METACOGNITION

John Hurley Flavell

1928-
American developmental and cognitive psychologist known for his studies of
role-taking in children.

Flavell was born in 1928 in Rockland, Massachusetts

John Hurley Flavell is a founder of social cognitive developmental psychology.

His research on "role-taking," the cognitive skills that children require in order
to understand and accept the roles of others, was a major contribution to
developmental psychology.

Metacognition in easy words is the process of learning how to learn.

It refers to the higher thinking skills which involves active awareness and
control over the

John Locke (EMPERICISM)

1632-1704
English philosopher and political theorist who attempted to center philosophy on
an analysis of the extent and capabilities of the human mind.
John Locke was born on August 29, 1632, in Wrington, in Somerset, England.
John Locke (1632-1704), one of the founders of British Empiricism, is famous for
insisting that all our ideas come from experience and for emphasizing the need for
empirical evidence. He develops his empiricist epistemology in An Essay Concerning
Human understanding, which greatly influenced later empiricists such as George
Berkeley and David Hume. In this article, Locke’s Essay is used to explain his criticism
of innate knowledge and to explain his empiricist epistemology.
The great divide in Early Modern epistemology is rationalism versus empiricism. The
Continental Rationalists believe that we are born with innate ideas or innate
knowledge, and they emphasize what we can know through reasoning. By contrast,
Locke and other British Empiricists believe that all of our ideas come from
experience, and they are more skeptical about what reason can tell us about the
world; instead, they think we must rely on experience and empirical observation.
Locke’s empiricism can be seen as a step forward in the development of the modern
scientific worldview. Modern science bases its conclusions on empirical observation
and always remains open to rejecting or revising a scientific theory based on further
observations. Locke would have us do the same. He argues that the only way of
learning about the natural world is to rely on experience and, further, that any
general conclusions we draw from our limited observations will be uncertain.
Although this is commonly understood now, this was not obvious to Locke’s
contemporaries. As an enthusiastic supporter of the scientific revolution, Locke and
his empiricist epistemology can be seen as part of the same broader movement
toward relying on empirical evidence.
Locke’s religious epistemology is also paradigmatic of the ideals of the
Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is known as the Age of Reason because of the
emphasis on reason and evidence. Locke insists that even religious beliefs should be
based on evidence, and he tries to show how religious belief can be supported by
evidence. In this way, Locke defends an Enlightenment ideal of rational religion.
The overriding theme of Locke’s epistemology is the need for evidence, and
particularly empirical evidence. This article explains Locke’s criticism of innate
knowledge and shows how he thinks we can acquire all our knowledge from
reasoning and experience.

In 1690 he brought out his major works: Two Treatises and the Essay Concerning
Human Understanding. But the four books of the Essay were the culmination of 20
years of intellectual labor. He relates that, together with a few friends, probably in
1670, a discussion arose concerning the basis of morality and religion. The
conclusion was that they were unable to resolve the question until an investigation
had been made to see "what objects our understandings were or were not fitted to
deal with." Thus, the aim of this work is "to inquire into the origin, certainty, and
extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds of belief, opinion, and
assent."
The term "idea" was ambiguously defined by Locke as "whatsoever is the object of
the understanding when a man thinks."
John Locke, used the term 'reflection' to refer the 'perception of the state of our own
minds' or 'the notice which the mind takes of its own operations' (Locke 1924).
In 1690 John H. Locke, the English philosopher, mentioned the concept of children
reflecting on their own thinking process, which is the basis of metacognition.

Herbert Spencer (SOCIAL DARWINISM)

Herbert Spencer (April 27, 1820 –December 8, 1903) was a British positivist philosopher,
sociologist and educational reformer. He was well known as "Social Darwinism" father and
proposed a theory of applying evolutionary theory to sociology, especially education and
class struggle. President of Harvard University said Spencer was a true pioneer of
education (Rhys, 1911).
Herbert Spencer defined the purpose and task of education was to teach everyone how to
live completely.
In the aspect of moral education, Spencer put forward that individual self-preservation is
the most important moral principle and coined the moral evolution formula. In respect of
discipline, he opposed punishment and advocated the principle of natural consequence
(Richards, 2010).
Spencer’s “Theory of Education” presents a most typical question "what knowledge is of
most worth?” and the answer is “the knowledge of Sciences”.

“The great aim of education is not knowledge, but action”

JOHN DEWEY (PRAGMATISM)

“I believe that education is the fundamental method of social progress and
reform.” —John Dewey

John Dewey, (born October 20, 1859, Burlington, Vermont, U.S.—died June
1, 1952, New York, New York), American philosopher and educator who was
a cofounder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer
in functional psychology, an innovative theorist of democracy, and a leader
of the progressive movement in education in the United States.
John Dewey's Philosophy of Education

Dewey defines education as the ' development of all those capacities in the
individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his
possibilities". It is a process that begins with the very birth of the child, and
goes on throughout the whole life. It is a process which has two sides- one
psychological and the other sociological.

Social Efficiency: According to Dewey the development of social efficiency is

one of the aims of education. To him school is a social institution. The school
should be organized in such a way that the activities of the outer world are
reflected.

Education is life: Dewey emphasizes that education is not a preparation for

life, it is life itself. The child lives in the present. The future is meaningless to
him. Hence it is absurd to expect him to do things for some future
preparation.

Education is experience: Dewey favored an education by, of and for,

experience. Every new experience is education. An old experience is replaced
by a new experience. The human race he gained experience in its struggle to
meet the needs of life. This ' struggle for existence ' is a continuous process.
John Dewey was a leading proponent of the American school of thought
known as pragmatism, a view that rejected the dualistic epistemology and
metaphysics of modern philosophy in favor of a naturalistic approach that
viewed knowledge as arising from an active adaptation of the human
organism to its environment. On this view, inquiry should not be understood
as consisting of a mind passively observing the world and drawing from this
ideas that if true correspond to reality, but rather as a process which initiates
with a check or obstacle to successful human action, proceeds to active
manipulation of the environment to test hypotheses, and issues in a re-
adaptation of organism to environment that allows once again for human
action to proceed. With this view as his starting point, Dewey developed a
broad body of work encompassing virtually all of the main areas of
philosophical concern in his day. He also wrote extensively on social issues in
such popular publications as the New Republic, thereby gaining a reputation
as a leading social commentator of his time.
George Sylvester Counts (SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION)
“All education contains a large element of imposition, a case which is
inevitable and, in the existence, and evolution of society, educators have a
major professional obligation. “
was born on December 9, 1889 in Baldwin City, Kansas.
Progressive educator, sociologist, and political activist, George S. Counts
challenged teachers and teacher educators to use school as a means for
critiquing and transforming the social order.
Counts said that schools are driven by the forces that transform the rest of
the social order rather than the school directing the change. Education needs
to be scrutinized by teachers. Schools cannot be reformed without effort,
struggle and sacrifice. He felt that Progressive Movement in education fell
short of direction. We cannot move in circles and content ourselves with
action. We must have purpose and be willing to sacrifice. Progressives are
romantic sentimentalists who should not be trusted to write our educational
theories or programs because they do not move outside of their comfort.
George S. Counts, in full George Sylvester Counts, (born December 9, 1889,
near Baldwin City, Kansas, U.S.—died November 10, 1974, Belleville,
Illinois), American educator and activist who, as a leading proponent of social
reconstructionism, believed that schools should bring about social change.
Early in his career Counts studied the influence of powerful social and
economic forces in American education.
Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld (SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM)
The Prophet Father of the Coming World
Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld (1904-1987) was a leading educational
philosopher of the 20th century. As an American educator and educational
philosopher, Brameld was best known as the founder of Social
Reconstructionism. In reaction to the realities of World War II, he recognized
the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human
cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and
human compassion (Philosophical Perspectives).
Brameld dedicated his efforts to employing schools as agents for social
change.
Brameld advocated that schools be a driving force for social and political
change. He held that a system of public education that is aware of the findings
of the behavioral sciences could bring about fundamental changes in the
social and economic structure of society (The Columbia Encyclopedia).
Brameld founded the educational philosophy of Social Reconstructionism
which emphasized the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a
better society and worldwide democracy (Philosophical Perspectives).
Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that emphasizes social
reform as the aim of education.
In the early 1950�s, Brameld outlined the distinctive features of Social
Reconstructionism (McNeil). First, he believed in a commitment to building a
new culture in which the common people would emerge as the leaders of
society. Second, he felt that the working people should control all principal
institutions and resources if the world is to become genuinely democratic.
The structure, goals, and policies of the new order must be approved and
enacted with public support. Third, Brameld believed that the school should
help the individual, not only to develop socially, but to learn how to
participate in social planning as well. The individual must find ways to satisfy
personal needs through social consensus. Fourth, he believed learners must
be convinced of the validity and urgency of change but must adhere to
democratic procedures.

Brameld believed the creation of a new social order through education would
fulfill the basic values of society and harmonize with the underlying social and
economic forces of the modern world. The child, the school, and education
would be conditioned by social and cultural forces. The teacher�s role was
to convince his or her students of the validity and urgency of the
Reconstructionist solution. In order to do this, education would have to be
completely re-fashioned to meet the demands of the present cultural crisis
(Four Theories of Education).
Theodore Brameld set out to perfect the American democracy by utilizing
education and establishing goals for world unity.
_______________________________
Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) founded social reconstructionism as a
response to the horrors of WWII. He believed that education had the
responsibility to mold human beings into a cohesive and compassionate
society. George Counts (1889-1974) was another proponent of this
philosophy who recognized education's role in preparing individuals to create
a better society. Harold Rugg and Jesse Newlon are also credited with making
important contributions to this field of research.
• "Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)" from Encyclopedia of Education, 2003
• George Counts: "Dare the School Build a New Social Order?
In this essay, Counts takes progressive educators to task for ignoring the role
they could play in reconstructing society.
• Harold Rugg
From the Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies, 2010.
• "Harold Rugg (1886-1960)" from Encyclopedia of Education, 2003
• Jesse Newlon: "The Play of Social Forces That Obstruct Educational
Planning."
Essay from The Journal of Educational Sociology, 8(4), 239-245. "The article
focuses on center of the problem of educational planning, which is found in
the fact that the public-school system was created by the political state for
the accomplishment of fundamental social purposes."
Paulo Freire (1921—1997) (CRITICAL PEDAGOGY)
Freire believed the classroom was a place where social change could take
place. Freire, like Dewey, believed that each student should play an active
role in their own learning, instead of being the passive recipients of
knowledge.
For Freire, the key purpose of education was to liberate human potential,
which could be achieved in part through the development of conscientização,
a Portuguese term which loosely translates as “critical consciousness”
Paulo Freire and the idea of critical pedagogy
Paulo Freire (1921–1997) was a champion of what’s known today as critical
pedagogy: the belief that teaching should challenge learners to examine
power structures and patterns of inequality within the status quo.
Freire emphasised how important it is to remember what it is to be human
and saw education as a way to transform oppressive structures. His
perspective stemmed from the values of love, care, and solidarity.
What are the implications of Freire’s ideas?
There are three areas to consider in light of Freire’s work. Incorporate them
into your lessons and you’ll have a class of thoughtful, compassionate adults-
in-training.
1. Remember that teachers and children are both learners: Freire
emphasised the collaborative, social nature of learning. He called for
careful consideration of the power dynamic between teacher and learner
so that learning is a joint venture instead of something more
authoritarian.
2. Develop their critical literacy: learners should think critically about the
things they read, see, and hear and they can identify inequality or
injustice. A learner with critical consciousness can frame questions
around issues and look for possible answers because they have
language which asks: is this fair? Was that just? Was there equality?
3. Encourage active enquiry and curiosity-lead participation: Freire
believed that by preventing active inquiry in classrooms, you deny
learners the opportunities for growing up into mature, autonomous
people who critically reflect on their world to make it a better place.