...

uile conventional icebreakers will do the job in the open sea.

A method to keep ice bound ports free of ice was said to

fe also developed. It is achieved with the help of pipes laid

own on the bottom. Air, which was fed through the pipe, bubbled

p through the water and constantly mixed the warm lower layers

<f the water with colder upper ones and so inhibited the formation

P A
17
it ice.

In addition to weather and navigational aid services and

leet of icebreakers, another essential element for successful

/ . !

ivigation in the Arctic is ice reconnaissance. The best, of

Durse, and most productive is air-ice reconnaissance, and Soviet

olar Aviation has been employed for this purpose for many years.

17
Sputnik (from magazine Znanie-Sila) No. 1, Moscow, 1968.

801
" -' ' * *
b to recent times, the major means of ice reconnaissance were

isual and photo reconnaissance - both depend heavily upon weather

onditions.

Recently the system called TOROS (translated ICE HAMMOCK)

:>r the ice reconnaissance and assiAing ice breakers and ships

| ice navigation was successfully tested. The system, installed

sioard an aircraft, incorporates as its major element side-looking

a.rborne radar. All weather operation and the ability "to see"

tirough the snow and observe ship tracks in the ice field was

c. aimed for the system. The high resolution picture is simultaneously

rgistered on the scope and video-tape and via photo-telemetry

Vansmitted to ships and to shore c^-troi points^ Simultaneously

u.th the picture, the system produces the exact coordinates of

lie aircraft which carries it. The system was successfully tested
18
i 1970.

Another radar equipment designed to measure the thickness

c! the ice field from an airborne .helicopter was tested during

3'71. A cross section cut of the ice field is displayed on

tie screen of the equipment. Many Soviet icebreakers and some

orchant ships, particularly those with ice reinforced hulls,

ve carrying or are capable of carrying helicopters. These

i'licopters equipped with the above device (especially coupled

18
Pray da, 3 May 1970; Morskoy Plot No. 9, 1970, pp. 27-28,

6G2
with photo telemetry capability) would help not only to improve

and simplify ice reconnaissance but would increase 'productivity

of ice breakers by permitting them to select thinner ice for a

passage. The equipment could, under certain conditions, permit

ships with ice reinforced hulls to navigate alone without

19
assistance from icebreakers.

Legal Aspects of Soviet Arctica

and Northern Sea Route

The Soviet government has issued a series of legal acts

related to the status of Soviet Arctic and to the exploitation

and organization of the route. In addition to the above mentioned

reinforcement of the Tsarist government acts concerning Arctic

possessions, the resolution of 15 April 1926 by the Presidium of

the Central Executive Committee of the USSR proclaimed the

establishment of the geographical boundaries of the Soviet Sector

of the Arctic between "meridians 32 04 '35" East longitude and

168 o 49'30" V/est longitude. Within the boundaries of the

/
indicated sector, the Soviet Union claims to exercise full
' i .

sovereignty of all "land and islands located in the Arctic Ocean,

!
20
north of the coast of the Soviet Union, as far as the North Pole".

19
Trud, 12 June 1971.
20
Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1970, pp. 83-SS.
/

803
! ! riw i-yHii wwmnww uwwii^ii
iii >wf t i n i fw*rwi^:''iM..^V,
 The navigation along the Northern Sea Route is treated

the Soviets as navigation in Soviet Territorial ^Waters. To

jf

apport such a claim the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi

i;as, through which the Northern Sea Route passes, are viewed as
21
'>road, shallow bays with specific ice conditions", surrounded

i the cost of the Soviet Union. The exceptionally severe

c.imatic conditions of the Siberian Seas and straits and the

pesence of ice during the greater part of the year "serving as a

strt of continuation of Soviet territory" are used to substantiate

lie Soviet arguments. The majority of the straits through which

tie Northern Sea Route passes are said to be within the Soviet

territorial waters, particularly Karskie Vorota, Yogorskiy Shar

aid Vil'kitskiy Straits. The Straits of Dmitri Laptev and Sannikova

22
s*e considered as belonging to the Soviet Union historically.

Colossal expenditures by the Soviet and previously Russian

sates, are also cited in defense of the claim that the Northern

£.a Route is the national route . The cost involved in the

23
n.intenance of the route is of course considerable.

21
Morskoy Sbornik No. 8, 1969, pp. 80-88.
22
Ibid .

23
As an example, the "SEVER-69" upper-latitude expedition
involved dozens of airplanes and helicopters. The expedition
laced seventy drifting automatic radio-meteorlogical stations
4 addition to existing stations.

^
 The Northern Sea Route is compared by the Soviets with"

tie Norweigan Indreleia Sea Route which the International- Court

it Justice of the United Nations in its decision on 18 December

:)51 recognized as an inner national Route of Norway. Canada's

daims of sovereignty over the passages between. the Arctic Islands

right be used by the Soviets as another precedent.

The Canadian concern over the possible pollution in the

i^ctic is shared by the Soviets. Unsuitable ships, especially

ji the absence of icebreaker's assistance, have definitely"

pesented the ecological hazard, for it can easily be damaged

ad so cause the pollution. Following the Canadian Prime Minister

1'udeau's visit to USSR (May, 1971), the development of Soviet-

Cindian relations and future cooperation including that in the

24
^ctic were praised by the Soviets.

The present Soviet claims can be summarized as follows:

The Northern Sea ftoute belongs to only one nation, the

1

£>viet Union, as an internal national route which guarantees the

I

ction's vital economic, political, and defense interests in

tie Arctic region. (b) The special geographical ___location of

te Northern Sea Route, the most vital sectors of which pass

i

trough Soviet Territorial and Inland waters, gives the Soviet

?4
Typical was an article in Pravda , June 18, 1971,
andshake Across the North Pole". !
I

i
805 '

, I _. i
ii ..--, l- J f i i ir i i i
--,-- u i ii I
.
" '" "" ' "*- ' —* **-" -
jaion an indisputable right to regulate in it the regime of
25
lavigation by foreign merchant and naval ships. v

The seriousness of the claim and uncompromisiveness of the

Soviet Union was demonstrated in the summer of 1967, when two

J. S. Coast Guard Icebreakers, Edisto and Eastwind , after

jnsuccessful attempts to pass north of Severnaya Zemlya were

forced to enter the Vilkitskiy Straits and were turned back by

26
the Soviets.

The importance of the Northern Sea Route is elevated by

the numerous navigable rivers of the country (Pechora, Ob,

ifenisey, Khatanga, Olenek, Lena, Yana, Indigirka, Kolyma and

3thers) connecting it with the northern regions of the USSR.

There are an extensive network of ports, the majority of which

have been developed during the years of Soviet power. Among those

of particular economic importance are: in the Barents Sea -

Pechenga, which exports copper-nickel ores, and Nar'yan-Mar, a

port for the export of bituminous coal from the Vorkuta Basin

and timber that has been rafted down the Pechora; in the Kara
/
Sea - Kilson and Dudinka, which provide an outlet to the sea -
for

2^
Morskoy Sbornik No. 6, 1970, pp. 83-88.
26
The detailed description of this voyage is given in
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings, April 1968, pp. 74-79.

80S
 te production of the Noril'sk mining
region, and Igarka, the
lrgest center of timber export; in
the Laptev Sea'- Nordvik

Katanga, and Tiksi, the maritime

gateways to Yakut; in the
Siberian Sea
EJst - Ambarohik *iu| l>ev*k, riuUuly ^mU^ H»M|MttM
ad industrial centers o£ tho Northeast.

The Soviet North is tho richest bn*;o for tho wood »

cemical industry, a world exporter of timber. It is also

rch in useful minerals - mineral fuel, iron ores, phosphates,

vrious construction materials, bauxite, copper, and a number

o other nonferrous and rare metals. New industrial regions are

bing rapidly developed there.

The Twenty-Fourth Party Congress Directives for the five

y&r plan (1971 - 1975) projected further development of the

£>rthern Region. The special attention in the directives was

i-ven to Norilsk Metallurgical Combine. The industrial development

c: the region which started in the decade of 1960's had already

osorbed 24 billion rubles of capital investment, exceeding the

27
nm spent in the previous forty years, 1920-1960, more than twice.

The development of the Arctic region has been accompanied with

; number of original solutions. An urgent demand for power,

or example, generated design, construction, and beginning of

pe rat ion in the end of 1970 of Floating Gas-Turbine I'ower Station,

27
Komsomol skaya Pravda
' , 14 March 1971.

607
Drthern Lights (20,000 KW) . A decision was made to build a

:jries of such power stations which can be placed anywhere

Mere there is waterway (bay, chaunel, river) which permit

lissage of a ship with 1.55m draft.

Combined with the rapid development of Soviet Arctic

I;gions, where water transport is still, for all practical

firposes, the only means of transportation, the importance of

r>rthern Sea Route to Soviet Union is obvious. The Route has

ben used practically exclusively by the Soviet ships and legally

obody challenged it. With the growth of its merchant marine,

bwever, and the development of much wider cooperation with

niritime organizations of the world, the Soviet Union is starting

1» change its position. Convinced that the mastery of the

i>ute in general has been achieved and navigational period

iicreased and probably from the desire to obtain some reciprocity

i»r the Soviet merchantmen in the other part of the world, the

£>viets, starting with 1966, but particularly after the closure

c the Suez Canal in 1967, began the promotion of the route for
/
!

i-reign shipping. The economic advantages for certain shipping

i

t use the Northern Sea Route are obvious. The length of the

t'Ute from Murmansk to Provideniya (southern part of the Bering

Srait) is 3,400 nautical miles. Murmansk - Vladivistok distance

va the route is 6,100 miles, while via the Suez Canal, more

i /

6G8
in 12,000 miles. From London to Yokohama via the route is

,30 miles shorter than via the Suez Canal. In spite of some

)uction in speed while transiting the ice a ship saves

laverage of 13 days in one direction via the Arctic Transit

mi London to Yokohama compared with that via the Suez Canal.

1 1967 the Soviet Ministry of Merchant Marine announced the

L;i to open traffic along the Northern Sea Route between ports

i .Yes tern Europe and the Pacific Ocean. The use of Ice-class

v.ps was proposed. The navigation was promised to be supported

assigned icebreakers, polar aviation, by the Hydrographic

2;/ice, and by special "scientific-operational groups" from

at Hy drome teoro logic Service. Referring to the difficult

ligation and the ice situation in Volkitskiy Strait, the

dilatory icebreaker and pilot use was specified for the convoys,

ojthern Sea Route Sailing Instructions were published for the

oifoying of foreign ships. The scale of fees for the icebreaker

Q( pilot were announced. The Northeastern Administration of

b« Merchant Marine was established in the center of the Arctic

Hi headquarters in Tiksi with primary mission to support

rasportation and further development of navigation along the

Mfce

The strategic value of the Arctic including the Northern

to Route was well understood long before the revolution. The

609
icious Russian scientist, D. I. Mendeleev wrote "When it would

oi possible to transfer fleets or even part of them from Atlantic

tc Pacific Ocean and reverse, the naval defense of the country

Kjj.1 gain a lot, for Russia should keep strong fleets to defend
28
Lt; vital interest in the both oceans" Soviet war ships can .

jeand have been transferred between Europeans and the Pacific

Sciet Fleets avoiding the necessity to enter foreign waters

u.or to World War II, during the World War II, and after World

tof II. The number of transferred ships has not been great,

icever. The transfer of submarines is another matter, and this

icloubtedly is done on a more regular basis. The calls for

:cistruction and use of the large transport submarines for

reir-round delivery of cargoes and oil have been made in Soviet

29
/con for many years.

The Arctic became one of the major places where Soviet

ii' Defense Units are located and quite extensive network of

)bervation radars and communication centers have been built.

4-
^From
the Scientific Archives of D. I. Mendeleev, cited
^ Mastering The Extreme North Volume I, Academy of Sciences ,

rtthe USSR, Moscow - Leningrad, 1960.

29
A detailed study, dealing with feasibility of such
>iject was completed by Professor Pokrovskii in 1955. Since
tijittime, the problem was repeatedly mentioned by the Ministry
>j Merchant Marine and its Central Scientific Research Institute.
te, for example, its Transactions, V. 133, Leningrad, 1970.

610
. w ww .«i » w n-n>m»,niw nnrtr
i
pesently hardly a month would pass without Soviet Military

pess mentioning harsh duty of Air Defense Units, performing

i Arctic Region.

To summarize: (1) The Soviet Union successfully continued

te Russian efforts of long duration to master the Northern Sea

Rute and advance in the Arctic Region; (2) the development

o Arctic and Siberia regions with their wealth of natural

rsources drastically elevated the importance of the route; (3)

cnstantly increasing Soviet foreign trade, associated with fast

gowth of Soviet Merchant Marine, added to route's importance;

() the use of the route by foreign shipping, though up to now

sow in developing, would probably be intensified in the future;

() the military role of the Arctic Region and the Northern

Sa Route is significant for the defense (Anti-Air and ASY/)

ad as a communication artery.

61
v X
•*-

J
 I.

EPILOGUE

Soviet maritime power of today is the result of more

than fifty years of the Soviet Union's development as a state.

The magnitude of Soviet maritime power historically has generally

reflected the level of the Soviet economy or, more correctly

of the industrial capacities. More particularly, however, the <*

naval element of Soviet maritime power in a number of instances

swung upward in its development from the general level of the

Soviet economy. Traditional Soviet preoccupation with defense

matters has for a long time produced a peculiar combination of

modernity and backwardness in its economy in which the armament

sector has received the best production capacities and priority

allocation of resources. The civilian sector, on the contrary,

being supplied on a residual basis, has been developing much

more slo?/ly and still has a technological level below that of

most developed countries. Analyzing the IChruschchev period,

Michel Garder observed: "Thanks to him, the Soviet Union's

military power could frighten, but its internal economy could

not inspire envy. Hitler at least produced cannons in order to

seize the butter of other countries; the Soviet arsenal was intended

612
o protect a butter which in the Soviet Union romainod an uncommon

ommodity" v

Together with the seizure of political power in tho' course

f the 1917 Revolution, the Communists inherited a considerable

aritime tradition. Historically, the Russians have demonstrated

.any times a thorough understanding of the importance of tho

ea and were among the early pioneers of the sea. The drive toward

he sea was an essential element of Russian policy for centuries.

t is enough to recall Russian stubborness and consistency in

.ttempts to gain control of the Straits or rights to uninterrupted

lassage to doubt the claim that Russian development was marked

>y a lack of understanding of sea power. One may ask what they

leeded the straits for - to march their regiments through? The

leglect of maritime power by certain rulers was well compensated

>y the achievements of Peter the Great and the skillful employment

)f navy under Catherine ghe Great. The Russian Imperial Navy

/as a center where innovative scientific thoughts often found

mderstanding and many were implemented. In turn, the navy

)roduced a considerable number of officers who distinguished

themselves in exploratory and scientific work, and some in the

theory of naval art as well. One of the main reasons that Russia

failed in the past to achieve a degree of world sea power was

the backwardness of her technology and the general weakness of

613
«! " ' ' " -—
tffi economy. The same factors had kept the Soviet Union froa

booming a recognized world maritime power, despite the fact that

1

its importance has always been understood and despite two . -~_

attempts to develop at least the naval element of miritime power

11 excess of her economic capability.

The rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union interrupted

bj the World War II was resumed after the war and the economy,

^stored. The death of Stalin permitted a major revision of Soviet

nreign policy, not in respect to the goals, but to the means

f<r achieving the same ends. Mastering of nuclear energy and

tb beginning of the introduction of nuclear armament probably

seeded up the realization by the new Soviet leaders that the

od policy of uncompromising confrontation, keeping the country

o the brink of war, was dangerous and, in the long run,

unproductive. The proclaimed course of peaceful coexistence

btter suited Soviet interests in the rapidly changing world.

iVile continuing to be antagonistic to many basic interests

o the West, the new course implied the development of Soviet

miritime power as an essential element. Thus, the accelerated

dvelopment and gradual coordinated application of the Soviet

n.ritime power, which permitted Soviet political, economic, and

ii.litary influence to be extended over a wide range and with far

Lss direct risk, started in the mid-1950' s.

6iu
pmwm*****--
 Particular atteatioa has been paid to the underdeveloped

orld, specifically the non-allied countries in it) Combining

plitical support for key countries with economic and military

ad, Soviet foreign policy in the selected areas of the Third

\>rld was in most cases quite pragmatic, demonstrating the

tcistence of a mutually interacting relationship between Soviet

ams and capabilities. H. Dinerstein distinguished three types of

i>viet activity:

(1) denial of influence in neutral areas to adversaries;

(2) intrusion into the opponent's sphere of influence;

(3) promotion of a revolutionary situation.

jt is not difficult to see that the marxxime power is needed for

;L1 three of them.

The Soviet Union's own economic interests, evident in her

apidly growing foreign trade and the development of remote areas

<£ the country rich in natural resources needed to support the

jrowing industry, as well as defease interests were among the

ajor factors generating the quite rapid development of maritime

;^wer, during the second half of the 1950 's and the decade of the

360 's. Although having the longest coastline in the world washed

/ 12 seas, the Soviet Union's access to the open ocean is

K. Dinerstein, Moscow a nd the Third World: Power Politics

r Revolution? ; Problems of Communism, January-February I96S, p. 52

615
handicapped by the peculiar geography, which, while restricting

to a degree the employment of maritime power, particularly its

naval aspect, does not prevent it.

Moreover, the Soviet Union is not strategically located

in relation to the world trade routes. These routes, however,

are not the result of geography alone, but to the large degree

of the econimic development of certain regions of the world,

particularly their industrial capability to produce for export .

and their purchasing power for imports. Historically, trade

routes are constantly shifting, depending upon the emergence

or disappearance of those factors in certain regions of the world.

It seems that the ability of a military power, and historically it

has been a naval power, to adjust the distribution of trade

routes is rapidly disappearing. The system of military alliances

has produced a number of examples where two opponents belonging

to the opposing camps and exercising their navies to combat each

other, might be quite faithful trade partners. Such a situation

not only has contributed to the development of Soviet foreign

trade, but has helped the development of Soviet industry, which,

in the final analysis, makes trade possible. The trade also

provides the Soviet Union with the opportunity to buy advanced

technology from the industrially developed countries of the Vest.

The direct assistance of these technologically advanced countries

616
»«»< « *>
t> the Soviet effort to develop its maritime power, particularly

ue merchant marine and fishing fleet, was quite substantial.

Iiradoxically , the same countries, in the raid-lOSO's realizing

tie momentum and scope of the Soviet maritime development and

bginning to feel its competition started to scream, "The Russians

re coming!". In fact, some had invited them.

-

The role of the Navy as one of the leading forces has been

dearly recognized in the Soviet Union and, as evident from the

Ktensive naval programs of the last seventeen years and the

ontinuous appearance of new, more sophisticated ships, the Soviet

livy has neither a shortage of allocated industrial capacity nor

it funds for research and development. The Soviet leadership's

atisfaction with the Navy's performance appears to be expressed

a the continued presence of Gorshkov as Commander-in-Chief of

be Soviet Navy for 17 years, his membership in the Central

lommittee of the CPSU and the presence as candidate-member in the

entral Committee of two Commanders of the Soviet Fleets, the

orthern and the Pacific. The top echelon of the Soviet naval

ommand holds the highest ranks ever in the history of the Soviet

avy, including one Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union,

hree fleet admirals, and a considerable number of full admirals.

Even the top echelon of the Soviet Army has explicitly

ecognized the importance of the Navy, and through the Commander-

617
in-Chief of Ground Forces expresses its "constant rcadic

support the Navy," a complete turnabout from tho tradit:;i

treatment of tho Navy as "faithful helper of tho Army." Minister

of Defense Marshall A. A. Grechko recently said, "under modern

conditions combat operations on the oceans and seas are acquiring

special significance. Navies can have an enormous impact on the

2-
entire course of a future war."

The role of the Soviet ballistic missile submarines in the

strategic delivery system is growing, as evident from the

intensive Y-class program presently underway. Because of the

relative invulnerability of the submarine-based system to

preventive attack, it is unlikely that their role- will decline

in the foreseeable future. For several years, the Soviet ballistic

missile submarines (SSBNs) have been considered next in importance

only to strategic missile troops. The importance of the number

of SSBNs on station seems to be well recognized by tho Soviets,

as witness the increased total number of submarines and the

attempts to increase the ranges of their missiles, which would

make them even more invulnerable and reduce transit time and

hence, increase time on patrol. While alleged Soviet desire to

have an advanced base in Cuba for their ballistic missile

submarines, similar to the US base at Holy Loch, cannot be

Marshall Grechko in Morskoy Sbornik No. 7, 1971, p. 5.

Rl R
pjjected out of hand, it does scorn to be a very remote possibility.

/llle available port facilities in the areas of nav.al forces

doloyment are utilized, the basic trend appears to be to avoid

doendence upon bases. Even the employment of tenders based in

jioa and replenishing submarines on the high seas (more likely

if they
tan a base for SSBNs) seems to be questionable;' even

wre so employed, it would be only in an auxiliary

capacity.

The thesis that the Soviet Navy can operate only behind

te shield of the full power base of the USSR seems to be outdated

Te Soviet Navy itself has become a very important

element of the

risk the
Sviet power base, and the question "would the Soviets
Goviot
blocaust of a nuclear war?" cannot bo applied to the

Uion alone anymore. The most logical answer, of course, is "no";

tit who would? It follows that at any point of confrontation

representatives
viere the naval forces in an area are the main

C the military power of a state, and they

alone have the

(ipability to be employed world-wide, the need for a credible

:>vel of these forces is evident. It appears that the principle

is being implemented by the Soviet

i not only understood, but

If such an assumption is accepted,

the logical step
avy.
policy in the direction
laid be a new vision of the Soviet naval
a self-contained
f "further to the ocean", i.e. more ships with
for close
apability in remote deployment, more submarines

61b
cooperation with such deployed forces, and inevitable emphasis

on the availability of air power - long-range naval aviation for

the striking role and reconnaissance, and ship-borne aviation

(VTOL aircraft and helicopters) for air defense, including anti-

cruise missile defense, and local ASW. This would not mean a

drastic revision of the previous Soviet decision not to build

attack aircraft carriers, for ships carrying VTOL's and helicopters

would not be employed in such a role.

It is questionable whether the Soviet Navy would try to

acquire an intervention capability, for there is hardly any need

for it. By preventing intervention and supplying arms to friends

to deal locally with the opposition as well as to resist

intervention by a country whose forces have either outmaneuvered

the Soviet Navy or even ignored it, Soviet Maritime power would

fulfill one of its important roles. The Soviets have demonstrated

a good understanding of the potential of naval power in peacetime

to achieve the desired effect in support of national policy.

They have found that it is cheaper, less dangerous, and more

promising to grant protection from the sea, while supplying enough

armament to build up a client country's capability to fight on land.

Any notion of superiority actually pursued by an opponent,

or just interpreted as being part of his policy from a position

of strength, has been met with irritation by the Soviet Union. The

/ .

620
Soviet government statement on 21 August 1963 declared: "As

a result of intensive efforts by tho Soviot people^ and Soviet

scientists in the development of nuclear weaponry, tho American

nuclear monopoly has been broken, the world Socialist system,

has acquired its own nuclear shield, and the imperialist powers

have been deprived of the material basis for conducting their

policy of nuclear blackmail and .their policies from a 'position

3
of strength', in relations with the Socialist countries." The

discussions of the ULMS system in tho US and the Washington Post

claim that "the hawks and the doves in Congress have found

common ground in pushing for strategic weaponry that promises

to draw enemy fire away from the continental United States and

toward the sea" produced an extremely negative reaction in the

Soviet Union. Several reasons were seen by the Soviets behind

the alleged US attempt to adopt an "oceanic strategy":

continuous reliance on force as the chief means of

attaining foreign policy goals which "remain unchanged", i.e.

allegedly "imperialistic and aggressive";

the desire to obtain unilateral military advantages while

talking about "sufficiency" and equal security;

"to divert a retaliatory strike away from the (continental)

US";

3
Pravda, 21 August 1963.

R21
 "to improve the geography", particularly the maritime

;ography, which, with the advance of ballistic missiles,'

aegedly became unfavorable to the US ascompared to that of the

4
m. . .

Krasnaya Zvezda stated that the calculation to achieve

uilateral military advantages" did not materialize in the past,

il will not materialize now and "any attempt by anyone to assure

liLitary superiority over the USSR will be met with a corresponding

urease of military power to guarantee our defense". The official

lcjazine of the Soviet Navy, Morskoy Sbornik , was more specific:

"here is no doubt that the Soviet Navy, in developing itself

.1 the future on the basis of the latest achievements in science,

;ohnology, and production, will increase its strategic capabilities

>t the scale necessary to. reliably protect our homeland and the

icmtries of the Socialist community. And if the U.S.A. adopts

i

ir 'oceanic strategy' as a new course of the "grand strategy,"

I

n? navy will, of course, be on a level which will ensure the

solution of problems in the new situation that will arise on the

>4s and oceans."

4
"The Nixon Do ctrine: D ecl arations and Realities " a ,

i:;cussion at the Institute on the US of the Academy of Sciences,

JoR. USA: Economics, Politics, Ideology. Moscow, No. 2,
^oruary 1971, pp. 18-48; Krasnaya Zvezda, 13 July 1971; Rear
^iiral Stalbo, The Zigzag s o £ American Grand Strategy Morskoy ,

Sftrnik No. 8, 1971, pp. 96-S9.

/
 Admiral Gorshkov's article in P ravda of July 25, 1971,

proclaimed: "Vain hopes! No strategy, including the socalled

'oceanic' will save from condign punsihment any aggressor who

would risk starting a war against the USSR". Basically the same

idea was advanced earlier, criticizing the alleged desire of the

US strategy to divert Soviet retaliatory strikes to the ocean-based

strategic delivery system by asserting that "American politicans

understand that if it comes to a matter of strategic nuclear warfare

between the tv/o super powers, then all the socalled strategic *"

5
limitations will remain basically on paper."

It has become a standard assertion in the Soviet Union

that the Americans have always bees disturbed by the advantage

of the Soviet Union in the size of its territory, in that the US

"by expanding its naval forces, has, figuratively speaking,

attempted to expand its territory". It was claimed that "the

U.S. transition to an 'oceanic strategy* should also be viewed

as an attempt to extricate itself from the difficult situation which

has arisen due to the fact that geography (as expressed by Vice

Admiral Rickover) , following the emergence of intercontinental

missiles, played a "nasty trick" on the U.S.A. - the oceans have

ceased to protect her territory from the vicissitudes of war."

5
USA: Economics, Politics, Ideology , No. 2, 1971.

Rear Admiral Stalbo, op. cit., p. 98.

^0
The foregoing Soviet reaction illustrates a sensitivity oi the

Soviet Union to any attempt by its main opponent, real or

imagined, to change the balance of naval forces. The open emphasis

on the strategic delivery system in the framework of "oceanic

strategy" allegedly emphasized by the United States is not

convincing, for, in reality, Soviet concern about the possible

growth of general purpose naval forces in the US Navy is not

less, and perhaps, is even greater. While the possibility of an

all-out war at sea seems to be clearly rejected by the Soviet Union',

as it has been in pronouncements of some US officials, the

growing importance of naval forces in general, particularly general

purpose forces, is clearly recognized.

Besides the military purpose, the role of the world ocean

in supporting the life resources of mankind is being viewed hy

the Soviet Union as extremely important, and their emphasis on

the simultaneous development of other elements of maritime

power, besides the Navy, is not accidental. The planned 37%

increase in merchant marine during the 1971-1975 period (5.3

/
million dwt; 550 new ships) represents a continuing drive to -

develop efficient sea transportation, capable not only of

assuring the Soviets a pattern of commerce, but also of

implementing Soviet foreign policy mainly through economic and

i

621
Military assistance. Greater emphasis upon more efficient ships

inevitably results in their specialization, a trend evident in

the current Soviet shipbuilding and from their orders abroad..

The fast expansion of Soviet foreign trade and the demands

of domestic transportation generated by the development of new

economic regions in the North and the Far East are creating an

increasing demand for sea transportation. The Soviet Merchant

Marine does not have excessive tonnage in relation to the total *

demand and while the drive to increase the chartering of Soviet

ships by foreign shippers continues, and will most likely

increase, the chartering of foreign ships cannot at the same

time be reduced substantially. Moreover, while the size and

composition of the Soviet Merchant Marine are capable of

influencing shipping policies in certain regions, they are not

considered great enough to dictate those policies, particularly

world-wide. The Soviets are also interested in the profit to be

gained, and they are unlikely to operate on uneconomical terms.

As members of various international shipping organizations, the

i

Soviets are obliged to observe the rules imposed by them. j

It is logical to assume* that the Soviet Navy views the

civilian ships as a reserve, and contingency plans to utilize

7
them in war time, after conversion and arming, have long existed.

See, for example, Admiral V. A. Alafuzov critical review

of the book, Military Strategy Morskoy Sbornik No. 1, 1963, p. 96
,

825
\± further specialization of the ships and their growing tonnage

jirticularly tankers) , directed toward satisfying >the need of

;(imerce to be competitive and profitable, makes their military

i», even after conversion, questionable.

The inability of Soviet agriculture to meet requirements

c protein will most likely continue. This factor alone

oresents a strong stimulus for" further development of a Soviet

j;h sea fishing fleet despite a declining fish stock and rising

i.t cost. In addition, the demand for higher efficiency and

cger fishing ships and the necessity to search for new fishing
-

nunds, which also requires larger and more sophisticated support

ihps, will intensify. Soviet cooperation in conserving

i£'ine resources is virtually assured.

Soviet oceanographic efforts represented by the joint

search of numerous scientific organizations and coordinated by

;b Academy of Sciences has no equal, at least in its scale.

kiefits obtained by the merchant marine and the fishing fleet

1

'*>ia oceanographic research are numerous and growing. Heavy

/
!

'

^mhasis on military oceanography and its benefits to the Soviet

£7, particularly to submarine operations and ASW, while

ii:ficult to measure quantitatively, must be considered substantial

j

"b scope of the Soviet work to master the depths for exploration

uj exploitation of marine resources is being widened. Intensive

62G
-) of converted submarines for testing; equipment and concepts has

.u known parallel in the West, and as an idea seems to be very

'
8
Demising . The simultaneous coordinated use of several ships,

i:rcraft and weather satellites for oceanographic research in a

;./en region is becoming a routine Soviet practice.

The Soviet shipbuilding industry continues to perform

3;tisfactorily , being neither overloaded nor under utilized.

[•3 output supplemented by sizeable foreign deliveries appears

l< be satisfying the Soviet demands for ships, both naval and

:;/ilian. Compared with the previous five-year period, either

acause of enlarged production capacities coupled with increased

Lbor productivity, or because of a planned reduction in naval

sip construction which is unlikely, or combination of the two,

i: the current 1971-1975 five year period it is planned to

i crease the domestic share of civilian ship production by 30%.

Lrge Soviet orders for ship construction abroad have played a

altiple role. Not only did they provide conditions for the

rpid development of the merchant marine and the fishing and

i

oeanographic fleets, and permitted the Soviet shipbuilding

idustry to implement extensive naval programs, but they assui-ed

8
The latest experiment, during which four aquanauts "who
ir the first time ever left the submarine at depths measured in
tree-digit numbers" (in meters), and who were in. the water "for
sveral hours" daily for many days was described in P ravda ,

irch 19, 1972.

627
the avoidance of an overcapacity in the shipbuilding industry.

Of particular importance has been the rolo of the Y/arsaw Pact

t

country shipbuilding industries with a considerable degree.--

of specialization in cex*tain types of ships built and mutual

'

deliveries. In general, Soviet shipbuilding has been quite

innovative, and a number of new methods in hull assembly and

propulsion technology have been employed.

In addition to its important economic role, the development

of maritime power has provided the Soviet Union with a tool to

be employed in competition for political influence on a world-wide

scale. In the Soviet approach, each element of maritime power

contributes to a specific political objective. Y/hile the main

task of the Soviet Navy's general-purpose forces is to neutralize

the US Navy influence through selective containment in carefully

selected regions, other elements do their job in a coordinated

effort, i.e. delivering economic and military assistance, promoting

trade, conducting research in waters adjoining a specific region,

building ports, teaching how to fish, etc. Quite often such

coordinated efforts produce desirable results for the Soviet Union,

but Soviet success, whenever and whereever it has been achieved,

cannot be explained l>y their effectiveness along, for the

mistakes and ineptitude of the West have played no lesser a rolo.

As Hans Horgcnthau observed: "In large parts of the world there

828
exists today an objective revolutionary situation. This

revolutionary situation would exist even if Communism had never

been heard of ... that this national and social revolutions are

largely identified with Communism is primarily the result of the

materially."
9 ...
West's failure to identify with them morally and to support them

The Soviet Union definitely took advantage of a

number of opportunities, and maritime power played an important

role in their exploitation.

The growth of Soviet maritime power has not been marked by

size alone, but also by innovation. Its development has rested

on a powerful scientific and a reasonably well developed

technological base, both supported by the world's most powerful

maritime educational establishment, which graduates specialists

on a production-line basis. More important, with the obvious

support from the leadership, innovative maritime thinking was

not only made popular, but encouraged and well rewarded, both

morally and materially. Such an attitude should and did produce

positive results. In the United States, on the contrary, when

/ I

the economy slows down, the scientists whose efforts should be

essential in restoring the momentum of the economy are fired

i

first. Even while business is normal, those whose research made

9
Hans Morgethau, A New Foreign Policy for the US , Praeger,
New York, 1969, p. 149." j

/'
;

629
design and production possible are often paid less than those

who sell the product, thus, in effect, being economically penalized

for thinking. Such practices result in adherence to outdated

concepts, lack of innovativeness, and extrememly high cost of

new systems. By way of example, during the post-war period, no

single nation ever bad more than one fifth of the aircraft

carriers than the US Navy did. The carrier became the major ship

around which, in effect, the United States Navy had been, developed.

Of three major innovations, the angled deck, the steam catapult,

and the mirror landing methods, each drastically improving the

carrier as a platform for launching its singular weapon system,

its aircraft, not one was of American origin; all were British

inventions. It just happens that Great Britain has been the

closest ally of the US, but the fact by itself is alarming.

At present, in factors such as variety of submarines, cruise

missile armament, types of surface ships, and propulsion systems,

it is not the Soviet navy, but the US Navy, which has to catch up.

The development of Soviet maritime power has been product

of the industrial and technological base of the country and

skillful use of foreign technology, often obtained under adverse

political relations with the West. Conceptually, it is wrong

to speak about the sudden awakening of the Soviet leadership in

understanding the importance of maritime power; it is more correct

630
WWi'i*«ip qi nij»itH«,
tc speak of the realization of the long-cherished Russian and

Mfiet dream to be a great maritime power, achieved by skillful

ail innovative application of efforts and considerable resources.

The further sophistication of the Warsaw Pact mechanism

;;s, in the decade of the 1960's, resulted in the appearance of

cabined pact fleets, particularly in the Baltic Sea, and of

isort of integrated merchant marine, no small asset to the total

srength of Soviet maritime power. Under the present complex

international relations, each increment in Soviet maritime power

3 in that of her allies is in harsh reality detrimental to the

interests of the US and its allies, providing Moscow with

iditional options in the framework of the proclaimed. "competition

> the two world systems." The challenge to the West resulting

fom the Soviet maritime development is constantly increasing

troughout the whole maritime spectrum.

N. V. Gogol', a prominent Russian writer of 19th century,

:>mpared Russia to a fast moving troika . In "Dead Souls" he

vote, "Russia, whither flyest thou? Answer! She gives no

stswer. The ringing of bells melts into music; the air, torn

iito shreds, whirs and rushes like the wind, everything that is

:i earth is flying by, and the other states and nations, with

!>oks askance, make way for her and draw aside." In the

Dntezaporary world, there is a new Russia, the Soviet Union, the

631
m " —' p — - i, » -
;t.te with a different ideology which is alien to the West.

; v ry thing in that state, including the economy, traditions,

is;ional pride and aspirations, is directed by and subordinated

;c the interests of this ideology. Often chaotic in the past,

;b gait of the old Russian troika has been replaced by a v/ell

patrolled and coordinated movement, over foreign courses, of a

ya troika. Recently, for the foreign "drives", to the tired,

^ng and not very effective thill horse of Communist ideology,

;v> young and growing trace horses were added: one of them is

.h Soviet economy manifesting itself in the form of growing

:c:eign trade, technological assistance, and economic and

ditary aid, and the second, although a by-product of the first,

La Soviet maritime power. The future will show if "other states

ui nations" will "make way and draw aside." The decision is

;i2irs.-

/
G32

" " •• •> - —-

 '
APPENDIX I

WARSAW PACT COUNTRIES

e chant Marines

The Counsel for Mutual Economic Assistance, CMEA, began

ordination of the. economic plans of its members in the 1950 s. T

nil 1965 this coordination was exercised on the basis of

leady approved national plans, but starting in 1965, the--

ordination of plans preceded their approval by each individual

entry government. In the course of such multilateral coor-

i.ation, the countries have exchanged information on the key

e.tures of their national long-term plans. For example, in

S'O and beginning of 1971, the CMEA countries have completed

ck on the coordination of national economic plans for 1971-

S'5. Bilateral coordination between the USSR and other CMEA

cintries has also been arranged and formalized in the signing

fa series of protocols. Compared with the preceding five

ars, the Soviet Union's trade with other Comecon countries

r 1971-1975 is to increase as follows: by 57$ with Bulgaria,

.oe than $0% with Hungary, 56$ with East Germany, about 65$
'in Poland, over 35$ with Rumania, and over 40$ with

^choslovakia.

J-
New Times No. 4 , 1971.

833
 The trade among Comecon countries relies upon the long

tpm contracts and consistent promotion of socalled Socialist

ionomic Integration. The latter has been especially actively

pomoted by the Soviet Union since the decision of the special

3rd Session of the CMEA, held in April 1969. Total volume

y Soviet foreign trades with CMEA countries in 1971-1975.

oriod is planned to exceed 76 billion rubles (growth of lj

2
:.nes compared with previous five years). The Bucharest's _

2ph Session of the CMEA considered a long range program for

:'.e integration of countries' economies in the next twenty

/ars.

In the past members of the CMEA were acting on the

tfrld charter market practically exclusively as importers of

3
?:oduction of sea transport. With the growth of their merchant

nrines, they are becoming more and more exporters of it. In

tja economic terms, the goal is to achieve &z least a positive

3<Lance and thus not being forced to spend foreign currencies

fjr sea transport. Another goal is more political than

ionomic - "liberation from the dependence upon capitalist

Gantries, in the area of sea transportation." I

About 65% of the total volume of Communist countries' i

t:ad'e is among themselves. The volume of goods transported by

s<i is constantly growing. Presently more than 1+0% is carried

^ New Times~~No. 3 , 1971.

^By chartering foreign ships and permitting charter of

tfiir ships, the merchant marines of the Communist countries
&t conducting export and import of production of sea transport.
/

631
--
j;
sea and, in general, the rate of development of sea transport

jjceeds that of land transportation.

The attempts to coordinate activity of the CM£A countries'

tenant marines goes back to its creation in 1949 in spite

x the fact that both the merchant marines of the member

:untries and the foreign trade were very weak. The acknowledged

ml of such cooperation is the rational use of tonnage,

:ordinated action in charter market, and, in general, increased

;:fectiveness of foreign trade and improved balance of payments.

A 1952 it was decided that the conferences of organizations

j/olved in charter market will be held on the annual basis.

[] 1957 j the 3tb Session of the CMEA organized a working

pup for transport, whose function among others, was to

^ordinate plans for the foreign trade transportation. The

L
(

5$ 9th Session of CMEA established a commission for

Gnomical, scientific, and technical cooperation in the area

): transport. Commission coordinates plans for capital

Li/estment in transport development, research, and is responsible

ft mutual efforts to create scientific research centers and

i*3ign bureaus. During the period of I962-I965 the Commission

:ordimted plans for the development of sea transport of all
4
-mecon members for 1966-1970 period.

Considerable attention was devoted to the ship-building

iiiustries. It was decided to reduce the number of ships types

bilt by CMEA countries from sixty down to eighteen and to build

Hi. D. Mozharov, " Cooperation of Socialist Countries

i the a rea of Sea Transport ", Transport PH, Moscow, 19o9>
.

Pi 76-80.

635
socialized ships in large series assuring their technological

Jdernity and suitability for the needs of the CMEA countries.

In 1963 the Bureau for Coordination of Ships' Charter was

coated. The Bureau with headquarters in Moscow assisted in

dafting the organizational principles of joint shipping lines.

Ge of the reasons behind the coordination of ship charter is

;

'o apply active influence upon world charter market through

5
cordinated action". The proposals for creation of CMEA

carter center and liner conferences were under considerations

ij 1970.

The CMEA organizations dealing with their merchant marine

rsemble the North Atlantic Planning Board for Ocean Shipping

Kown as PBOS. The PBOS purpose has been to mobilize ocean

^ing shipping in a single pool and aliocaxe, it on a world-wide

osis in time of emergency. The Defense Shipping Authority,

stablished by the Board, is to insure the effective use of NATO

sips, which participating governments should, in war time

urgency, place in a central pool for allocation by the

Dfense Shipping Authority. Existing organizations and

ahieved level of cooperation among Warsaw Pact members in

aea of their merchant marines has all provisions if not more,

the Planning Board for Ocean Shipping. In December 1971

a important agreement -concerning the CMEA countries cooperation

i shipping was signed by all members. The agreement is to

asure the coordinated transportation of all foreign trade

1 S lbid . , p> 82.

I 636 .

-- -
urgos of the CMEA me ml- , rational distribution of cargo
low awontf r > •>• oj.' various noimtr.inn .. il ill '

riliiji linow,

In general, the development of the CMEA countries merchant

urines has been as following: In 1951-1955 period, when the

sa trade began to develop, the increase of their merchant marines

v, s practically negligible (from 2.2 million tons in 1950 to

I.

2p million tons in 1955). This growth was far behind the

dmands. The period witnessed a considerable dependence upon

chartered ships. The United. States introduced a number of

rstrictions demanding special permission to charter American

sips for the Soviet and Chinese cargos and published list of

srategic goods which were prohibited to carry on American

sips and ships of the flag of convenience to Communist countries.

In the period of 1955-1960 the foreign trade of the CMEA

cuntries continued to grow, including that with the developed

capitalist countries. The growth of merchant marines (2.2

tmes during the period) approximately correspondent to

ie tempo of their foreign trade development. However, it

ws not enough to overcome lack of tonnage developed in the

peceding period. The situation not only improved, but

agrevated in the early sixties. Victory of the Castro

Involution in Cuba generated considerable pressure upon the .

3EA countries and their merchant marines. During only one

yar, 1961, socalled trade with Cuba grew from 192 million

rbles to 314 million rubles or 4.3 times. One of the major

"^Ibid., p. 84. See also Vodny Transport , January 4, 1972.

r\ '-• -;
00 (

——— - ——--—— -— v. -'»

 argos has been oil. The economic sunctions aggrevated already

ad situation with tonnage. For example, Standard Oil of

ew Jersey warned the associations of ship owners 'and brokers

hat it will not charter tankers involved in the transportation

f oil to the Comecon countries and Cuba. A number of decisions

y the U.S. Government applied pressure upon countries whose

hips were involved in the delivering cargos to. Cuba. All this
.orced the CMEA countries to accelerate the development of

heir merchant marines and to improve their effectiveness.

he task "to assure independence of foreign trade from *

apitalist charter market, to decrease spending of the foreign

xchange for charter and to increase effectiveness of the

oreign trade" was proclaimed. The task to eliminate the

harter of foreign ships was never set up. The available

tatistics shows, that simultaneously with a fast growth of

he CMEA merchant marines and the steadily increasing number

f the Communist ships chartered by foreign countries, the

MEA countries charter of foreign ships is being increased

oo. 7 During decade of 1960 r

s, the CMEA fleet tonnage

ncreased more than twice, while foreign trade grew by 1.5

•imes. There were qualitative changes as well. In 1963 more

nan 40% of the ships were less than five years old, of modern

iesign, suitable for the needs of the CMEA foreign trade. The

breaking point in the fulfillment of proclaimed task was

ichieved in 1963 , when the percentage of tonnage of chartered

'oreign ships was reduced. In 1966 the ships of Comecon

..
*
Y lbid . , p. 87

633
 ountries carried four-fifths of the cargo sold by CIF and

jjught by FOB.

During the second half of the 1960 T

s there was steady
rowth of tonnage and percentage of the CMEA ships chartered

V foreign countries, i.e. the growth of the "export" of the-

reduction of merchant marine.

A brief review of the development of merchant marines

f individual CMEA countries (with the exception of the

oviet Union) now in order.

Post World War II developments of Polish Merchant Marine

egan in March of 1946 when twenty-five ships, total capacity

f 92,000 registered tons, returned to the country. In 1947

oviet Union transferred to Poland 15$, of 56,000 registered

ons, of ships received by reparations. During the six years

Ian, 1950-1955? the growth of Polish Merchant Marine was slow
nd mainly achieved through buying old ships from the Western

ountres. Communist victory in China aggravated the situation

n Polish Merchant Marine. Trade with China grew during period
f 1950-1955 more than eight times. In addition, Poland was

major country training China's Merchant Marine crews. The

oint lines, ships of which were men by the mixed Polish-Chinese

rews, were organized. During the first five-year plan,

"'
8 Ibi~ p. 81, 134-147.

^For the details see: l) B. B. Gorozontov, "T ransport

nd Internationa l Social istic Div ision of Labor", Moscow,
anaie", 19677 2) "Sea Transport of the USSR during 1966-1970",
•oscow, Transport, 1967. 3) "Fifty Years of Sea Transport of
h g S oviet Un ion," Mo 3 c ow T r a n s po r t 1 9 67. 4
, Lloy d s Re gister
, )
r

Ohipping, St atist ical Tables, 1950,1955, I960, I'WT* 5) T. D.

l

joins rov £ojlIJt^Ill:k9ILJJJ^^

,
in the Area of Sea
Iran sport,_, Transport Publishing House, Moscow, 1969.

GOo qu
._. ,
— .
 956-1960, domestic •shipbuilding industry provided half the

onnage, and the percentage of old ship:: bought declined,

uring the second five-year plan, I96I-I965, the percentage

of
omestically built ships delivered to Polish Merchant Marine
"

;rew up to sixty-three. Starting with 1966, over 95% of the

rowth of Polish Merchant Marine was achieved by delivery of

ew ships, the majority of them built by the domestic yards.

he growth of Polish Merchant Marine tonnage (thousand tons,

ead-weight) was as follows:. 1949-206; 1955-392; 1960-326;
965-1,233; 1967-1,603. 10 In the middle of 1960 s a number
T

f advanced ships were ordered aboard.

All these measures resulted in quantitative renovation

nd improvements in economic performance of the Polish Merchant

iarine. At the end of 1960 s the future of the Polish Merchant

r

11
iarine was widely debated. A special committee of the

[erchant Marine Ministry recommended a plan of merchant marine

:evelopment up to 1935. According to plan, "the development

)f sea transport of the country should be oriented mainly on

•he earning of foreign exchange", and its tonnage in 1935

Should reach 3.5-9 million dwt, out of which 3-5-4 million
iwt should be allocated for "export", i.e. for the purpose
)f earning foreign exchange. The main task of the

1"0n. D. Mozharov, "Cooperation of Socialist Countries in

;he Area of Sea Transport", Transport PH Moscow, 1969, p. 94.
,

Morski Rocznik Statystyc zny; B. Polkowski. Stan 1

;tn jktura polskie.i f loty trans porv. owe 1 3-1 grudr.ia .I9 o7, V. yd.
r

JULLl-lt u : u M o r s k j o : o
. , Gaans k
, 1 9 o8
. (Maritime Statistical
Yearbook. 3. Polkovski, "The Condition and Structure of
polish Merchant Marine, 31 December 1967", Published by
Maritime Institute, Gdansk, 1963.

S^iO
 as "protection
n-rchant marine of the country was formulated
for its
••
balance of payment of the state and active support
,r
I2
improvement"
upon its
The Polish Merchant Marine industry is relied ^

uil developed ship-building industry. There are three major

As of
nip-building yards in Gdansk, Gdynya, and Stettin.
the Polish yards
addle of 1970 a thousand ships were built in
As of 1969;
[it of which were more than 700 ships sold.
14
delivered to the Soviet Union. At
8% of ships sold were

he beginning of 1971, Gdansk shipyard

had built for export

for the USSR. The

66 ships out of which 425 were built
of Polish built ships
SSR bought close to three million tons
1960's. Presently, about
raring the decades of 1950 's and

10% of Soviet Merchant Marine

tonnage are represented by
15
ships built in Poland.
is being constantly
The size of the Polish built ships

increased.- Polish ship-building

techniques is quite advanced

and many innovations (including

welding of ship-s sections

afloat) are employed. Toward the end of 1970, the following

or planned: three types
types of ships were under construction

±9o/., wo.
'Technology and MaritlmVtlallagement- J,

^ ^ q l Q70 and Economicheskava

emu _± _
•^
"i

Sovetsk a ya Rossiya , June

T-.-.V.O
9, xjfv,
Gazeta No. 27 , July 19~69 .
-

1/f Pravda , April 16, 1971-

15 February 25, 1971.
Isvestiva, February 12 and

841
-
of tankers, the largest 94,500 dwt ; seven types of bulk
carriers, the largest 75,000 dwt; twelve, typos of general

cargo ships, some with seppd of 22 knots; three ty»pes of

refrigerator ships. Soviet Union continues to be the major

customer of Polish built ships and in 1971 additional orders

were signed with Polish foreign trade enterprise Centromor.

According to the agreement, in a period of 1972-1975, Poland

will built thirty-five universal ships with total cargo

capacity of 262,000 tons and nine large fish processing

16
factories.

Most of the propulsion plants for Polish built ships

are domestically produced. Poznan's Cegieiski plant is one

of the largest European diesel building enterprises. Most

of the diesels are built on foreign licenses from Zulzer,

Burmeister and Wain, and Fiat. TLe second enterprise, Zgocla,

builds smaller high revolution diesels of 1,500 to 3,000

horsepower output. A rather extensive network of education,

research, and design institutions support the Polish Merchant

Marine industry.

At the end of 19?0, the Polish Merchant Marine consisted

of 259 ships, with total cargo capacity of more than 1,900,000

tons. More than half of this tonnage was represented by ships

less than five years old. According to the 1971-1975 plan,

Polish Merchant Marine will be enlarged by 99 ships and in

1975 its tonnage should reach 3.5 million tons. A' new "Northern

Port" in Gdansk, capable of handling ships up to 100,000 dwt

Toibid.

fill 9
*"T— *
'
 (and in future up to 250,000 dwt) will be built. The con-
struction of this port proclaimed to be 7
a national task.
East Germany ( German Democratic Republic - G\)R ) has the
third largest, after the Soviet Union and Poland, merchant

marine among Warsaw Pact Countries. At the end of 1955 East

German Merchant Marine had 9 ships. In 1957, the first two

domestically built ships entered the service. The urgent need

for a greater number of ships forced the East German Government

to adopt in 195$ a decision for accelerated development of

its merchant marine. During 195&-1960 period, fourteen "old

ships were bought agroad and twenty new ships were built at

domestic yards. Two tankers were built in the Soviet Union.

All these measures resulted in the rather rapid growth of

East German Merchant Marine. If in 1950 it had 1.3 thousand

dwt, in I960 it has 277,000, in 1965, 794,000, and in 1970

it was 1.3 million dwt. Between 195& and I967

cargo turnover of East German Merchant Marine grew more than

19
fifty times, and in 1967 it was 23,603 million ton-miles.

Simultaneously, East German port structure was rapidly developed.

According to a special decision of October 1957, the construction

I

of Rostok port was proclaimed as a national task. This port,

i

the largest in East Germany, became the major East German port

^Yodnyy Transport , July 15, 1971.

-^Stat 1 st iches Jahrbuch der Deutschen pemoktattschen

R epublik T90S".
, "German Democratic Republic's Year cook
(
1

of Statistics", 1966', 1970).

19
new Times No. 17, 1969-

__.
to service cargo to Cuba. According to new 1971-1975 plan
in 1975 East German Merchant Marine should grow to 1,750,000 dwt. 20

East German ship-building industry is no less, important.

There are twelve ship-building yards. The major of them 'are

located in the Rostok area:

1. The Warnow Yard in Warnemunde, employs over £,000

workers, and specializes on construction of dry
cargo ships up to 16,000 dwt. Total annual
production close to 200,000 dwt..
2. The Neptune Yard in Rostok specializes in building
dry cargo ships up to 11,000 dwt, research vessels
and auxiliary ships. Total annual production close
to 100,000 dwt.
3. The Stralsund Yard employs over 6,000 workers and
specializes in building fishing vessels. Annual
output is more than £0,000 reg. tons (74,369 reg.
tons of 1970 output went to the Soviet Union).
Quite advance methods of ship-building - sectional
and block, automated steel processing - are employed
by the yard.
4. The Wismar Yard also employs over 6,000 workers,
but it specializes in building of passenger liners
up to 25,000 reg. tons, fishing factory-ships,
refrigerators and expeditionary ships. Annual
output is 50,000 dwt.

Two machine building factories, one in Rostok and second in

Magdeburg, are producing diesels for all types of ships.

Presently, East German ship-building industry completely

satisfies the needs of its merchant marine, and the bulk of

the production is going for export. The major consumer is |

the Soviet Union.

During twenty years more than 3,000 ships were built.

Twenty-six countries have ordered ships from East Germany,

particularly famous for its fishing vessels (19$ of world T

s

total are East German built). In 1970 92$ of the newly

ftftorskoy Fiot No. 11, 1970.

/
/

844-
<-W ~-* !
 onstructed tonnage went for export. 21 According to all agree-
ents signed between USSR and East Germany only in 1970, the

otal delivery of ships amounted to 800,000,000 rubles. East

erman ship-building industry was first to initiate construction

f container ships among Communist countries. At the present

oo
ontainer ships up to 23,000 tons are built. The industry

s supported by an extensive network of research institutes.

As a result of World War II, Rumania lost practically

11 of its merchant fleet. In -1950 eight ships were obtained

nd, later, up to I960 Rumanian fleet did not grow. In -the

>eriod of 1960-1965 the fast growth of Rumanian fleet was

chieved, mainly by the deliveries of domestically built

hips. The growth of Rumanian fleet can be illustrated by

he following figures: 19.60-31,000 dwt; 1965-166,000 dwt;

.970--around 600,000 dwt. 2 ^

Rumanian ship-building industry is quite advanced and

'ast growing. During 1971-1975 its output should be tripled,
:ompared with 1970. There are six ship-building yards, major

if them located in Galati, Turnu-Severin, and Constanta.

Soviet Union has been 'the major customer of the Rumanian ship-
milding industry. However, in the last two or three years
24
Soviet's orders have been reduced.

^ Vodnyy Transport , June 15, 1971; Sudostroyeniye No. g ,

.971, pp. 72-73.

22 March
Vodnyy Transport , May 3, 1971; Pravda , 2, 1972.
23
N. D. Mozharov, pp. 107-103.
2
Hodnyy Transport , October 21, 1971.

/
645
—•—-—-
 Up to I960 development of the Bulgarian Merchant Marine

was slow, but was vastly accelerated during the decade of

1960 s.
f
If in I960 total deadweight was 60,000 tons, in 1965

it was 576,000 tons and in 1970 it exceeded one million tons.

Beginning ifl 1967 Bulgarian Merchant Marines became profitable

and started to earn foreign exchange. The growth of Bulgarian

Merchant Marine has been mainly achieved by domestic ship-

building industry. In 1950 a joing Soviet-Bulgarian ship-

building and repair enterprise, Korbso, was set up. In 1954

it became a Bulgarian enterprise which merged with three other

shipyards in Varna and became known as Georgi Dimitrov

ship-building yard and ship repair yard. Another ship-building

yard, in Burgas, is presently being enlarged. Bulgaria

builds ships for Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, North Korea,

China, and Norway, but its major customer has been the Soviet

Union. Presently, different types of ships are being built,

including bulk carriers up to 33,000 dwt. The Bulgarian

Merchant Marine should be doubled during the 1971-1975 period

primarily by the deliveries at domestic ship-building industry.

It is also planned to 'increase the use of Bulgarian ships for

charter and the task to increase foreign currency earning

25
power .of merchant marine has been set.

Hungary has two types of merchant fleets - sea and mixed,

river-sea, navigation. Total tonnage of both fleets in 1967

exceeded 23,000 dwt. Hungarian ship-building industry builds

^5 vodnyy Transport , February 14, 1971.

2 113.
°N. D. Mozharov, p.

646
hips up to 2,000 dwt. Seventy-five per cent of its production

s going for export. Most ships have been ordered by the

oviet Union. However, orders from England, Belgium, Italy,

uba, Greece, and other countries have been received.

Even Czechoslovakia has its own merchant marine. As of

.967 its whole fleet - ten ships of some 150,000 tons was

-ployed in liner shippings, serving two linos J, Far Rasfcerni

rom Black Sea, and Baltic-Cuba (joint with East Germany,

luba , and Poland )

Growing foreign trade of Comecon countries, among them-

selves as well as with capitalist and developing countries,

;he desire to economize on the transportation, particularly

Ln terms of foreign exchange, the need to participate

In programs such as economic-military aid, assistance to

tforth Vietnam, and Cuba forced the CMEA members to accelerate

the development of their merchant marines. None of them

of
excludes charter of foreign ships, but the policy
been
"positive balance in the sea transport charter" has
and
vigorously pursued, particularly by Poland, Bulgaria,

East Germany.
of ships for
If, in the past, considerable percentage
Western countries an'd
their merchant marines was bought from
ship-building industries
Japan, the development of domestic
majority of CMEA countries
has reduced it considerably, and the
their
are ship's exporters. By large, the major portion of

March 7, 1967.
— ew York ~Times
7/N *
,
*

2
N. D. Mozharov, p. 124-125- /

847
^lip-building capacities is occupied by the Soviet orders

nich certainly stimulated the industries' development and

live helped the Soviet Union to develop its merchant marine,

Ashing, and oceanographic fleets. Parallel to the constantly

^creasing tonnage, the measures designed to improve effective-

uss of the industry have been implemented. At the present,

ne coordination of the CMEA countries' Merchant Marines,

,)int nature of their operation and control exercised from -

bscow are such, that to a certain degree one can speak of

integrated fleet, or CMEA's Merchant Marine. Effectiveness

<f it has been particularly well demonstrated by the

^interrupted delivery of cargo to Cuba, North Vietnam, and

* k_«.V«N

hvies

The development, or more precisely, the gradual restor-

oion of the navies by the present East European members of

tie Warsaw Pact- was initiated soon after the end of World War
"[. The Soviet Union granted major assistance initially to

Ue Polish and Bulgarian navies, and later to the East German

ad Rumanian navies. The initial order of battle of the

hst European countries' navies represented a not very

lamerous collection of old, mainly obsolete ships with the

ame quality of armament. Soviet deliveries of warships

:> these countries could not and did not change the situation,

or in the main they, too, were old and to a large degree

osolete ships. The situation with the personnel of East

648
jropean navies was, however, different.
A large number of
ijlish and Bulgarian and later East
German and Rumanian
r.val officers were trained in
Soviet naval school's and the
Aademy. Since the early l 9 50's these countries
initiated
te training of future naval officers domestically,
but
avanced training, although on diminished
scale, continued
i.the Soviet Navy education establishment.

While the Polish, Bulgarian, and Rumanian

navies had -

;on developing openly, the East German Navy officially

did
u: come into existence until January 1956.
Nonetheless,
ft East German naval forces, although not numerous
and
strong, have been in existence since late 1940 f
s when the
'Ht units of the socalled Sea Police were organized. 29

With the creation of the Warsaw Traaty Organization (WTO)

>rl4 May 1955, a new course was set for the development
d East European navies. Much closer cooperation between
East European and Soviet navies has been established,

aalleling the renovation of forces. An operational system

c posed of the Soviet Baltic Fleet, the Pollah Navy, ,md

h East German Navy, which in the event of a war would

1 be subordinated to a joint command, has been established

nthe Baltic.
30
During the second half of the 1950 T
s the
oiets delivered warships to Poland (Skory-class destroyers,

~
2 9 M ar i
ne R uncischau No. 1 , 1969, pp. 16-33.
30
Praeglad Morski (Polish M a itime Review) No. 6 ,
us 19bb', pp. 29-41.

SH-d
 submarines and torpedo boats) and
East Germany (Riga-cla:iss
escorts, torpedo and patrol boats)
On a somewhat smalle:
.

scale, Soviet ships were transferred

to the Bulgarian and
Rumanian navies as well. Simultaneously, domestic construction
was initiated of warships outfitted
with Soviet armament "
^
and equipment or produced according
to Soviet designs.
Gradually, starting in the late 1950
's there have been joint

exercises of the Soviet Baltic Fleet

with the Polish and
East German navies and the Black Sea
Fleet with the Bulgarian
and Rumanian navies. While Rumania .has refrained to a large
'

degree from joint exercises, in late 1960

s Bulgaria, in
l

contrast, went further than ever before,

exercising her ships
together with the Soviet Mediterranean Eskadra.
_
s *

In the Baltic, the cooperation of Warsaw Pact

navies is
particularly extensive. After acquiring an amphibious
capability, development of which started in the early
1960's,
a number of joint landing exercises have been observed,
including one during exercise Sever (1968-), in which forces
from all three navies participated. The Polish Navy has a
shore defense division trained for amphibious landing
while ;

East Germany uses specially trained army regiment for

this
31
purpose. In the summer of 1971 joint Soviet-Polish

and East German naval forces for the first time carried
out
exercises in the Skagerrak off southern Norway. 32

nJHne RurA schau January-February 1972. vo. 91-97;

and No. 1, 1969, pp. 32-33.
,

32
Internatlon Defense Digest No. 4, 1971. »

850
 The decisions of the March 1969 Budapest meeting of the

"TO Political Consultative Committee established the Committee

f Defense Ministers, and outlined new provisions 'concerning

he combined (Ob'yedinennyye ) armed forces and combined

arsaw Pact command. The necessity for wider application of

ommon principles in military theory, training methods, and

.ilitary education were emphasized during the meeting. The.

nits for the combined naval forces of the WTO are allocated..
33
'rom the navies of member nations. The March 1971 Budapest

meeting of the Committee of Warsaw Pact Defense Ministers

onsidered the further improvement of the WTO armed forces

nfrastructure, the further development of means of control

.nd prospects for the joint development of their armies and

.avies.
• 34

Recently, the Warsaw Pact navies have been supplied with

tore sophisticated armament and better ships, both domestically

nd Soviet built. Thus, it was reported that East German

'.SW Forces are being reinforced with new ships propelled by

.
combined gas turbine-diesel plant. The Polish Navy
•
1

eceived its first missile armed ship, a converted Kotlin-

35
:lass destroyer armed with SAMs.

3 Marshall Grechko in Pravda, February 23, 1970; and

>rmy General Shtemenko, Combined Brotherhood, Krasnaya
vezda, February 22, 1970.
^ Izvestiya , March 5, 1971*

^Politik ur.d Wirtschaft No. 95, 10 December 1971.

851
•»* ——--*—-
 >-l l—»
o CJ
o o
o o
:.

o o o o
I

CO #«l
o~
Sh o ON ur\
<d
(-'-.
cv H

H C" 1

£ -H CV -to -H- I

hh CO
CV H 1
t
1

a w
Q*p
Sh cd
o o
O cv CV 1

Eh ^

o rH
O 0]
Jh P "CO NO vO CN
P CO
O
cn. CV -
cO
o P-. ,0

CO
Pn

O H %

u) -H CO
X5 CO -P cv cv
H CO Cti H U\ "^
^ -H O —
CO
w
H CO
En Sh
CD
g
O cd
I P
a) H MJ
O C
•H
(D cv CV
CO
S CO
CO
<U H
P?
Pn H
o a)
« CD
CV
P
w •H
Jh
IT\ CV <H
EH CO
CO S I

rH
•3 [>
w CO
ON
Ph
o a>

CO CO
o
P p
H Sh CV
CV
C^-H
CO

> O
O -to CV CV ON CO
<H CQ
CO
p4 rH >•
i>- Jh
00 ON CO
Fn rH P
CO
Sh
O
l-H
<D
CO «*t
•H
<H
<D
i>>
Q 03
^
CO •rH
t =T
O .P
-H-
rH O CD
,M CO £ CD
P CO
hO <D CO CO .P
CD
c S as
»-3 Eh
•H -H rH
«! OfnO
3 cd
.
i rH CV
r-l '. crj

o ,Q faO

p P P" -H
cd
•H 00 P^ CO
•- CD
cO I I 1 O
t>.
Sh
<D •H Sh /
U
CO Sh
P
-a
P
°« •H
P rH CVcn
CO
P'
O
<D
CJ pO H
CO

in 3 Ho O
CO
CO-—
-

I
652 O
Ph
o
CJ P-.
P*
Ph
 The naval strength of the Warsaw Pact countries illus-
'

rated by the table obviously augments the Soviet Navy poten-

ial for coastal operations in the Baltic and Black 3ea areas.

t also provides the Soviet Navy with a legal pretext for' the

dvance (300-400 miles) base system. The East European navies

osess types of ships in considerable number which are essen-

ial for fulfilling certain tasks assigned to the naval forces

f the Warsaw Pact, including amphibious operations, mine and

ounter-mine operations, ASW and limited support of Soviet

ubmarines, and support of the army flank. The Warsaw Pact

>rovides the Soviet Union with better opportunities to improve

.ts strategic position in the two maritime flanks of the Euro-

\-acv* "^ *»*
^ c ^~ d ""* /"> "* ^.*C T*

3oSee Dr. R. A. Remington, The War saw Pact Case Studies :

in Communist Conflict Resolution, Cambridge, Massachusetts:

K.I.T. Press, 263 pp., 1971.

53
 APPENDIX II -^

SOVIET FOREIGN TRADE, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY AID

'oreign Trade

Pre-revolutionary Russia traded with many countries,

mt only a few major European countries and the United States

>layed a decisive role. Germany was the most important
-rading partner, accounting for nearly k.0% of trade turnover

jb 1913".

Soon after the 1917 October Revolution, all foreign and

Liiternal debts were counselled. In December 12, 1917, "the

Supreme National Economic Council (SNEC) adopted the resolution

'on interim order in the field of foreign trade" under

vhich the export and import activity could be conducted only

}y permission of the export department of the SNEC. By the

29 December 1917 resolution of the Council of People's

3ommissars the foreign trade department of the People's

Oommissariat of Commerce and Industry was granted exclusive J

right to issue licenses for export and import. Finally, by

a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of 22 April 191$

foreign trade was nationalized, thus creating a state monoply.

During the first years of Soviet power, trade relations

^-Voprosy Istorii (Problems of History) No. 6, 1967, pp. 3^-53.

654
arere maintained only with few neutral countries, mainly Sweden.

During the first three years, 1913, 1919, and 1920, the

exports totalled only 7.5 million rubles and imports #7.5 million

rubles, thus creating an £0-million ruble deficit. In January

L920 the Entente Supreme Council resolution permitted the

exchange of commodities with Russia on condition that trade

:e carried out with the Soviet cooperative organizations

rather than directly with the Soviet government, which was

lot recognized.

The Soviet government then began its diplomatic maneuvering.

I peace treaty signed with Estonia on February 2, 1920, was

in important step in the development of foreign trade, for

.t helped the Soviets to come out on the West European markets

ind thus reducing the impact of the .Enieniie. Supreme Council

"esolution. The peace treaties with Lithuania, Latvia,

''inland, and Poland served the same purpose, because the

treaties were followed by the organization of foreign trade

igencies abroad in the form of the trade delegation of Soviet

Uissia. The result was that in 1921 Soviet foreign trade was

sight times greater than that- of 192Q-, exports- growing 14 times

ind the imports more than seven times. (In 1921 the import

)f food stuffs constituted 60% of all imports and played an

.mportant role in easing the famine.)

But the Entente resolution continued to handicap the

levelopment of Soviet foreign trade a great deal. Under the

:ircumstances, the Soviet government decision on December 2, 1922,

•ranted the Centrosoyuz (The Central Cooperatives Union) the

'ight to administer its foreign trade through national

K ba
K
 Doperatives associations and also through any international

riolesale purchases cooperative union. On December 5, 1921,

he People's Commissariat of Foreign Trade and the* Centrosoyuz

igned an agreement under which the latter acted as the

ommissioner of the Commissariat in foreign markets. 2

The
alance of foreign trade continued to be unfavorable to the

oviet Union, and in 1921 reached a deficit of 150 million

ubles, which has to be covered by the sale of gold, reserves

f which were very limited. What the Soviets needed were

redits, which were refused until the Soviet government -

•ecognized the pre-war and wartime debts of Tsarist Russia

.nd the Provisional government. During the Genoa Economic

lonference, the Soviets were presented with a bill for Id.

>illion so called gold rubles, whereupon the Soviet delegation

^resented a countcrbill, indicating that tho Allied inter-

vention and blockade, and the Civil War which they supported

for more than three years had caused losses to Russia of

39 billion rubles. Obviously, the Conference was deadlocked.

The Rapallo Treaty signed on April 16, 1922, helped the

Soviet Union in developing its foreign trade. Even more

favorable development resulted in -1924 after the establishment

of diplomatic relations with Britain, Italy, Austria, Norway,

Sweden, China, Denmark, Mexico, and France. v Total foreign

trade turnover in 1924 reached hflO million rubles, in 1925,

ZVo prosy Istorii No. S, 1967, pp. 42 -4#.

5b
 .,123 million rubles, and in 1928, 1,377 million rubles,

luring the four years of the first Five Year Plan

(1929-1932),
he turnover of Soviet foreign trade was 5,900 million |* w hl&B,
'ollowing a policy of promoting rapid industrialization, the

ommodity group "plant and equipment" represented close to

•0% of the entire Soviet imports during the period and was

qual to the total amount of plant and equipment imported

.uring the period of 1918-192$.

The major stress, however, was placed on the policy

>f so called liberation of the Soviet Union from import *

iependence by developing domestic industry. The most

'evealing example of such a policy can be cited in case of

tractor production. In the early 1930 s, forced collectivi-

T

sation of the Soviet agriculture required, machines, mainly

;ractors. In 1931 the tractor imports were already 2.5 times

greater than in 1929.

The first large industrial enterprise built during the

first Five Year Plan was the Stalingrad, now the Volgograd,

Tractor Plant, stocked with American equipment which cost

28 million rubles to import. The. Kharkov Tractor Plant,

//hick was built two years later, was partially equipped with

Soviet made machinery, while the value of imported machinery

tfas only 12 million rubles. While in 1924-1931 180 million

rubles were spent to import 86,000 tractors, in 1934 the

Soviet tractor producing enterprises produced 93,500 tractors

at a cost of 58 million rubles. Starting in 1933, the tractor

imports into the Soviet Union were stopped.

"
3 vop r osy Istorii No. 6 , 1967, p. 41.
r» r- "7
 During the second Five Year Plan (1933-193$) and in

general up to the beginning of World War II, Soviet

foreign trade had been consistently declining (with the

exception of 1940, when trade with Nazi Germany somewhat '

increased total foreign trade turnover after the signing of

the Soviet -German pact). There were a number of reasons for

this. Soviet authors liked to emphasize industralization as

a major one. While this is an important factor, it should

be stressed, however, that a number of political reasons were

no less important in the curtailment of Soviet foreign trade.

Before the Nazis came to power, Germany was the biggest

trading partner of the Soviet Union. Also important were

trading relations with Italy and Japan, which degenerated

sharply after 1933. Moreover, the major export items were

raw materials, which the Soviet industry, involved in an

extensive military build-up, needed for itself and hence

the shortage of foreign exchange. The trade figures in

millions of rubles were as follows:

Year Export Import Turnover

1930 313 #3'0 1,643

1933 38$ 273 661
1935 288 139" 477
1940 240 242 4^2

Source : Voprosy Istorii No. 8 , 1967.

The first post-war years produced drastic changes in the

orientation of Soviet foreign trade, which began to grow

steadily soon after the restoration of the Soviet economy,

which was basically completed az the end of 1940 T

s. If in
(

858
%6, total trade turnover with Western countries amounted to
/?1 million rubles of which 304 was with the United States;

:i 1950 it was 440 million rubles, of which only 5,0 million

ubles was with the United States. Meanwhile, the trade'
iLth socialist countries, especially after the creation of

fie Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) has played

(decisive role, as can be seen from the table below.

POSTWAR SOVIET FOREIGN TRADE

(Millions of rubles, in prices at the time)

1950 1955 I960 1965

fatal a 2,925 5,333 10,071 14,593

b 1,615 3,033 5,005 7,350
c 1,310 2,755 3,5*1 5,049

'ithall socialist a 2,373 4,662 7,371 10,043

countries b 1,270 2,453 3,790 4,999
c 1,023 2,209 3,5*1 5,049

ith CMEA a 1,753 3,267 5,469 3,471

countries b 93S 1,722 2,331 4,210
c 315 1,545 2,533 4,261

ith developing a* 112 272 733 1,743

countries b 29 123 302 1,009 !

c S3 144 431 734

1

ith developed a 440 904 1,917 2,306

(capitalist) b 236 502 913 1,341 i

countries c 204 402 1,004 1,465

a - Turnover
b - Export
c - Import

Source - Voprosv I storii No. 3, 1967.

G59
,-T, ,,„„
 SOVIET TRADE WITH DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

(In millions of rubles)

1946 1950 1955 I960 1965 1970

Ttal 491 440 904 1,917

•

2,306- 4,700
Bitain 36 12S 216 271 399 641
Fnland 62 55 211 264 408 531
list Germany 43 286 243 544
F'ance 35 6 86 183 202 413
ialy 0.5 34 30 173 225 •

472
iieden 14 31 41 90 93 235
'dtzerland 0.7 10 11 13 28 61*
astria 1 23 44 116 102 155
blgium 6 28 35 46 74 149*
blland 1 5 60 63 35 154*
apan 4 4 124 326 652
ana da 6 0.3 4. •14 240 131-
76' m S-
5A 3C4 53 22 25

- 1968 figures

ource - International Affairs #12 , 1969; New Times #14 , April 1971;
Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta #24 , June, 1971.

6G0
 After the Communist victory in China, Soviet trade with

that country grew steadily, reaching its peak in 1959, when

total turnover was 1,850 million rubles. However,; the decline

since 1959 was considerably faster than the growth during the

previous period. Between I960 and 1965 the volume of Soviet-

Chinese trade dropped to nearly one-fifth and in 1965 it

amounted to only 376 million rubles. In 1969 the trade

between two Communist giants reached its lowest point (around

50 million rubles). At the' end of 1970 a trade agreement

between the Soviet Union and China was signed resulting in the ••

cv:*u-v,^vU- i;;oro;U^vi cvu^;"C ©Jf Cr^oc Cci" Che- I?©1I©W&K3$ ye&r«

Soviet deliveries of industrial raw materials played an

important role in trade with the CMEA countries. Between 1955

and I965 the USSR delivered 16$ million tons of iron ore,

5.5 million tons of manganese ore and more than 25 million

tons of coke to the CMEA countries. Trade between them has

been conducted on the basis of long-term agreements. 'During

the decade of the 1960 s East Germany replaced China as the

T

Soviet's biggest foreign trade partner.

Khrushchev's decision to intensify the development of

the Soviet chemical industry at the end of the 1950 s contributed

r

to a considerable increase in the Soviet foreign trade with

the developed countries. But the availability of credit

remained to be a major obstacle. The method of bilateral

trade and clearing accounts applied for the first 'time after

%Fonomicheskaya Gazeta No. 24 , June- 1971, and izvestiya,

26 August 1971.

SGI
-
he war in trade between the Soviet Union and Western countries

ks replaced during the 19oO s by accounts in freely convertible

T

urrency. Under these conditions, the problem of balancing

xports and imports became less acute. '

However, it has always been general Soviet foreign trade

olicy to strive to balance its receipts and expenditures for

ny given individual country. Soviet imports from the

ndustrially developed 'countries consist mainly of machinery^

nd equipment and sophisticated manufacturers. The major

oviet problem in trading with industrially developed countries

s the structure of Soviet exports, which has been mainly

5
epresented by raw materials. .

The structure of Soviet exports and imports has also

een changing in the post World War II period . The share

if plant and equipment in export has been growing and as

:arly as 1965 amounted to 1,472 million rubles. Oil and

)il products had been the next largest item in the Soviet

ixports. During the period of 1955-1965 more than 36O

lillion tons of oil and oil products valued at 6,300 million

^ubles were exported.' The third biggest Soviet commodity

^roup, accounted for over 10$ of the total export, was iron

ind steel.

On the whole, the turnover of Soviet foreign trade during

:he period of the Seven Year Plan (195^-1965) had been

Increasing faster than planned. According to the plan, Soviet

foreign trade in 1965 was to exceed the 195^ level by 50$ but

^Tr.t.nr-nfU-.innal Affairs No. 12, 1969, PP. 29-33.

i GG2
tie actual increase during the period was 1.9 tir.es.

The 23rd Party Congress Directives for the 1966-1970

I.ve Year Plan demanded a further increase in the Soviet

i>reign trade with the improvement of the structure of

<>viet exports to be achieved mainly by stepping-up the export

if machines, equipment, instruments, transport, and commun-

ication facilities and other finished goods of the processing

jidustry.

As can be seen from the table, Soviet Foreign Trade,

:?65-1970, the volume of Soviet foreign trade during the

jjriod 1966-1970 exceeded 91,000 million rubles compared

iLth 64,000 million rubles in I96I-I965. The average annual

:icrease of Soviet foreign trade during that period, 8.8%,

Kceeded the rate of growth of national income, 7.1%.

The Soviet Union is trading with over a hundred countries.

at, nearly two-thirds of the trade turnover in 1966-1970

50, 600 million rubles) was with the Socialist countries

CMEA countries amounted to 51,600 million rubles). Nearly

alf of the machinery and equipment exported by the CMEA

ountries were bought by the Soviet Union including 85% of

7
he shipping tonnage and marine equipment.

While the volume of trade with the developed countries

uring the five years increased from 2,800 million rubles in

965 to 4,700 million rubles in 1970, their share in the total

olume of Soviet foreign trade decreased somewhat toward the

nd of the period from 21.9% in 1969 to 21.3% in 1970.

Kconomichoakaya Gazeta #24 , June 1971.

7 Mgw Times #50, December 16, 1970.
h
6"tr
 SOVIET FOREIGN TRADE, I965-I97O
(OOO million rubles, in prices at
the time)"'
1

1965 196 6 1967 196^ 1969 1970

r
)tal turnover H.6 15.1 16.4 ia.0 19. £ 22.1

With Socialist 10.0 10.0 "ll.l 12. 1 12.9 ill

countries

Uh CMEA d.5 d.4 9.3 10.3 11.2 12.3"

:ountries

ith developing i.s 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.5 3.0

countries

ILth developed 2. a 3.2 3.4 3.9 4.4 4.7

[capitalist
countries

Source - New Times #50, 1970, and Economicheskaya Gazeta

£4, June 1971.

664
 Trade with Japan during five years, 1966-1970, amounted

to 2,600 million rubles. In 1970, it stood at 653 million

rubles, placing Japan first among Soviet trading partners of

the developed countries (Great Britain, with 641 million'

rubles, was second). Nearly 96% of Soviet exports to Japan

were raw materials and less than 1%, engineering products.

Soviet imports from Japan, in contrast, were mostly manufactured

goods. The new trade agreement signed at the end of September

1971 envisages a total turnover of 4,750 million rubles over

the five years 1971-1975. The 1975 annual target is set at

1,000 million rubles. Joint development of the Port of

Wr angel, with its facilities designed to handle 10 million

~
-->„- .,_-» ~~ c ~ inn ~ " «« - -"•
r,Trmrt o>1r
-"
r - a-rA 1 Ld fWl r*nni'£ Jf *&*&

annually and Soviet approval for the transshipment of

containerized cargo across Siberia between Japan and Europe,

should further increase the volume of Soviet-Japanese foreign

trade. The general agreement concerning the development of

the Port of Wrangel Bay was signed in December 1970 with the
IV Kabushiki Kaisha firm acting on behalf of fourteen
9-
cooperating Japanese companies.

Trade with the developing countries during 1966-1970

amounted to over 11,000 million rubles - 4,000 million more

ihan in I96I-I965, - representing 13.5% of the total Soviet

foreign trade. In 1970 total turnover with Egypt was 606 million

rubles, with India, 365 million rubles, Iran, 231 million

"
New Times ^42 , 1971, pp. 20-21.
9 Ibid p. 21.
. ,

! 8S5
•ubles, Algeria, 113 million rubles.

In 1970 Soviet exports amounted to 11. 5 billion rubles,

'he task set by the 23rd Party Congress for a considerable
.ncrease in export of machinery and equipment can hardly 'be

:alled fulfilled, increasing from 20% in 1965 to 21.5% in 1970.

In 1970 imports amounted to 10.6 billion rubles, of

hich more than one-third was spent on machines and equipment.

h 1970 more than 600 million rubles were spent for ships
nd ship equipment and 297 million rubles, for auto transport.

According to directives of the 24th Party Congress, foreign

rade during the period of 1971-1975 is supposed to increase

y 33-35% with the main role, as always, assigned to the

ocialist countries. In 1975 > annual foreign trade turnover *

s supposed to reach approximately 30 billion rubles. Total

rade turnover with the CMEA countries for 1971-1975 period

s planned at over 76 billion rubles, an increase of more

han half compared with 1966-1970. An unspecified increase in

olume of trade and greater scientific and technical

ooperation with the developing countries was also promised,

number of long-term' agreements signed with France, Britain,

inland, Japan, Italy, Sweden, and other developed countries

hould certainly produce a considerable increase in trade.

he availability of long-term and rather large credits from

he developed capitalist countries, particularly for a truck

uilt plant, large diameter oil pipes, and the development

±0Economicheskaya Gazeta No. 24 , June 1971.

/
/

6GB
of Siberia might help to generate a considerable increase in

the Soviet trade.

For years, the Soviet Union has been active in oil

exports, the majority of which have been seaborne.

Oil exports have brought a considerable amount of hard

currency and have also generated the demand for a rather

sizeable tanker fleet. In the period between the two world

wars, the USSR exported 50 million tons of oil and oil products

After the war the export of oil was resumed in 1955.^2 a

considerable portion (approximately l/3 ) of the Soviet oil

export goes to the Socialist countries, particularly to the

CMEA members. The remaining two-thirds are sold to West

European countries and Japan. Starting in I960 the Soviet

Union began delivery of oil to Cuba (approximately 4 million

tons per year). Soviet oil to Poland and East Germany, with

the further possibility of delivering it to some West

European countries, is pumped through the Druzhba (Friendship)

pipeline. In 1966 the Soviet export of oil amounted to

73 million tons, of which 41 million tons were sold to the

developed countries. ^ The Soviet Union presently operates

a few oil corporations, which might be called international,

NAFTA-A in Finland and NAFTA-B in Belgium. In Belgium the

Soviets hold 60% of the company's stock with an investment

ll Economicheskaya Gazeta #24

;

, June 1971, and New Times

£14, April 1971.
12 Econornicheskaya Gazeta No. 39 , 1967
13
Ibid.

867
f 750 million Belgian francs. A Soviet Company, NAFTA

united, exists in Great Britain.

The Soviet Union has 1S,600 miles of oil pipelines,

^presenting 13% of the world T

s total. New pipelines from
estern Siberia oil fields are planned. In addition to the

astern line, the 3, 700-mile eastern line would bring

iberian oil to Nakhodka, which is about 400 miles from

a pan. It was reported that the Soviet negotiators tried

1) persuade Japan to participate in the construction of

iiese pipelines, arguing that the 1.9 billion dollars needed

1) built the line would be a small price to pay for reduced

15y '
—
ependence on Middle East oil.

The plan for stepped-up cooperation with the Soviet Union

:i exploiting Soviet natural gas and oil resources was

anounced in Tokyo. The agreement, reached on September 7,

$71, reflected the decision of Japanese business to go

ciead with two projects to explore oil deposits in Tyumen',

Astern Siberia, and to secure stable natural gas supplies

i>r Japan through a pipeline from north Sakhalin and Yakutsk,

hstern Siberia. |

Construction of a refinery at Nakhodka oil base had

17
£.ready handled 4 million tons of oil. It is planned to

" 1Z| -

Vodnyy Transport , July 17, 1971-

^ Washington Post , February 28, 1971-
16 Washing,ton Post , September 9, 1971.
17
Vyshka , June IS, 1971, p. 2.

68b
.ncrease the base capacity by 150$. Large off-shore gas
ind oil deposits were discovered in the Sakhalin area.

During the previous five-year period an important oil

ixport base was established in Ventspills on the Baltic Sea

rith a capacity to export 6 million tons a year. It is

>lanned to double this capacity during the current Five Year

Ian. The Soviet oil output for 1975 is planned to be 500

tillion tons, so it would be logical to expect an increase

n Soviet oil exports.

At the end of 19&3 the Soviet Union entered negotiations

ith a number of foreign ship owners for the delivery, of

1&
oviet built ships. The Soviet Union had delivered ships

some foreign, mainly Communist, countries, previously,

ut their number was small. Since. the, rrJ.dd.le 19&Q s, the

T

hip export has been growing steadily. During the last

our years, Sudoimport sold to a number' of countries, including

est Germany, Great Britain, Sweden, 26 dry cargo ships,

wo tankers (one fifty thousand tonner), eight production and

ransport refrigerators. A hundred or more Kometa passenger

ydrofoils have been exported since 1967 to Yugoslavia,

est Germany, Finland, and since spring 1970, to the Western

emisphere, when International Hydrolines Incorporated of

ew York, bought the first vessel and started hydrofoil

ervice in the Virgin Islands. The company expressed

19
eadiness to buy eight more of the vessels. A number of

^ The New York Times , February 17, 19&4-

•^ Washington Post April 4, 1970.
,

/
/•

t QQQ
 Regoletto-class ships have been built for
Sweden in an
apparent barter deal.

The Soviet drive to accelerate the

export of technological
products can be illustrated by her recently
expressed readi-
ness to sell enriched uranium and atomic
reactors to anybody
in the West who will pay for them. Moreover, the quoted
price ($27.00) was almost $5.00 less than the U.S. unit

price for enriched uranium. The Soviet Union has also

been conducting a vigorous compaign for the sale of Soviet

made commerical jets. In September 1971 it was reported

that Moscow made an attractive offer to that end to Chile. 20

Economic Aid

Since 1954, the Soviet Union has extended an estimated N

7.2 billion dollars in economic aid. to over LQ developing

countries. The ten top recipients in the 1954-1970 period

are India, (1.6 billion), Egypt (1.1 billion), Afghanistan

(700 million), Iran (560 million), Turkey(370 million),

Indonesia (370 million) , Iraq (320 million) , Pakistan

21
(265 million), Syria (235 million), and Algeria (230 million).

Providing an alternative to Western aid, Soviet economic

aid probably helped to create a climate for neutralizing

Western "influence, and thus provides Moscow with a sort of

leverage in international affairs. In general terms, the

20 Washington Post September 11, 1971.

,

21 Washin,g-ton Post , May 30, 1971.

[
67 U
1
 program was neither a roaring success nor a dismal failure,

and successes seemed to outnumber the- failures.

With time, the Soviet Union has become more sophisticated

in the distribution of its economic aid, and during certain

periods, much tighter with her purse, developing a more

business-like approach to the program. Such changes occurred

during the middle of the 1960 f
s when extensive surveys prior
to making nev; aid commitment were conducted and a considerable

portion of commercial credits were distributed with the

design to promote exports of Soviet machinery and equipment.

Moreover, in 1967 there was a decline in the economic aid

commitment to the developing countries. The decline probably

did not constitute any fundamental change in the Soviet

attitude toward foreign aid and should probably be attributed

to the large backlog of unexpended credits which were still

available from the allocations of the two previous years.

During the last two years of the 1960's and in 1970,

the economic aid figures have been growing. In the spring of

1971 during the 14th Annual Meeting of the UN Economic

Commission for Latin America, the Soviet Union offered

22
As reported by,
!

technical and other aid to Latin America.

the State Committee for Foreign Economic Relations under the

/ -

Soviet Council of Ministers at the beginning of 1971, the

Soviet Union had economic and technical cooperation agreements

23
with IS Asian, 20 African, and 2 Latin American countries.

-22
Washington Post, May 30, 1971.
23 New Times, No, 1971, pp. 13-20. /
3 ,

671
-
 The distribution of Soviet aid among the basic branches of

the economy of the developing countries is as follows:

Industry and. power 63.7$j

Agriculture 6.2$
Transport and communications 10.0$
Geological prospecting 10.
Education, culture, public
health, and sports 4.2$
Housing construction and
municipal services 0.4$
Other branches 0.5% '

Total 100.0$
Source - New Times 7
7 /3 , 1971.

In total the Soviet Union has helped with the construc-

tion of more than 700 industrial enterprises and other projects,

of which some 340 have already been put into operation. The

openly proclaimed goal of the Soviet aid is to help to

•

create and extend the state sector of the recipient country's

economy, particularly heavy industry enterprises, for which

more than half of the total aid is going. In most cases

the Soviet credits are of long duration and at relatively low

interest rates (2.5 - 3$ annually) applied only on credits

actually used.

In many cases the credits are repaid in the developing

country's traditional exports and, in some cases, in

national currencies, for which the Soviet Union is buying some

raw material and consumer goods. A statement by V. Sergeyev,

Vice-Chairman of the State Committee for Foreign Economic

Relations, emphasized that "Soviet economic and technical

2 ^-Iew Times No. 1971, p. 19.

3,

87 2
aid to the developing countries benefits both sides and in
25
no sense is a matter of charity".

The exported Soviet machinery and equipment has few buyers

in the industrial countries, but are in demand in the *

developing countries. In addition, many developing countries

found that the Soviet Union represents a market for their

agricultural, raw materials and foodstuffs. Thus, the Soviet

economic aid to the developing countries and trade with
-

them has a rather sound economic basis and very likely

will not only continue, but grow.

Soviet
--— Military A id ,

While economic aid represents a phenomenon originating

mainly in the post-Stalin era (Afghanistan, in 1954, was the

first country to receive aid), Soviet military aid to

"promising" movements goes back to the early years of Soviet

power. During the 1920 T

s the movements led by Kemal

.Uttarturk of Turkey and Chiang Kai-shek of China received

Soviet military aid. During the second half of the 1930 s, r

a considerable amount of ammunition, arms, and advisors were

sent to the Kuomintang in China and the Spanish Republicans.

If ter World War II, the goal of undermining Western countries'

position led to the supply of arms to Israel. Later, however,

;he rigidity of the doctrine pronounced by Zhdanov in the

'ominform session, the weak economic situation of the USSR,

"-he beginning of the Cold War and the opposition of the

Tnited States and its allies clearly expressed in the Truman

2 ^:ew 20.
Times No. 3 /1971. P-
/

Q
73
Doctrine, forced the Soviet Union to refrain fro-, active arms

support in late forties and early fifties (excluding, of course,

Korea type situation).

In the mid-1950' s, however, the situation had changed,

and rather drastically: Stalin was dead, the military sector

of the Soviet economy improved considerably.

Tn the spring of 1955 Mikoyan visited Yugoslavia.

Obviously designed to prepare the ground for Khrushchev's

meeting with Tito, tfhe visit produced an unusual classified

letter from the CPSU Central Committee. The letter reported

the results of Mikoyan 's meetings with Tito, emphasizing

Tito's advice concerning the number of non-allied nations

and their leaders. In particular, Nasser was mentioned as

a strong anti-imperialist quite in need of support. Events

followed one another with remarkable speed. Shepilov, who

was considered as the best Soviet export in the Middle East,

made a trip to Cairo and was soon appointed Soviet Foreign

Minister. A number of military aid assistance agreements

were signed, thus initiating what has become an essential

instrument of Soviet foreign policy towards the underdeveloped

world
/
/
Initially, the Soviet Union preferred to remain in the

background, using Czechoslovakia and Poland as inter-

mediaries. Czechoslovakia signed an initial arms agreement

leaders of neutralist countries used to be viewed

2 ^Many
at that time by the Soviet propaganda as counter-revolutionary,
at best, or "imperialist puppets".

! /

a 74
 with Egypt, Syria, and Yemen. 27

Toward the end of the 1950 <s

such ill devised camouflage
was dropped, and the Soviet
Union began supplying arms to
various countries, and primarily
the Arab World, openly. 'The
first Soviet naval ships arrived
in Egypt just prior to the
Suez Crisis of November
195*. Starting in 195* an arms deal
with Indonesia was closed, and the
first groups, of Indonesian
naval officers and crews started to
be trained by the Soviet-
Navy in Poland. During the next five
years, one Sverdlov-
class cruiser (Ordzhonikidze) , seven Skory-class destroyers,
12 W-class submarines, 7 Riga-class destroyer
escorts, about
two dozen torpedo boats, a number of
minesweepers, Komar-class
missile boats, and auxiliary ships were
transferred to the -

Indonesian Navy. Neither were the majority of

transferred
ships suitable for the environment and
operational requirements
nor was the Indonesian Navy ready or capable of
operating-
them properly. Moreover, it is doubtful that the Indonesian
needed such a collection of naval armament. The Soviet Navy
at least was honest in the deal involving the
cruiser, trying
to persuade the Indonesians that they did not need
it. As
for "the rest of the ships transferred, the majority of
them were
obsolescent and the Soviet Navy was glad to get rid of them,

^'instead of "military aid", a more accurate term would

be military Loans" for almost all Soviet agreements involved
long-term, low-interest loans. For a detailed analysis of
Soviet supplies of arms, see: Arms for the Third o^'ld
.•.
r
:

Soviet Mi litary Aid Diplomacy by IVynfred Joshua and Stephen

P. Givert; Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press, I969.

675
lot a difficult task in the case of such an eager "buyer" as

Sukarno vras.

In 1961 the Soviet Union began to supply arms, to Cuba.

Irms shipments were especially substantial during the second

lalf of 1961 and 1962, up to the Cuban Missile Crisis, after

rtiich it was continued on the basis of maintaining a certain

legree of combat capability of the Cuban armed forces. During

;he I960' s, arms were also supplied to a number of African

iations.

The first agreement for the delivery of Soviet arms to

India was reached in I960, but the agreement on naval ships

2$
[as not signed until 1965-. Apparently, India was reluctant

,0 be dependent upon Soviet arms supply and for a while tried

.o reach an agreement with Western countries, particularly

iritain. The Soviet Union had long before expressed her

•eadiness to cooperate. In February 1957 a Soviet military

lission headed by Marshall Zhukov visited India and toured

-he Indian defense establishments. During July of the same

-ear, a return visit was made by a group of high ranking

Indian military officers, headed by General Timaya, then

Ihief of the Indian General Staff. The group was not only !

/
ery well received "as personal guests of Marshall Zhukov"
;

in July 1957 this had significance), but it was also given*

.
good look at the Soviet ships and naval establishments.

.nother high ranking Indian delegation visited the- Soviet Union

nd was given a good opportunity to see the Soviet's Navy in

he middle of the 1960 s. r

Apparently, the second delegation
!

/
.; ._
:
2 "Arms For The Third World, p. 87. /

67 6
was decisive, and a plan to acquire a number of submarines and

ships was worked out. The Soviet Union not only delivered

four large attack F-class submarines and a number ,of small

surface ships, including some missile boats, but off ered to ;

help India build its own submarines and other ships. 2 ^ ~"^

Presently, it looks as if India's dependence upon Soviet

armaments, which might lead to a dependence upon tactics, is

growing.

The supply of Soviet arms to North Vietnam, very substantial

in volume, though restricted in nature, is common knowledge.

Dther countries of the Indochina Peninsula, Laos and Cambodia,

tfere also given Soviet military aid. In the case of Laos,"

a I960 emergency request from the regime of Souvanna Phouma v

tfas met by an arms airlift.

Toward the end of the 1960 T

s the list of Soviet military

aid recipients included 25 countries. 31 While, in general,

the arms were supplied to neutralist, former colonial, countries

nost of which were openly anti-western, there were some

exceptions (such as the case with Iran and Pakistan). As

Soviet military aid programs progressed, they were justified

32
on the basis of aid to movements of national liberation.

00'
International Defense Review , Vol. IV, No. 1, February 1971,
p. 21.
30
., Arms for- the Third World , p. 56.
31
Ibid. , p. 34.
32
Lt. Col. G. Eskov and Col. Priiepskii, "World Socialist
System: A Decisive Contemporary Factor," K ommur.i s t Vo r uz h e nn ykh
Sil, No. 22, November 1964, ?V- 34-41.

877
 Neither the infrequent failure to produce reliable

friends fas was the case with Ghana, the Congo, and recently

Sudan), nor poor prospects of repayment, nor the cpsts of the

programs prevent the Soviet Union from continuing military aid,

particularly to certain key countries in given areas. Geograph-

ically, the; scope of the Soviet military aid has also been

widening. The competition with China for the influence in

the Third World has definitely been a factor, and, materially,

the Soviet capacity compared, with the Chinese is considerably

greater. As for the quality of the armament supply, in ..general,

it was adequate for the needs of the recipient countries.

In a number of occasions in the past, certain key recipient,

countries (particularly Indonesia and Egypt) were supplied

tfith the better armaments than the majority of the Warsaw Pact

nembers. Egypt, which to a certain degree represents a special

:ase, prior to the June 1967 war possessed and at present

still possesses many weapon systems still in use by the Soviet

irmed forces. The increased sophistication of the armaments

supplied through the military aid programs was to be expected

since technological advances resulted in more rapid changes

in Soviet weapon systems and hence, the ready availability of

•"eplaced
-
systems for the military aid programs. But the

technological progress of developed countries produced even

1 greater gap between them and the developing countries. Such

i gap and the sophistication of the weaponry received in turn

;enerate a greater dependence on the part of the recipient

;ountries upon the arms suppliers.

678
 Military assistance has become an essential instrument

of Soviet foreign policy toward many developing countries,

and will definitely continue in the foreseeable future. The

obviously unchanging goal of the Soviet Union of undermining

Western positions might even intensify the military aid program.

Conclusions

During the very first years of Soviet power, the state

monopoly on foreign trade was established. Since then it
'

has been viewed as one of the "commanding heights" of the

economy and closely' guarded. After the so called economic

reform of 1965, the number and specialization of foreign

trade associations were increased and some of them were

transferred from the Ministry of Foreign Trade to other

organizations (including some in the merchant marine).

However, no further steps to give producing industries direct

access to foreign markets were permitted. Moreover, the

Soviet Union has exercised a close watch over the situation

concerning the state monopoly on foreign trade in other

Socialist countries, openly admitting that "if the foreign

trade monopoly were lifted even in one Socialist country,

The very strictest maintenance of the foreign trade monopoly

has been viewed as the necessity to achieve the close inter-

weaving of the foreign political and foreign economic tasks

of the Soviet government, admitting that "in developing its

foreign economic relations, the USSR cannot fail to take into

33 " Foreign Trade ", The Soviet Ministry of Foreign Trade,

July 196?, p. 6.
/

679
account the position which one country or another occupies

in relation to our country and to states allied with us."

Soviet foreign trade, particularly since the .end of

1950 s, has been growing steadily and rather rapidly.

T
The bulk

of it has been with CMEA countries. Trade with developed

Western countries and Japan, especially during the last five

or six years has been considerably increased too. While the

main export items to the developed countries continued to be

raw materials, particularly oil, natural gas, timber, and

other minerals, imports from them come mainly under the.,

heading of machinery, plant, and equipment or, in general,

advanced technology. The recent Soviet trade agreements with

Italy, Austria, Japan, and other countries indicated that

such a trend will continue, at least for a while. Since the

middle 1960 f
s, the task to increase the export of machinery

was set, and while its total volume increased (mainly thanks

to exports, to the developing countries), it's share in Soviet

foreign trade did not. But foreign trade inevitably helps

to improve the efficiency of domestic production which in

turn further stimulates the trade itself. A number of Soviet

owned banks were established in many European countries, the

most important being the Moscow Narodny Bank Ltd. in London.

Since the middle 1950 s, the Soviet Union has been

T

involved .in economic and military aid to the developing countries

As a rule, the recipients of the Soviet military and economic

aid are also trade partners, representing about 14$ (3 billion

"^ Izvestiya April 21,' 19&3.

,

G80
rubles in 1970) of total Soviet trade turnover. As the Soviets
themselves acknowledge "the significance of the Soviet Union's

ties with Asian, African, and Latin American countries is

measured not only by figures. These ties promote the break-up

of obsolete forms, the development of society's new productive

forces and the early winning of economic independence. Today,

although the positions of the West in foreign trade and

economic ties with the Third World are still strong, the

external economic policy of the Soviet Union and other Socialist

states has deprived imperialism of its monopolistic position

in trade, the provision of technical assistance and technical

know-how and also in. the purchase of export goods from the
35
developing states." A portion of the Soviet economic aid ^

has been devoted to the development of maritime industries

of the recipient countries, particularly ports, thus,

benefitting not only the Soviet Merchant Marine but in a

number of cases the Soviet Navy as well. The growth of

the Soviet foreign trade and the Soviet Union's involvement

in economic and military aid have definitely influenced the

development of the merchant marine.

^Inter national" Affairs ,- January 19&9, p. 14.

681
 APPENDIX III

SOME ASPECTS OF THE MARITIME LAW,

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

The growth of the Soviet maritime power has been naturally

accompanied by wider Soviet participation in various inter-

national maritime organizations, and intensified development

of various aspects of the Soviet Maritime Law (in general,

relevant aspects of international law as well). The Soviet

system of normative acts governing internal and territorial ,

waters, jurisdiction over foreign vessels, concept of

innocent passage, various treaties and statutes, etc., has

been considerably widened. ¥. E. Butler, in his survey of

Soviet maritime legislation and practice had found that

"there have been and are significant even creative differences

of opinion among Soviet lawyers with respect to international

legal questions which' can have an impact on Soviet state

practice, Soviet positions in maritime disputes with other

states, and the Soviet approach to study of international law

in general".

While restraining from any attempt to undertake analysis

of the jurisprudential foundations of Soviet Maritime Law,

Willieam E. Butler, The L aw of Soviet Territorial Waters ;

A Case Study of Maritime Legislation and Practice, New York,

Frederick Praeger, 19'o7> p. 192.
t

I p.?,?
 it is desirable to outline the major Soviet normative acts
and State Practices, for they definitely constitute an

inseparable part of the development of Soviet maritime power.

Similarly, the oceans are being taken more and more into''

the sphere of politics and the legal norms of states quite

often are, or even in more cases might be, sources of

international problems.

In general, both principal sources of international lav/,

the customary international law, (the practices of states,

precedents) and conventional international law (formal >

agreements, treaties) are widely practiced by the Soviet Union..

The Soviet Union is a member of various international maritime

organizations. Since 195&, it has been a member of the

Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO).

At the beginning of 1971 > some Soviet ports were accepted

into the International Association of Ports and Harbors.

A number of socialist countries and their ship lines organized,

in June 1970, the International Association of Shippers - INSA.

At the end of 1963 , the Soviet Association of Maritime Lav/

was founded with the task "of protecting Soviet merchant

marine interests". In May 1969, the Soviet Union was made

3
the 31st member of the International Maritime Committee.

An important source of the Soviet Maritime Law is the

Soviet Merchant Shipping Code (KTM - Kodeks Torgovogo

Moreplavaniya) which was prepared by TsNIIMF (Central Scientific

^Vodr.yy Transport , 20 February 1971.

3
Morskoy Flot No. 2 , 1971.

oo3
-
Research Institute of Merchant Marine) and approved by the

Presidium of the Supreme Soviet on September 17, 1963.^ The

code contains norms applicable to the right of sailing under

the Soviet flag, the right of ownership of sea-going vessels,

the registration of vessels in the Register of Shipping, the

crew composition of sea-going vessels, etc. The Code also

contains provision relating to contracts of carriage by sea,

general and particular average, compensation for damages

resulting from collision, rewards for rendering assistance

at sea (including salvage), and maritime insurance. The,

provisions contained in the Code are amplified by subordinate

legislation: ordinances of the Counsel of Ministers of the

USSR, orders of the Ministers of Merchant Marine and Fishing.

Industry, tariff regulations, etc.

According to the Code, the Ministry of Merchant Marine

is obligated to control adherence to laws on mercantile

navigation- and to agreements signed by the Soviet Union.

The USSR Registry of Shipping, also administered by the USSR

Ministry of Merchant Marine, executes independent (irrespective

of the ownership of ships by various ministries and departments)

technical control over sea-going ships and their preparation

and construction. The Registry is also responsible for the

classification of ships and for issuing ship documents as

5
provided by international agreements and conventions.

^TsNIIMF Transactions , 1970, Vol. 133, p. 2.

^A. A. Vnikov. Morskoe Pravo (Maritime

-
Lav;), PischProm,
Moscow, 1969, pp. 14-16.

DO 4
 It has been a standard Soviet claim, that Soviet ship
lines are judicial persons and are lawful owners of the Soviet

merchant ships. Simultaneously Soviet merchant sh,ips are the

property of the state and hence, have privileged immunity.

Article 10 of the KTM recognizes the person who uses the

vessel as ship owner irrespective of whether he is its actual

:-j\-\cr or whether he r.akes use of it on ser.e other legal

-round. Soviet legal publications assert that the immunity

)f state property in general, and state owned vessels in

^articular, results from the principle of the equality of

sovereign states and hence, no compulsory measures against

»tate property can be undertaken. Article 20 of the KTM

>rovides that state vessels may not be arrested or sued without

he consent of the Counsel of Ministers; Article 77 of the

TM directs that the rules regulating detention of a vessel

t the request of plaintiff do not apply to the vessels owned

7
y a foreign state.

The Soviet Union is a party to various international

onventions including older ones such as, The International

onvention for the Protection of Submerged Telegraph Cables

igned in Paris in 1881+, The Brussels Convention of 1910,

he Lisbon Agreement of 1930 (concerning maritime signals),

he International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea, and

6
Ibid . , pp. 14-16.
7
With the exceotion of cases specified in the Article
<L of the Basic Provisions of Civil Procedure of the Soviet
hion and Union Republics.

G85
rhe International Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea

signed in London in i960. The Geneva International Convention

3f 195B dealing with, the territorial sea and the continuous

sone, the high seas, and the continental shelf, were signed

:y the Soviet Union and ratified by the Presidium of The

Supreme Soviet. However, the provisions outlined in Article

>0 of the Geneva Convention of 1953, on the territorial sea

md the contingious zone, recognizing the right of coastal

states to take proceedings against and to arrest foreign

ships in the territorial waters was found inconsistent with

ihe principles of international law by the Soviet Union and

.s regarded as unlawful. While signing the convention, the

Soviet representative stated that "the state vessels in

'oreign territorial waters enjoy immunity and therefore,

.pplication to them of measures mentioned in this article

tay take place only with the consent of the state under
9
r
hose flag, the vessel sails."

Certain provisions of the Geneva Convention of 195& on

Ishing and conservation of living resources of the high

eas were found unacceptable by the Soviet Union and were

ot signed. The Soviet Union is a member of various inter-

ational commissions dealing with fisheries. A number of

ishing regulations were recognized and officially approved

y the Soviet Union.

erritorial Waters

The Soviet Union for a long time was the only major power

u Volkov,
p. 138.
9 Ibid. p. 34. •.
,

bob
jlaiming a 12 mile extension as the base line for
its
territorial sea. During the decades of the 1950' s and 1960 f
s

[particularly after the 195S Geneva Convention) there has

>een a notable tendency to expand territorial waters. At' the

leginning of the 1950 s there were only three states claiming
f

,2 mile limits, the USSR, Columbia, and Guatamela; toward the

nd of the 1960 s the number had increased to 41

f

(Columbia
eanwhile reduced its claim to six miles), and more than

states claimed more than a three mile limit. Many states,

ncluding the U.S., while still maintaining three mile v

10
lmits, extended their authorities over fisheries to
egions beyond their territorial waters up to a total depth"

f 12 miles.

The legal regime of the Soviet territorial waters is

ainly constituted in The Statue on the Protection of the

tate Frontier of the USSR, approved by the Supreme Soviet

a December 22, i960. The statute provides that the territorial

uters of the USSR are comprised of a 12 mile-wide belt

£ coastal waters measured from the low water mark both

;Long the mainland and around islands, or from the line

onstituting the outer limit of the interior waters of the

I3SR. The outer limit of the Soviet territorial waters is

onsidered as the state sea frontier and the vertical extension

C this line is the frontier of Soviet air space. Foreign
vir ships require prior permission of the Soviet Government

oaIt
may be assumed that for all practical purposes, the
tiited States recognizes claims up to 12 miles as valid by
tiling to challenge the claims.

687
 for passage through the territorial waters and
for entry to
the interior waters of the USSR, and must observe
special''
regulations published in the "Notifications to Mariners".

Foreign submarines, permitted to visit the territorial '

and interior waters, must stay on the surface and not

submerge.
The right of innocent passage through the territorial waters

of the USSR, which is defined as sailing through the terri-

torial waters for the purpose of -traversing them without

entering into interior waters, or for the purpose of leaving

the interior waters and entering the high seas, is given,
v

exclusively to foreign vessels other than warships. The

passage is considered innocent if the vessels follow the ~~

usual navigational course or one recommended by the competent

organs of the USSR, and if the vessels abide by the prescribed

regulation and avoid regions closed to navigation (such

regions' are usually announced in "Notifications to Mariners") .^
The Soviet Union has taken a negative stance on the

tendency to extend territorial waters beyond the 12 mile

limit, stating the practice "infringes on the principle

of freedom at sea and*, constitutes a violation of international

law", For example, the Soviet Embassy in Buenos Aires

declared on January 25, 196?, that "the Soviet Union does

not recognize as lawful the Argentine Government's recent

decision to extend the territorial water limit to 200 nautical

i

11 A. Volkov,
p. 6£.
"

12 !

"Territorial waters and international lav;", International

Affa i ——————
rs No. 3 , 1969, pp. 7S-81.
/

888
 miles.

The protection of the Soviet state frontier

at cor, is
conducted by the frontier forces of KGB
(the State Committee
for Security). Frontier servich
ships are authorized to *

pursue and detain offending vessels '

not only within territorial

or interior waters, but also on the
high seas until a
pursued vessel enters foreign territorial
waters and to
use arms if the violation cannot be stopped. 1/f *

The Soviet Union has widely exercised the

concept of
interior waters and" "historic" bays. 15 For example,
the
White Sea is considered as interior waters based
on historic
tradition. The Bay of Peter the Great has been
called ~
historic bay and special permission of the Soviet
authorities
is required for foreign vessels to navigate
there with the
exception of calls at (and departure from) the port of
Nakhodka. There were attempts to consider the Sea of
Okhotsk as an internal sea. The official Soviet navy magazine
stated that "in points of fact, many historical, economic,

foreign policy, military, and legal arguments confirm the

rightness of fixing the status of the Sea of Okhotsk as

both a closed and an internal sea, coming under the international

law concept of historic waters". But in spite of the claim that "the

-kJ Izvestiya , February 7, 1967.

14.
A. Volkov, pp. 71-72.,
15
According to the Geneva Convention, interior waters
are those situated between the coast and the base line from
which the extent of territorial waters is measured.

889
question of closing the Sea of Okhotsk to foreign military

navigation and flights of aircraft is not a farfetched one"

no official declaration has been made. 1

Continental Shelf

The 195S Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf

specifies that the coastal state has sovereign rights over

the Continental Shelf in order to explore and to exploit

its natural resources. The term shelf was used to designate

the sea bed situated beyond the territorial waters up to

a depth of 200 meters, or beyond that limit up to a point

where the depth of the water allows the exploitation of

natural resources. But the growing technological development

already left very few regions of the world ocean, and soon

will probably leave none, where man cannot penetrate. The

ability to mine and harvest the resources of both the

Continental Shelf and the deep sea bed has created the

possibility that large areas of oceans will be used by a

few technologically developed nations for their own benefit,

the' less developed states which are in

tothe detriment of .... ,

the majority. The. existing ambiguity in the definition of

/ I

the Continental Shelf, in the part stressing the limit of

expolitability, generated legitimate concern in a number of

Western states, particularly among some American scholars

1 f)
Morskoy Sborr.ik Mo. 8, 1967, pp. 14-15.
I

6? u
f
 and specialists in international 17
law. However, no similar
concern was expressed in the Soviet Union.
Moreover, the
decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet
of the USSR
on February 6, 1963, in effect expanded
the definition of
the Continental Shelf given by the 1953
Convention, adding
that "the sea bed and the sub-soil of depressions
situated in
the Continental Shelf of the USSR irrespective of their

depths shall be part of the Continental Shelf of the USSR". 1^

The Counsel of Ministers of the USSR instructed the

corresponding ministries and departments 'to work out the.

necessary regulations and instructions for rational use and "

protection of the natural wealth of the Soviet Continental"

Shelf and to pay special attention to the Organization of

Control over the observance of the law operating in the

19
USSR on these questions". It was further stated that

"foreigners may exploit the natural wealth only on the basis

of inter-governmental agreements or special permits issued

by competent Soviet authorities."

The Joint Declaration on the Baltic Continental Shelf

"

was signed in Moscow on October 23, 1963, by the Soviet Union,

!

^
i

The problem was discussed in great detail during the 1

International Symposium held in Stockholm, June 1965. See

Towards a Better Use of the Ocean Contemporary Legal Problems
,

in Ocean Development by Professor W. T. Burke; Comments and"

Recommendations by an International Peace Research Institute.
13
Moscow T ASS International Service in English 1L17 GMT,
14 December 19oo, ana William E", Butler, " Edict on Continental
Shelf Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet, 6 February 1968;
"''
,

American Journal of International Lav; ", January 1969, p. 104.

19
Ibid .

ssi
Poland, and East Germany. It was declared that the Baltic

Continental Shelf must be used for peaceful purposes only

and that the signatories will consult with one another on

matters of mutual interest relating to the shelf, and the

particulars of the bar on its military use. 20

The declaration does not establish the actual boundaries

of the Continental Shelf appertaining to different Baltic

States, leaving determination to the provisions of the

195$ Geneva Convention. Further, the participants agreed

not to give over parcels of the Baltic Continental Shelf to

non-Baltic States or to citizens or firms of those states

for the purpose of exploration, exploitation, etc.

Apparently, the attempts to persuade certain Baltic

states to join the declaration were made. During the summer

of 1969 visit of Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme to Moscow,
21
the declaration on the Baltic Continental Shelf was discussed.

But, as was later stated in Stockholm, "the difficulty in

carrying out this work lies in the fact that Sweden and

other Nordic countries have no diplomatic relations with

the GDR. A solution heeds to be found to make it possible

22
to conclude an agreement with Sweden on an official basis."

The USSR possesses about 20% of the world Continental Shelf

and for this reason alone, any legal steps initiated by the

Soviet Government are important.

^.'ew 'Jimes No. 47 , 1963, pp. 6-7.

^ international Affairs , February 1971, pp. 11-17-
22 •

Ibid.

P9
Cooperation, Treaties, Agreements

Fishing in certain regions of the world ocean has been

carried on with excessive intensity and too often without

regard to the state of fish stocks. The expected result

was the sharp decrease in the catches in certain areas. The
increase in fishing efforts is by itself a major factor in

fishery jurisdictional problems. Fishery development and

conservation, mainly thanks to the United Nation efforts

supported by the major states, have been strengthened consid-

erably during the decade of the 1960 T

s. The Soviet Union,

it seems, supports the effort. In May of 1965, a joint

American-Soviet inspection team, the first joing inspection

by the two nations, spent thirteen days cruising, the Georges

Bank fishing grounds in the Northwest: A.t lan-tic^- The joint

inspection was result of plans made to exchange law

enforcement officers at the 1964 meeting of the International

Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries. It was reported

that the Soviets offered American fishermen free emergency

medical care aboard their ships and also suggested "that

disputes between American and Soviet fishermen could be

solved on the spot".

The Permanent International Counsel for the Exploration

of the Sea is the oldest international organization concerned

with fishing and fishery research. Established on 22 July 1902,

at a conference held in Copenhagen and attended by represen-

"33 The New York Times, May 30, 1965

2/f
Ibid.

8S3
tatives of Russia, the counsel presently enforces over 60

international agreements relating to fishing, and the

Soviet Union is a party to many of them. Apparently, the
most difficult area, as far as the Soviet Union is concerned,

and where interest with other states have collided more

often, is the Northwest Pacific.

The Soviet-Japanese Convention on the High Seas Fisheries

in the Northwest Pacific was concluded on May 14, 1956, and

in its subsequent development a Soviot-Japanoso Northwest

Pacific Fishery Commission was established. It spite o£

this, it became common practice in the Soviet press and

in official government statements to blame the Japanese si'de

for overfishing and violating the conservation practice. '

In the spring of 1971, Japanese fishermen and, indirectly,

the Japanese Government were accused of overfishing for

herring in the Sea of Okhotsk and of being in violation of

existing agreements on crab catches. Japan was reminded

that the permission for its fishermen to catch fish and

crabs in the Sea of Okhotsk is an act of good will on the

side of the Soviet Union, and that the provisions of 195#

Geneva Convention as well as the Edict of the Supreme Soviet

of February 6, 196S concerning "the sovereign rights of

25
^
Soviet Union upon its continental shelf" applied.

An inter-governmental agreement on the settlement of

claims with respect to damage to fishing gear was -signed in

^
Izvostiya , I? April 1971, and Sevetskava Rossiya ,

IS April 1971.

634
Moscow on December 9, 1939 between the governments of the USSR
and Norway. Two special commissions, one in Moscow, and another

in Oslo, were set up to deal with claims made by tjieir

respective fishermen. The commissions were not competent

to hear cases of damage to fishing gear which occurred within

the territorial waters of the state, since they fall into

exclusive jurisdiction of the state in whose territorial

waters the damage occurred. In case of dissent with the

Commission's verdict, either by plaintiff or defendant, the

Commission could address both parties with a proposal to

settle the dispute by way of voluntary arbitration. Such

arbitration would take place before the Maritime Arbitration

Commission in Moscow if the defendant were a Soviet ship

owner, and in Norway if the defendant were a Norweigan ship

owner. (Norway has no permanent Maritime Arbitration

Commission and hence, a special arbitration tribunal would

have to be set up for each concrete case). Fishing in the

Soviet waters is regulated by the statute on the Conversation

of Fish Stocks in Water Bodies of the USSR No. 1045, approved

26 • I

by the Counsel of Ministers on 15 September 1958.

The Soviet Sea Rescue Service is composed of the rescue

/ i

services of the Soviet Merchant Marine, Fishing Industry,

and the Emergency Rescue Service (ERS) of the Soviet Navy.

The Service has been coordinated by the ERS and in January

1971, celebrated its 50th Anniversary. The Soviet Union has

eight agreements with its neighbors for rescue at sea; the \

2o A. Voikov, Maritime Lav; , p. 69.

895
cooperation is particularly well organized in the Baltic

Sea where joint exercises are held occasionally with Poland,

27
Sweden, and other countries. In October 1965. the Soviet

Union and Denmark signed a new agreement on salvage and *

ship raising operations. The Agreement, in addition to the

mutual obligation for help to a ship in distress, provides

the rights for rescue ships of one country to be called into

the territorial or inland waters of the other in case of

necessity.

The International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution of the Sea by Oil concluded in London in 1954 and

amended in 1962 was signed by the Soviet Union, but so far""

has not been ratified by the Supreme Soviet. Rather extensive

measures exercised to prevent oil pollution have been reported

by Soviet Press and at least for one sea, the Caspian, it

was claimed that the oil pollution has been halted. The

special types of ships, one to clean the harbors and another

to clean storage tanks on tankers and whaling factory ships

have been employed by the Soviet Merchant Marine and Fishing

Inaustry.

The Sea Bed Treaty

/
-
The decade of the 1960's witnessed intensified interest

in national rights and international obligations relating

to the oceans, their sea beds, and their resources. During

the second half of the 1960's, the subject of the military

•2P-
/ d ny y T r a n s - rt 7 'January 1971 and October 11, 1967.
06
•
Vodnyy Transport , IS February 1971.

6S8
use of the sea bed was of prime concern. The August 1967
United Nations Malta Resolution proposed a "declaration

and treaty concerning the reservation exclusively for peaceful

purposes of the sea bed and the ocean floor". The United:
Nations Ad Hoc Committee of 35 nations to study the peaceful"^

uses of the sea bed and ocean floor beyond the limits of

national jurisdiction was established. The Soviet memorandum

of July 1, 196&, on some urgent measures for stopping the

arms race and for disarmament, proposed that the sea bed and

the ocean floor be used for peaceful purposes only. On

March Id, 1969, the Soviet Union placed before the

Disarmament Committee a treaty draft on the prohibition of",

the implacement of nuclear weapons and other weapons of

mass destruction on the sea bed, the ocean floor, and the

sub-soil. This draft was accepted as a basis for the

29
Committee T
s work on this problem. As a result of the

negotiations within the framework of the Disarmament

Committee, a joint Soviet-American Treaty Draft was worked

out and submitted for the Committee's consideration on

October 7 r 1969. The -Soviet draft proposed a 12 mile off-

shore zone, contending this took due account of the

security interest of the coastal states while insuring the

maximum coverage of the sea bed area by the treaty. The

Soviet-American draft also proposed the 12 mile limit for

the widest contigious zone provided for by the 195$ Oeneva

Convention. During the course of debates, various proposals

"^International Affairs No. 1, 1970, pp. 41-45.*

68*7
 by other states, including the U.S. proponnl. mruln ),y

President Nixon in Kay 1970, were argued anain^t 3 ° The

Soviets claim that "there can be little doubt that once the

U.S. has established "deep water bases or sea bed fortifications

it will sooner or later use them to back up its claims to' "^^
. ,.,
'31
sizable portions of the world ocean". The United States
had been accused of allowing the Navy to dictate policy.

Towards the end of 1970, however, the Geneva Sea Red Arms

Talks showed definite progress, especially when the United

States and the_Soviet Union came up with a new draft on the

treaty in September 1970. The Soviet-American draft

envisaged a ban on the implacement of mass destruction weapons

over the whole sea bed outside the 12 mile coastal zone.

Finally, on February 11, 1971, the treaty was signed by the

United States, the Soviet Union, and some 60 other states.

Luring the signing ceremony in Moscow, Soviet Premier Kosygin

referred to the agreement as the "first step toward complete

demilitarization of the ocean floor".

^ u It
should be noted that the initial position of the
United States at the Ad Hoc Committee of the United Nations
and some articles which appeared in the American Press made i

good ammunition for Soviet propaganda. For example, during

the third meeting of the Ad Hoc Committee, the United States
set forthe the view that peaceful purposes did not preclude
military activities "in pursuit of peaceful aims or in
1' fulfillment of peaceful intents, consistent with the United
Nations charter and the obligation of international law".
'

An article in the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings in May 19&9

entitled The Paper Torpedo claimed that "the United States
,

has a huge stake in the outcome of the U. N. sea beds

discussions" and demanded that "the U.S. Navy's voice must
'come through loud and clear and above all effectively", and
argued against the Malta Resolution and in effect -the proposed
treaty.
31 New' Times' No! '27
, pp. ltf-20, 1969.

688
*r
 In July 1971, the Soviet delegation to the Geneva

Committee for peaceful use of the sea bed proposed a preliminary

draft of the treaty for peaceful use of the sea be.d beyond
the Continental Shelf. The proposal stressed the necessity

to keep the shelf open, if already closed, for undiscriminated

exploitation by all states and prohibiting its use for

military purposes. It was claimed that particular attention

was being paid in the draft to the interests of the developing

countries and the interests of all states regarding navigation

32
and flights in the area of international straits and fishing.

A number of bilateral shipping agreements exist between

the Soviet Union and other countries. The first one was

concluded between USSR and France in Paris, on April 20, 19&7>

and became effective on September 1, 19&7. ^n addition to

the express desire of both sides to ensure first and foremost

the coordinated use of their merchant marine, the promotion

of the normal development of international shipping on the

basis of freedom of mercantile navigation was also stressed

as an aim of the agreement. Article III of the agreement

states "the parties to the agreement again confirm their

1

adherence to the principle of freedom of international maritime

shipping and .agree to refrain from any action of a discrim-|

/
inatory character, since they are confinced that such actions

may cause harm to the development of international trade".

The agreement also emphasized that both sides will- encourage

2 ?ravda
? , 29 July 1971.
-^ Vodnyy Transport , August 31, 19o7-

S3
the participation of Soviet and French ships in the transpor-

tation of cargo between their ports, and neither side will

hamper the participation of the ships of other side in

carrying cargo between its ports and third countries, etc\

The agreement also made the provision for a joint commission

to observe the implementation of the agreement and to discuss

unsolved problems. Somewhat similar agreements were signed

between the Soviet Union and" Great Britain in 1965, and

between the Soviet Union and the Netherlands in 1969.

Beginning in 1965, the Soviet steamship companies have

been entering various freight (rate fixing) conferences.

The process has not been a smooth one and has been accompanied

by numerous accusations. Western ship owners accuse the

Soviets of attempted rate cutting, unfair competition,

untrustworthiness, etc. The Soviet Ministry of Merchant

Marine, in turn, occasionally employing an aggressive

tactics demanded fair treatment, blamed the West for the

blockades, black lists, a desire to maintain a monopolistic

position, etc. Debates were particularly heated on the

Soviet entrance to the Australian conferences. Finally, during

I969, the disputes were settled and it seems that the original

fears of Western ship owners were not justified. In the long -

run ^ it might be even beneficial for world shipping to have

the Soviets inside and cooperative, than outside and rate

*

. 34 .

cutting.

"~~~ 3 Vr
7iVO :i ya>
o-j xarch 16, 1969; Vo dnvv Transport 10 Octobe:
,

196S; Morslcby Klot No. 2 , 1970, pp. 80-S2; ana No. 3 t 1970,
pp 0O-64.
.

•
/ .

ma
r
 Since 1956, the Central Scientific Research Institute

of Merchant Fleet, TsNIIMF, became the center for work

dealing with Soviet and International maritime legal problems.

The TsNIIMF prepared recommendations and working papers for

the Soviet delegation to 195£ Geneva Conventions, the i960,

1965, and 1966 London Conferences, the 12th Session of the

Diplomatic Conference on Maritime Law in Brussels in 1967,

etc. The Institute plan for 1971-1975 visualized extensive

work on the problems of maritime law, including recommendations

concerning the relations between Soviet steamship lines and

ports with foreign shipping companies; recommendations

concerning the safety of navigation, and protection of ~~

property and Soviet merchant fleet interests in case of

collision, and other works dealing with the general improvement

of Soviet maritime legislation. 35

o-

It may be concluded that the Soviet Union's development

of its merchant marine, fishing industry and other aspects

of maritime power, and their unavoidably broader association

with the world's maritime community have produced considerable

intensification of, and the necessity for much wider partici-

pation at various international organizations dealing with

the maritime problem and corresponding development of Soviet

maritime legislation.

35 •

TsNIIMF Transaction, 1970, p. 32

701
 SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

iOOKS

ichkasov, V. Basov, A. B., arid others, Boyevoy put

I., T

Sovetskogo Voyenno - Morskogo Flota "Combat Path of

(

the Soviet Navy" Voyenizdat, Moscow, 1967.

j .

mdrassy, J. International Law and the Resources of the

,

Sea/ New York: Columbia University Press, 1970. v

?he Military Balance all 1960s editions and 1971-1972.

,

London: The Institute for Strategic Studies.

telov, M. I. Istoriya otkrytiya i osvoeniya Severnogo

,

Morskogo Puti ("History of Discovery and Mastering of

the Northern Sea Route"), 4 "Vols., Morskoy Transport
and Gidpometeoizdat, 1971.

3reyer, Siegfried, Guide to the Soviet Navy , United States

Naval Institute, Annapolis, 1970.

Sutler, W. E., The Soviet Union and the Law of the Sea.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.

Subcommittee on Foreign Policy, Joint Economic Committee,

Economic Performance and the Military Burden in the
Soviet Union. A compendium of papers Sept. IS, 1970.
V/ashington, 1970.. 295 p. (Jt. Com. Print
,

T
ilrickson, John, Soviet Military Power London: Royal United
,

Services Institute for Defense Studies, 1971.

?
airhall, David, Russian Sea Power . Boston: Cambit, 1971.
r
riedman, W. , The Future of the Oceans . New York: Braziller,
-1971-
Iretton, Sir Peter, Vice Adm., Royal Navy (Ret.), Maritime
Strategy New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965.
.

luzhenko, T. B., Minister of Merchant Marine, USSR, Morskoy

FIct v vos'rr.oy pyatiletke ("Sea Transport during Eighth
Five Year Plan") Transport, Moscow, 1971.
.

702
 Herman, L. M. The Postwar Expansion of Russia's
, Fi sh:i jig
Industry U.S. Government Printing -Office.
. (88th
Congress, 2nd Session, Senate), 1964.

Herrick, R.'W., Soviet Naval Strategy , United States Naval

Institute, Annapolis, 1968. ~~

Heizlet, Sir Arthur, Vice Adm. Aircraft and Sea Power, . New
York: Stein and Day, 1970.

;
Idyll, C. P., The Sea Against Hunger . New York: Crowell.
1970.

Istoriva Velikoy Otechestvennov Voiny Sovetskogb Soyuza

1941-194 ? ("History of the Great Patriotic War of
the Soviet Union, 1941-1945" 6 Vols., Moscow, )
,

Voenizdat, I96O-I965.

Kuznegsov, N. G-. Nakanune ("On the Eve"), Moscow, Voyenizdat,

1966.

Kuznetsov, N. G. Gody Voiny ("The War Years"), Octyabr f

, _
#3, 9, 12, 196S" or Voyenizdat, 1971.

Khesin, S. S. Oktyabr skava Revolyutsiya i Flot ("The

3
T

October Revolution and the Navy";, Nauka, Moscow, 1971.

Jane T
s Fighting Ships, Jane's Weapon Sv s tems, Jane's All the
World's Aircraft, Jane's Surface Skimmer Systems, Jane's
Freight Containers Jane's Yearbooks, England.
.

Iagovskiy, A., Strategiya i Ekonomika ("Strategy and Economics"),

Moscow: Voyenizdat, 1957.

Lifshits, IT." L., Tekhnika podvodnoy debychi poleznykh

Ickopaemykh ("Technology of Underwater Extraction of
Minerals" Znaniya, Moscow, 1971.
) ,

Martin, L; W. The Sea in Modern Strategy

, . New Jersey:
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Medvedev, N. F. Su da dlya issledovaniya mirovogo okeana

,

("Ships for the Research in the World's Ocean"),

Sudostroyeniye, 1971.

Mikhailov, S. V., Mirovoy okean i chelovechestvo ("Humanity

and the OceanTf Ekonomika ) , P. H. Moscow, 1969.
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Moiseyev, P. A., Biologicheskiya Resursy Mirovo okeana

("Biological Resources of the World Ocean"),
Pishchprom P. H., Moscow, 19&9.

j
703
Mozharov, N. D. Sotrudnichestvo Sotsialisticheski kh stran
,

v oblasti norskogo transnorta (''Cooperation of Socialist

Countries in the Area of Sea Transport''). Transport
P. H. Moscow, 19o9.
,

Nurok, G. A., Dobycha nolesnykh iskoraemykh so dna rr.oroy i

okcanov "extract-ion of i-iinerais from the Bottom of'
(

Seas and Oceans"), Nedra, Moscow, 1970.

Osvoyenive Mirovogo Okeana ("Mastering of the World Ocean"),

Collection of Articles, Voyenizdat, 1971.

Pavlovich, N. B., Rear Adm. Flot v Pervoy Mirovoy Voyne

,
,

("The Navy in the First World War") Vol, 1, Voenizdat,

,

Moscow, 1964.

Petrov, M. A. Podgotovka Rossii k Pervoy Mirovoy Voyne na

,

more ("Preparation of Russia for the First "World War

'

at Sea"), Voyenizdat, 1926.

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Construction in Russia 1900-1917"); Sudostroyeniye
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Stalbo, K. A., Rear Adm., ed., Istoriya Voenno-Morskogo

Iskusstva ("History of Naval Art"), Voyenizdat, Moscow,
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,

Sokolovskiy'V. D. (ed)., Voennaya Strategiya ("Military

Strategy")', Voenizdat, 3 editions.

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,

( "Submarines in the Russian and the Soviet Navies"),

Cubpromgiz, Moscow, 1963.

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, Syr evava baza tralovogo
,
T

rybolovstva na materikovom sklone severnoi Atlantika

("The Trawling Resources on the North Atlantic Conti-
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, - Baltimore
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("The Soviet Navy"), Moscow, 1969.

PERIODICALS

United States Naval Institute Proceedings ,

Annapolis.
7
Naval Review all 1960s, 1970, and 1971 issues, United States-
,

Naval institute, Annapolis.

-7on
Marine Corps Gazette

MAGAZINES (In Russian)

Kommunist Vooruzhennykh Sil ("Communist of the Armed Forces"),

semimonthly, the Main Political Directorate of the Soviet
Army and Navy, Moscow.
Morskov Sbornik ("Naval Digest"), since 1^43 , monthly, the
Soviet Navy, Moscow.

Morskov Flot "Merchant Marine"

( since 191S, monthly,
)
,

Ministry of Merchant Marine, Moscow.

Okeanologiya ("Oceanology") , monthly, the USSR Academy of
Sciences, Moscow.

Rybnoye Khozyastvo ("Fishing Industry"), since 1920, monthly,

Ministry of Fishing Industry, Moscow.

Rechnoy Transport ("River Transport"), since 1913, monthly,

Ministry of River Transport of RSFSR, Moscow.

Sudostroyeniye ("Shipbuilding")",' since 1910, monthly, the

USSR Ministry of Shipbuilding and. JL*. N-- Kryiov" Scien-
tific and Technical Society of Shipbuilding, Leningrad.

Tekhnika i Vooruzheniye ("Equipment and Armament"), monthly,

the USSR Ministry of Defense, Moscow.

Tyl i snabzheniye ("Rear Services and Supply"), monthly,

the USSR Ministry of Defense, Moscow.

USA: Economics, Politics, Ideology monthly, by the

,

Institute of U.S. Studies of the Academy of Sciences

of the USSR, Moscow.

Voyenno-Istoricheskiy Zhurnal ("Journal of Military History"),

monthly, the USSR Ministry of Defense, Moscow.

Voprosy Ikhtiologii ("Problems of Ighthyology" ) , the USSR

Academy of Sciences, Moscow.

MAGAZINES (In German)

Marine Rundschau ("Naval Review"), bimonthly, Verlag E. S.

Mi ttler & S ohn P H , Frankf ur t / ma in FRG
, . .
,

Militaertechnik ("Military Equipment"), monthly, Minister

of Defense, GDR..

705
 Z£l
^^^^
Soldat und Tochnik- ("Soldier and
Economics"), semiweekly,

Equipment"), monthly,
Umscha-u Verlag, P. g. Frankfurt/main,
FRG.
V ° lkS "
S ( PeopleTs Arm y"^> ^ekly, Ministry of
GDR?
- Defense,

l
'

mR iSC e I " f mat:i ori ("Military-Political

°r
'

Information")
x id «-°n
wfffi n
weekly, Dr. Lather Lahrish, publisher, FRG.
. *
>>

MAGAZINES (In Polish)

Morze ("The Sea"), monthly, Ministry of Merchant

Marine
Warsaw. .
'

Przeslad Morski ("Maritime Review"), monthly, published

*by
J
Polish Navy, Gdynia.
Wojskowy Przeglad Technicznv ("Military Technical Review"
)7
monthly, Ministry of Defense, Warsaw.

NEWSPAPERS (In Russian)

Pravda ("Truth"), daily, CC CPSU, Moscow.

Izvestiya ("News^), daily, Soviet Government, Moscow.

Nedelya ("The Week"), weekly, supplement to Izvestiya .

Krasnaya Zvezda ("Red Star"), daily, the USSR Ministry of

Defense, Moscow.

Economicheskaya Gazeta ("Economic Gazette"), weekly, CC

'
CPSU, Moscow.

Sotsialisticheskaya Idustriya ("Socialist Industry"), CC

CPSU, Moscow.

Vodnyy Transport ("Water Transport"), the USSR Ministry of

Merchant Marine and the RSFSR Ministry of River Transport,
Moscow.

70S
 GLOSSARY

Attack carrier striking forces :Naval forces, the primary

offensive weapon of which is carrier-based aircraft. Ships,
other than carriers, act primarily to support and screen
against submarine and air- threat, and secondarily against
surface threat. (D., p. 35)*

Deployment : In a strategic sense, the relocation of forces

to desired areas of- operation (D., p. 95)
V

Displacement The weight of a ship, in long tons.

: It is
equal to the weight of the water displaced.

Gross tonnage (GT) The entire internal cubic capacity of

:

a ship expressed in tons of 100 cubic feet to the ton.

Certain spaces such as ballast tanks, inner bottoms, deck
shelters, wheel houses and the like are included.

Dead weight tonnage (dwt) The total weight"- carrying

:

capacity of a ship in 2240 pound tons. Tt includes cargo,

fuel oil, fresh water, stores, crew, etc., which brings
the ship down to its maximum permissible draft.

Knot: The sea-going unit of speed and is one nautical mile

To080.27 feet) per hour.
Draft of a vessel :The vertical distance in feet between
the waterline and the keel. It is indicative of the load
carried.

Strategic mission :A mission directed against one or more

of a selected series of enemy targets with the purpose of
progressive destruction and disintegration of the enemy's
war-making capacity and his will to make war. Targets
include key manufacturing systems, transportation systems,
communications facilities, and other such target systems.
As opposed to tactical operations, strategic operations are
designed to have a longer-range, rather than immediate,
effect on the enemy and his military forces. (D., p. 2&6)

*D. - Dictiona r y of Military 'and As so ciated Terms .

The Joint Chiefs of Staff., January 3, 197*2.

707
 Submarine striking forces Submarines having guided or
:

ballistic missile launching and/or guidance capabilities

formed to launch offensive nuclear strikes. (D. p. 289)*
,

Surface striking forces Forces which are organized primarily

:

to do battle with enemy forces or to conduct shore bombard-

ment. Units comprising such a force are generally incorpor-
ated in and operate as part of another force, but with
provisions for their formation into a surface striking
force should such action appear likely and/or desirable.
(T)., 0. 291)

\ *D. - Dictionary of Military and Associate d Terms.

•Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 3> j-972.

708
.
£aulcra
_CASE BINDER
:

"""*
Syracuse, N. Y.
= Stockton, Colif.

155539
Thesis
S43227 Shadrin
v.2
Development of
Soviet maritime
power.

155539

Thesis
S43227 Shadrin
v.2 Development of
Soviet maritime
power.
thesS43227v2
Development of Soviet
maritime power.

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