CEP 372 – MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

INTRODUCTION
NATURE OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Interaction 𝐁𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐭/𝐌𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Solids: - Velocity
Forces: Rigid
Tension Deformable - Acceleration
Compression Fluids: - Displacement
Shear Liquids
- Time
Gases

SIMILARITY IN THE BRANCHES OF MECHANICS

a. Basic Principles and Fundamental Concepts
b. Newton’s Laws of Motion
c. Principle of Work and Energy
d. Principle of Impulse and Momentum
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
System Mass ( M ) Length ( L ) Time ( T ) Force ( F )

SI (MKS Metric) Kilogram ( kg ) Meter ( m ) Second ( s ) Newton ( N ) *

English (FPS) or Slug * Foot ( ft ) Second ( s ) Pound ( lb )

USC units
CGS Metric Gram (gm) centimeter (cm ) Second ( s ) Dyne (Dy)*

*Derived Units from Newton’s Second Law of Motion

𝐹 = 𝑀𝑎
a. Standard Acceleration of Gravity ( g ):
SI: g = 9.80655 m/s2 ≈ 9.81 m/s2 English: g = 32.174 ft/s2≈ 32.2 ft/s2
b. Mass (M) and Weight (W): W = Mg

c. Conversion Factors:
1 lb = 4.448 N = 444,800 Dy
1 slug = 32.174 lbm = 14.5939 kg 1 N = 1 x 105 Dy = 100,000 Dy
Example 1: What is the weight of a kilogram mass at the earth’s surface where the
acceleration is 9.81 m/s2?
Solution: By the law of universal gravitation

𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔
𝑚
𝑊 = 1𝑘𝑔 9.81 2
𝑠
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚
𝑊 = 9.81 𝑜𝑟 9.81𝑁
𝑠2
Example 2: What is the weight of a pound mass at the earth’s surface where the
acceleration is 32.174 ft/s2?
Solution:
First find the mass in slugs:

1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 1
1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑥 = 32.174 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
32.174𝑙𝑏𝑚
Then
1 𝑓𝑡
𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔 = 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑥 32.174 2
32.174 𝑠
𝑊 = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓
Example 3: How many pounds a kilogram mass at the earth’s surface where the
acceleration is 9.80655 m/s2?

Solution:

𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔
𝑚
𝑊 = 1 𝑘𝑔 9.80655 = 9.80655 𝑁
𝑠2
1 𝑙𝑏
𝑊 = 9.80655 𝑁 𝑥 = 2.205 𝑙𝑏
4.448 𝑁
d. Common Prefixes of SI Units:
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS

a. Compressibility:

- incompressible
- compressible

b. Viscosity:

- Non-viscous
- Viscous
- Newtonian
- Non-Newtonian

c. Ideal Fluid:

- Incompressible and non-viscous

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Mechanics of Fluids is a branch of Physics that studies fluids and

the forces on them. It provides the theoretical foundation for the
subject hydraulics, which focuses on engineering uses of fluid
properties.
Hydraulic Engineering is the application of the principles of fluid
mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control,
transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water.

DEFINITION OF A FLUID

A substance that deforms continuously when subjected to shear

stress.
Three Branches of Fluid Mechanics

1. Fluid Statics, is the study of the mechanics of

fluids at rest.
2. Kinematics, deals with velocities and streamlines
without considering forces or energy involved.
3. Fluid Dynamics, is concerned with the relations
between velocities and accelerations and the
forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN A GAS AND A LIQUID

GAS
1. Molecules are very far apart.
2. Very compressible.
3. Expand indefinitely when external pressure is removed.
4. Can be held in equilibrium only when it is completely enclosed.
5. No free surface

LIQUID
1. Molecules are little closer.
2. Relatively incompressible.
3. Cohesion between molecules holds them together except of its
own vapor and does not expand indefinitely.
4. Can be held in equilibrium both in an open and close space.
5. May have a free surface (i.e a surface from which all pressure is
removed, except that of its own vapor) .
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Weight W: The earth’s gravitational pull upon a body. Its

dimension is newton (N) in the SI units.

Mass M: The quantitative measure of the amount of

matter in a given body. The dimension used for the mass in the SI units
is the kilograms (Kg) which is a base unit.

Note: The basic relation between the weight and the mass of a
body is
𝑊
𝑀= 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔
𝑔
where g = 9.81 m/s2, the acceleration of gravity at sea level.

The weight of the body varies directly as the amount of g which, at sea level,
from the equator to the poles, has a variation of only one-half percent. On the
other hand, the weight decreases with an increase in elevation from sea level
and this change is approximately one-thirtieth percent for each kilometer
increase in elevation.
3. Specific weight, y: the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid, or
𝐖
𝛄=
𝐕
Units: 𝑙𝑏
English System: 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑑𝑦
Metric System: 𝑐𝑚3

S.I. : 𝑁
𝑚3
Note: This relationship is true for liquids where varies slightly
regardless of temperature and pressure. For gases, is computed from Charles
and Boyles laws which give
English:
𝑝
𝛾= 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 p - absolute pressure
𝑅𝑇 1545 𝑙𝑏∙𝑓𝑡
R- gas constant ( )
𝑀 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙°𝑅

T –absolute temperature, ( 460 + °F)

𝑝𝑔 49,709 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
𝛾= 𝑖𝑓 𝑅 = ∙ 𝑀 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑇 𝑀 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ∙ °𝑅
 𝑝𝑔 𝑁
S.I. 𝛾= 𝑝=
𝑅𝑇 𝑚2

𝑁−𝑚 8312 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑅= ( )
𝑘𝑔 − °𝐾 𝑀 𝑘𝑔 ∙ °𝐾
1.986 𝐵𝑇𝑈
( )
𝑀 𝑙𝑏 ∙ °𝑅
M – molecular weight

T=°K, °K =273 + °C
Alternative unit of R: J/kg-K; Btu/lb-°R; ft-lbf/lb-°R
4. Specific Volume, 𝜈:
1
The reciprocal of the density, or 𝜈 =
𝜌

𝑓𝑡 3 𝑐𝑚3 𝑚3
English: 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐: 𝑔𝑟 𝑆. 𝐼: 𝑘𝑔
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
5. Mass Density, 𝜌(𝑟ℎ𝑜):
The mass per unit volume of the fluid, or
𝑀 𝑊 𝛾
𝜌= = =
𝑉 𝑔𝑉 𝑔

𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
Units: English, 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑔𝑟
Metric, 𝑐𝑚3

𝑘𝑔
S.I., 𝑚3

The density of water at 4 °C (39.2 ˚F ) is 1.00 g/cc ( or 1.00 g/mL ), equivalent

to 1000 kg/cu. m.
6. Specific Gravity; s: the dimensionless ratio of the fluid specific weight (or density) to
the standard reference fluid, water (for liquids),and air or hydrogen (for gases):
𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = = ; 𝑠𝑔𝑎𝑠 = = ; 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29 3
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚
(@ 0 ̊C and
p = 101.3 KPa)
Note: At 39.2 °F (4 °C) the specific weight of water is approximately

𝑘𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑙𝑏 𝑁 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 = 1.0 = 1.0
𝛾𝑤 = 62.4 3 or 9810 3 ; 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3 𝑚𝑙
𝑓𝑡 𝑚

7. Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity, μ (mu): the property of a fluid which determines the
amount of its resistance to a shearing stress.
Note: The shearing stress, τ (Tau), and the viscosity, μ (Mu) are related by,
𝑑𝑣 𝑙𝑏 𝑁 𝑑𝑣
𝜏=𝜇 , , , is the velocity gradient
𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑑𝑥
Units of μ :
𝑙𝑏 − sec 𝑁−𝑠 𝑘𝑔
English System: SI =
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑚2 𝑚−𝑠
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 − 𝑠 𝑁−𝑠 Dynamic viscosity of water at
𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐: 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒(𝑃) = = 0.1
𝑐𝑚2 𝑚2 20 ˚ C, μ = 1 cP = 0.01P
=1 mN-s/m2
 X
There is shear between the fluid
element because of indifference of
velocities, τ

Body of fluid

Direction of flow

dx Graph of velocity distribution or

velocity profile, v = f (x)
dV
x
V
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Velocity Distribution:
Fluid between parallel plates:

b b’ F

Assumptions/Observations:
a. Closely spaced plates, y is very small.
b. Lower plate is fixed.
c. Force F exerted on upper plate with area A imparting a velocity u to the plate.
d. No slip at the boundaries, velocity of fluid same as boundary.
e. Line ab moves to the line ab’ after time interval.
f. Velocity distribution is linear.
g. Based on experimental observations: The applied force is proportional to the
area and velocity gradient. μ is the constant of proportionality.
𝐴𝑢 𝑢
𝐹=𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑢
h. Differential form ( Newton’s Law of Viscosity): 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES TABLE OF WATER IN SI UNITS

Kinematic Surface Vapor Bulk

Specific Viscosity µ, Tension modulus of
weight Density ρ, Viscosity Pressure
Temp, °C kg / (m-s) ν, m2/s σ, N / m head elasticity
γ, N/m3 kg/ m3 K, N/m2
10-3 µ = 10-6 v = 10-2 σ = p / γ, m 107
0 9805 999.9 1.792 1.792 7.62 0.06 204
5 9807 1000.0 1.519 1.519 7.54 0.09 206
10 9804 999.7 1.308 1.308 7.48 0.12 211
15 9798 999.1 1.140 1.141 7.41 0.17 214
20 9789 998.2 1.005 1.007 7.36 0.25 220
25 9779 997.1 0.894 0.897 7.26 0.33 222
30 9767 995.7 0.801 0.804 7.18 0.44 223
35 9752 994.1 0.723 0.727 7.10 0.58 224
40 9737 992.2 0.656 0.661 7.01 0.76 227
45 9720 990.2 0.599 0.605 6.92 0.98 229
50 9697 988.1 0.549 0.556 6.82 1.26 230
55 9679 985.7 0.506 0.513 6.74 1.61 231
60 9658 983.2 0.469 0.477 6.68 2.03 228
65 9635 980.6 0.436 0.444 6.58 2.56 226
70 9600 977.8 0.406 0.415 6.50 3.20 225
75 9589 974.9 0.380 0.390 6.40 3.96 223
80 9557 971.8 0.357 0.367 6.30 4.86 221
85 9529 968.6 0.336 0.347 6.20 5.93 217
90 9499 965.3 0.317 0.328 6.12 7.18 216
95 9469 961.9 0.299 0.311 6.02 8.62 211
100 9438 958.4 0.284 0.290 5.94 10.33 207
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON GASES AT STANDARD SEA-LEVEL
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, 101.325 kPa (1013.25 mbar) and
TEMPERATURE 20 °C
1 Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2 1 millibar = 100 N/m2

Dynamic
Density Gas constant, R
Gas Viscosity
(kg/m3) (N-m/kg-°K)
(Pa-s)
Air 1.205 1.80 x 10-5 287

Carbon Dioxide 1.84 1.48 x 10-5 188

Carbon 1.16 1.82 x 10-5 297

Monoxide
Hydrogen 0.084 0.90 x 10-5 4120

Nitrogen 1.16 1.76 x 10-5 297

Oxygen 1.33 2.00 x 10-5 260

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR
Temperature Dynamic Viscosity μ
°C Pa- s x 10-5 According to J.A. Bearden, the
0 1.71 dynamic viscosity of air at 20 °C is
10 1.76 0.0001819 poise and changes at that
temperature at a rate of 0.0000005
20 1.81 poise /°C
30 1.86
40 1.90 𝜇 = 0.0001819𝑃 − 20°𝐶 − 𝑇 0.0000005𝑃/°𝐶

60 2.00 where μ is Poise (P) and T is the

80 2.09 temperature in °C
100 2.18

Holman’s equation for finding μ

of air is
𝜇 = 1.716𝑥10−5 1 + 0.00275𝑇 − 0.00000034𝑇 2
where μ is Pa-s and T is the temperature
in °C
Illustrative Examples:
a) The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is
9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 . The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Compute the
density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury.
Solution.

𝑘𝑁 𝑥1000𝑁
𝛾𝑤 9.81 3 9.81 3 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚 𝑚
9.81 2
= 1000 3
𝑚
𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑁 − 𝑠2
Note : 1 = 1𝑘𝑔
𝑚

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 𝑠𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13.55 9.81 = 133
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 𝑠𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13.55 1000 3 = 13,550 3
𝑚 𝑚
b) A gallon of water weighs 4.08 lb. Compute the following:
1) Mass in slugs
2) Mass in kg
3) Volume in cu. ft.

Solution.
𝑊 4.08𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠 2
1) Mass in slugs: 𝑀 = → 𝑀=
𝑓𝑡 = 0.1267
𝑓𝑡
(𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠)
𝑔 32.2 2
𝑠

4.448𝑁
4.08𝑙𝑏 ⋅ 𝑁 − 𝑠2
𝑙𝑏
2) Mass in kg: 𝑀= 𝑚 = 1.85
𝑚
(𝑘𝑔)
9.81 2
𝑠

3) Volume in cu. ft. :

1𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 = 1𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑥 = 0.134𝑓𝑡 3
7.48𝑔𝑎𝑙
c) A certain gas weighs 16 N/cu. m. at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to air weighing 12 N/cu. m. ?
Solution.
The density of the gas is,
𝑁
𝛾 16 3 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = 𝑚
𝑔 𝑚 = 1.631 𝑚3
9.81 2
𝑠

The specific volume is,

1 1 𝑚3
𝜈= = = 0.613
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1.631
𝑚3

The specific gravity is,

𝑁
𝛾 16 3
𝑠= = 𝑚 = 1.333
𝛾𝑎 𝑁
12 3
𝑚
d) The specific gravity of glycerin is 1.26. Compute its density and
specific weight. Assume the water is under ordinary conditions.
Solution.
The density is,
𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑔 𝑔
𝑠= → 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 1.26 1.00 = 1.26
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑜𝑟 = 1.26 1000 3 = 1260 3
𝑚 𝑚
The specific weight is,
𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 ⋅ 𝑔

𝑘𝑔 𝑚
= 1260 ⋅ 9.81
𝑚3 𝑠2
𝑁 𝑘𝑁
= 12,360 3 𝑜𝑟 12.360 3
𝑚 𝑚
6. Kinematic Viscosity, v (nu): the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to its
mass density, or
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌

Units of ν :
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑚2
English System: S.I. :
sec sec

𝑐𝑚2
Metric System: 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 =
sec
7. Adhesion: Attractive forces between molecules of different types. This
enables a liquid to stick to another body.
8. Cohesion: Attractive forces between molecules of the same type. The
property of a liquid that resists tensile stress.
9. Surface Tension, 𝜎 (sigma): the effect of cohesion between particles
of the liquid at its surface.
𝑁
Unit: English System: 𝑙𝑏 SI :
𝑓𝑡 𝑚
10. Capillarity: is the tendency of liquid to be raised or depressed in a
a narrow tube, or capillary tube which is due to relative strength
of cohesive and adhesive forces. If adhesion has a greater effect
than cohesion, the liquid will rise at the point where it comes in
contact with another body. If cohesion is prevalent, the liquid will
depressed. The capillary rise or depression is defined by.
2𝜎 cos 𝜃 2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ= =
𝛾𝑟 𝜌𝑔𝑟
where θ
σ σ
σ = surface tension in units of
force per unit length
θ = wetting angle h
r
γ = specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
h = capillary rise
ρ = density of liquid
g = gravitational acceleration
DERIVATION OF CAPILLARY RISE

T (total verical component of

surface tension)
෍𝐹 = 0
𝑇=𝑊

𝑇 = 𝑉γ
σ N/m σcosθ N/m
θ σ N/m σcos 𝜃(2π𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ(γ)
σsinθ N/m

W=Vγ 2σ cos 𝜃
h=
W (weingt of the γ𝑟
cylindrical h
body of fluid)
2σ cos 𝜃
h=
ρ𝑔𝑟
11. Vapor Pressure, 𝑝𝑣 : the pressure exerted by the vapor as
evaporation of the liquid takes place within a closed space.

Units: English System, 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏

𝑜𝑟
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑖𝑛2
𝑁
S.I.,
𝑚2
𝑑𝑦
Metric System,
𝑐𝑚2
FLUID PROPERTIES MOST COMMONLY CONSIDERED
Property Definition Dimension Common Values
(SI Units) For Water ( 4 ˚C) *
ρ, Mass Density mass per unit volume ML-3 1,000 kg/m3
(kg/m3)
γ, Specific Weight weight per unit FL-3 9,800 N/m3
volume (N/m3)
S, Specific gravity γ/γwater (for liquid) 0 1
p, Pressure Normal force per unit FL-2
area (N/m2)
μ, Absolute Viscosity Newton’s law of FL-2T 1.52 x 10-3 N s/m2
viscosity (N s/m2)
ν, Kinematic Viscosity μ/ρ L2T-1 1.52 x 10-6 m2/s
(m2/s)

* Note: The values of fluid properties vary with temperature

COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID
The compressibility ( change in volume due to change in pressure ) of
a liquid is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity,
also known as the bulk modulus. This is defined as
𝑑𝑝 𝑣
𝐸𝑣 = −𝑣 =− 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

where v = specific volume

p = pressure
Rearranging the definition of 𝐸𝑣 , as an approximation, we may used
for the case of a fixed mass of liquid at constant temperature,
Δ𝜈 Δ𝑝 Coefficient of Compressibility
≈−
𝜈 𝐸𝑣 1
𝛽=
𝐸𝑣
or 𝜈2 − 𝜈1 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
≈−
𝜈1 𝐸𝑣
β = coefficient of compressibility
Table : Bulk modulus of water
Temperature, ⁰C
Pressure,
MN/m2, abs 0⁰ 20⁰ 50⁰ 100⁰ 150⁰

0.1 1950 2130 2210 2050

10.0 2000 2200 2280 2130 1650
30.0 2110 2320 2410 2250 1800
100.0 2530 2730 2840 2700 2330
Example 1. Reduce 1 centipoise to the English system. If this is the
dynamic viscosity of water at 68 °F (20°C), what is the kinematic
viscosity in the English system?
Solution.
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 − 𝑠 𝑔
1 centipoise = 0.01𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.01 = 0.01
𝑐𝑚2 𝑐𝑚 − 𝑠
1 lb = 444,800 dynes
a) The dynamic viscosity 𝜇 in English system
2
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 − 𝑠 1𝑙𝑏 2.54𝑐𝑚 12𝑖𝑛
𝜇 = 0.01𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.01 ⋅
𝑐𝑚2 444,800𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡

𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠
= 2.088𝑥10−5
𝑓𝑡 2
b) The Kinematic viscosity in the English system
𝜇 𝜇𝑔 𝑙𝑏
𝜈= = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 = 62.32 3 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) 𝑎𝑡 68°𝐹
𝜌 𝛾 𝑓𝑡

2.088𝑥10−5 32.2 𝑓𝑡 2
𝜈= = 1.079𝑥10−5
62.32 sec
Example 2. The kinematic viscosity unit of 1 ft2/sec is equivalent to how
many stokes?
Solution:
𝑓𝑡 2 2.54𝑐𝑚 12𝑖𝑛 2 𝑐𝑚2
𝜈= 1 ⋅ = 929 𝑜𝑟 929𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠
sec 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 sec

Example 3. A volume of 15.5 cu. ft of a certain fluid weighs 782 Ib.

Compute the mass density.
Solution:
𝑀 𝑊 = 782𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝜌= = = 1.567
𝑉 𝑔𝑉 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 3
32.2 2 15.5𝑓𝑡 3
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Example 3. A barangay of 8,000 population has an average water
consumption per person per day of 110 gallons. Compute the average
total rate of consumption in cubic feet per sec. and in gallons per
minute. (1 cu. ft. = 7.48 gallons)
Solution:
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠
a) Average Total Consumption: 8,000 persons x 110 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑔𝑎𝑙
= 88𝑥104
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑔𝑎𝑙
88𝑥104
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑡 3
𝐴𝑇𝐶 =
𝑔𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑟 3600sec = 1.362 sec
7.48 3 24 ⋅
𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑟

b) Average Total Consumption: 𝑔𝑎𝑙

min
𝑔𝑎𝑙
88𝑥104 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑇𝐶 = = 611.111
ℎ𝑟 60min min
24
𝑑𝑎𝑦 1ℎ𝑟
Example 4. Compute the unit weight of dry air at 15 °C and an absolute
pressure of 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch). Also solve for the
kinematic viscosity.
Solution.
𝑝
a) 𝛾=
𝑅𝑇

𝑓𝑡
where: 𝑅 = 53.3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
°𝑅
15°𝐶 = 59°𝐹
𝑙𝑏 144𝑖𝑛2
14.7 2 𝑙𝑏
𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2 = 0.0765 3
𝛾= 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
53.3 460 + 59°𝐹
°𝑅

As determined by Bearden, the dynamic viscosity of air at 20 °C is

0.0001819 poise and changes at that temperature at a rate of
0.0000005 poise /°C
 b) 𝜇 𝑎𝑡 T°𝐶 = 0.0001819𝑃 − (200 𝐶 − 𝑇) 0.0000005𝑃/0 𝐶

𝜇 𝑎𝑡 15°𝐶 = 0.0001819𝑃 − 50 𝐶 0.0000005𝑃/0 𝐶

= 0.0001794𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒(𝑃) 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 − sec convert 𝑙𝑏 − sec

𝑐𝑚2 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 − sec
0.0001794
= 𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 1𝑓𝑡 1𝑖𝑛 2
444,800
𝑙𝑏 12𝑖𝑛 ⋅ 2.54𝑐𝑚
𝑙𝑏 − sec
= 3.74𝑥10−7
𝑓𝑡 2
The Kinematic viscosity is,
𝑙𝑏 − sec 𝑓𝑡
3.74𝑥10−7 32.2
𝜇 𝜇⋅𝑔 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2
𝜈= = =
𝜌 𝛾 𝑙𝑏
0.0765 3
𝑓𝑡

−4
𝑓𝑡 2
= 1.58𝑥10
sec
Example 5. At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa.
Assume specific weight at the surface is 10.05 kN/cu.m and that the
𝑁
average volume modulus is 2.34𝑥109 2 for the pressure
𝑚
range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c ) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Diagram
𝒌𝑵
γ1 = 10.05 𝒎𝟑 p1 = 0 Ocean surface
1 𝑵
= 10.05 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟑

𝑁
𝐸𝑣 = 2.34𝑥109
𝑚2 8 km

2
p2 = 81.8 MPa
= 81.8 x 106 N/m2
Determine Solution:
(a) Change in specific volume, Δv (a) For Δv

(b) specific volume at 8 km depth, v2

(c) specific volume at 8 km depth, γ2 Δ𝑣 Δ𝑝 Δ𝑝

=− → Δ𝑣 = −𝜈
𝑣 𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑣
Diagram 1 𝑔
Note ν = ν1 𝑣1 = =
𝒌𝑵
γ1 = 10.05 𝒎𝟑 p1 = 0 Ocean surface
𝜌1 𝛾1
1 𝑵
= 10.05 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝟑

𝑚 𝑁
𝑁 9.81 81.8𝑥106
𝐸𝑣 = 2.34𝑥109 2 8 km
Δ𝑣 = − ⋅ 𝑠2 𝑚 2
𝑚 𝑁 𝑁
10.05𝑥103 3 2.34𝑥109 2
𝑚 𝑚

2 𝑚 3
p2 = 81.8 MPa
= 81.8 x 106 N/m2 Δ𝑣 = −3.412𝑥10−5
𝑘𝑔
( b ) For Specific volume at 8 km depth, v2,
𝑚 3
Δ𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = −3.412𝑥10−5
𝑘𝑔
3
1 𝑚
𝑣2 − = −3.412𝑥10−5
𝜌1 𝑘𝑔

3
𝑔 𝑚
𝑣2 − = −3.412𝑥10−5
𝛾1 𝑘𝑔

𝑚
9.81 𝑚 3
𝑣2 = 𝑠2− 3.1412𝑥10−5
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
10.05𝑥103 3
𝑚

𝑚 3
𝑣2 = 9.420𝑥10−4
𝑘𝑔
(c) For specific weight at 8 km depth, γ2

𝛾2 = 𝜌2 ⋅ 𝑔

1
𝛾2 = ⋅ 𝑔
𝑣2

1 𝑚
𝛾2 = 3 ⋅ 9.81 𝑠 2
𝑚
9.420𝑥10−4
𝑘𝑔

𝑁
= 10,414 3
𝑚
Example 6. The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1 mm.
The surface tension of water at 20 ˚C is equal to 0.0728 N/m . For a
water –glass θ = 0˚, determine (a) capillary rise in the tube in mm,
(b) total force due surface tension, and (c) weight of water that will
rise in the tube.
θ
σ

2r
Solution.
( a) Capillary rise in the tube in mm
2𝜎 cos 𝜃 2 0.0728 cos 0 °
ℎ= = = 0.0148𝑚. = 14.8𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝑔𝑟 1000 9.81 0.001
( b ) Total force due to surface tension =F
=σ
𝐹 = (𝜎 cos 𝜃)(𝜋𝑑) =σ

𝐹 = (0.0728 cos 0 °) 0.002𝜋

w
−4
𝐹 = 4.57𝑥10 𝑁

( c ) Weight of water
𝑁
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉= 9810 𝜋 0.001𝑚 2 0.0148𝑚
𝑚3
= 4.57𝑥10−4 𝑁
Example 7. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of
chlorine gas at 25 °C and under a pressure of 600 kPa absolute. The gas
constant R for chlorine is 117 N – m/ kg - °K.

Solution:

1. The density of chlorine gas is

𝑝 600𝑥103 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = 17.209 3
𝑅𝑇 117 25 + 273 𝑚

2. The specific weight of chlorine is

𝑁
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 = 17.209 9.81 = 168.820 3
𝑚
3. The specific volume of chlorine gas is
1 1 𝑚3
𝜈= = = 0.058
𝜌 17.209 𝑘𝑔
Example 8. A fuel oil having a viscosity of 0.297 N – s/m2 flows through a
circular pipe 15 cm in diameter. At the center of the pipe the velocity is 1.20
m/s and decreases to a minimum value at the pipe wall. The value of the
velocity at any point in the cross section a distance x from the center is
𝑟2 − 𝑥2
𝑉 = 63.4
𝜇
and r is the radius of the pipe. Compute the shear stress at a point midway
between the center and the wall ( x = 3.75 cm).

Solution: x (m) Substituting r = 7.5 cm or 0.075 m

V = f(x) and μ = 0.296 N –s/m2 to V, we
get
0.0752 − 𝑥 2
15 cm V m/s
𝑉 = 63.4
0.297

𝑉 = 1.201 − 213.468𝑥 2

1.2 m/s 𝑑𝑉
= −426.936𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Note: The negative sign denotes that V is decreasing as x increases.
 x (m)

15 cm 3.75 cm = 0.0375 m
𝜏

The shearing stress at x = 0.0375 m is

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝜇 Note : = −426.936𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜏 = 0.297 426.936 0.0375

𝑁
𝜏 = 4.755
𝑚2
PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS

For any ideal gas experiencing any process or changes, the equation
of state is given by:
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2 (Universal Gas Law) (1)
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
When temperature is held constant, equation 1 reduces to
𝑝 𝑉 =𝑝 𝑉 (Boyle’s Law) (2)
1 1 2 2

When the volume of a confined gas is constant, the pressure is

proportional to the absolute temperature, or
𝑝1 𝑝2
= (3)
𝑇1 𝑇2
If the pressure of a confined gas is unchanged, the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature, or
𝑉1 𝑉2 (4)
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Equations (3) and (4) are called Charles’s laws.
The Ideal Gas Equation Derived From Equation 1

The constant of proportionality, Ru, is called the universal gas

constant. Its value and units depend on the units used for p, V,
and T.

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅𝑢 𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑝 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐽
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑢 ∶ 8.312
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ °𝐾
Perfect – gas law (derived from eq. 1)
pvs = RT (a)

where: p – absolute pressure

vs – specific volume
R – gas constant
T – absolute temperature
Equation (a) is the equation of state for a perfect gas. It can also be written
as
𝑝
p =ρ RT or ρ = (b)
𝑅𝑇
𝑝
The units of R can be determined from (b) 𝑅 =
ρ𝑇
𝑁 𝑚3 1 𝑁 𝑚
For SI, 𝑅= 2 =
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 ⁰𝐾 𝑘𝑔 ⁰𝐾
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡3 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
For USC units, 𝑅= =
𝑓𝑡2 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁰𝑅 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁰𝑅
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡3 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
For ρ in pound mass per cubic foot 𝑅= 2 =
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ⁰𝑅 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ⁰𝑅
Note: The magnitude of R in slugs is 32.174 times greater than in pound mass
Equation (a) pvs = RT can be written also as
( c)
pV= mRT

where V – volume of gas

m – mass of gas
and V = m vs

Certain simplifications result from writing the perfect-gas law on a mole basis.
Then
𝑝𝑣ഥ𝑠 =MRT ( d)
where 𝑣𝑠 - volume per mole ( m3/mole, ft3/mole)

M – molecular weight ( kg/mole, gm/mole)

Also perfect-gas law can be written as

pV= nMRT ( e)
n – number of moles
Note nM = m Note equations ( c) and (e).
Rearranging ( e) pV= nMRT

𝑝𝑉 (f)
= 𝑀𝑅
𝑛𝑇
MR – is called universal gas constant

Values of MR depends upon the system of units

𝑁∙𝑚
In SI, 𝑀𝑅 = 8312
𝑘𝑔 − °𝐾
(g)
8312 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑅=
𝑀 𝑘𝑔 − °𝐾
In USC (fps) units,
49,709 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
𝑅= (h)
𝑀 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − °𝑅
In pound mass units,
1545 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
𝑅= (i)
𝑀 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − °𝑅
Note: The magnitude of R in slugs is 32.174 times greater than in pound mass.
 If a gas is compressed or expand without loss of heat through the walls
of its container, the change in volume is said to be adiabatic (isentropic, a
frictionless adiabatic process). Then the special pressure – volume relation is
given as
𝑝1 𝑣1 𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑣2 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 tan 𝑡

where: p = absolute pressure

v = specific volume
𝑐
k = 𝑝 , adiabatic exponent, the ratio of specific heat at
𝑐𝑣
constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume.

The value of k depends on the molecular structure of

the gas
k = 1.4 for air, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
k = 1.0 if temperature is constant.
Example: A gas with molecular weight of 44 is at a pressure of 0.90 MPa abs and
a temperature of 20 ⁰C. Determine its density.

Solution:
8312 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
From eq. (g) 𝑅=
𝑀 𝑘𝑔 − °𝐾
8312 𝑁∙𝑚 𝑁∙𝑚
𝑅= =188.91
44 𝑘𝑔−°𝐾 𝑘𝑔−°𝐾

𝑝
Then from eq. (b) ρ=
𝑅𝑇
0.90 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
ρ=
𝑁∙𝑚
188.91 0 (273 + 20)0 𝐾
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾

𝑘𝑔
ρ = 16.26 3
𝑚
 SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND DENSITY OF AIR

Temperature Density Specific Weight

°C Ρ ( kg/m3) γ (N/m3)
0 1.293 12.68
10 1.248 12.24
20 1.205 11.82
30 1.165 11.43
40 1.128 11.06
60 1.060 10.40
80 1.000 9.81
100 0.946 9.28
 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR

Temperature Viscosity μ
°C Pa – s x 105
0 1.71
10 1.76
20 1.81
30 1.86
40 1.90
60 2.00
80 2.09
100 2.18
Holman’s equation for finding μ of air is

𝜇 = 1.716𝑥10−3 1 + 0.00275𝑇 − 0.00000034𝑇 2

where: μ is in Pa-s and T is the temperature in °C

Problems for exercise

1. If a certain gasoline weighs 7 kN/m3, what are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to water at 15 °C?
2. A cubic meter of air at 101.3 kPa and 15 °C weighs 12 N. What is its
specific volume?
3. The density of alcohol is 790 kg/m3. Calculate its specific weight, specific
weight, specific gravity and specific volume.
4. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure.
What are the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity
relative to air weighing 12 N/m3?
5. Compute the number of watts which are equivalent to one horsepower.
( 1 HP = 550 ft-lb/sec; W = 107 dynes-cm/sec; 1 lb = 444,800 dynes).
6. A city of 6000 population has an average total consumption per person
per day of 100 gallons. Compute the daily total consumption of the city in
cubic meter per second ( 1 ft3 = 7.48 gallons ).
7. What are the density, specific weight, specific gravity, dynamic viscosity,
and kinematic viscosity of carbon dioxide at a pressure of 250
kN/m2 absolute and a temperature of 20 ⁰C?
8. Mercury does not adhere to a glass surface, so when a glass tube is
immersed in a pool of mercury, the meniscus is depressed, as shown in the
figure. The surface tension of mercury is 0.514 N/m and the angle of contact is
40 ⁰C. Find the depression distance in a 1 –mm glass tube,

9. The vapor pressure of water at 100 ⁰C is 101 kN/m2, because water boils under
these conditions. The vapor pressure of water decreases approximately linearly
with decreasing temperature at a rate of 3.1 kN/m2 ⁰C. Calculate the boiling
temperature of water at an altitude of 3000 m, where the atmospheric pressure is
69 kN/m2 absolute.
SPECIAL PROBLEM: What is the pressure within 1 mm spherical droplet of
water relative to the atmospheric pressure outside? The surface tension for a
water-air surface is 0.073 N/m.

𝑇 = 𝜎𝜋𝐷
𝑁
𝜎,
𝑚
𝜋 2
𝐹 =𝑝∙ 𝐷
4

𝐷
Total force on the surface of water, F =Total surface tension, T
𝜋 2
𝑝∙ 𝐷 = 𝜎𝜋𝐷 𝑁
4 4 0.073 𝑚 𝑁
4𝜎 𝑝= = 292 2
𝑝= 0.001 𝑚 𝑚
𝐷