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Experiments in Food Science: Laboratory Manual

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Experiments in Food Science
Laboratory Manual
Contents with food, such as Dairy Judging, Meats
Introduction: What Is Food Science? Judging, New Product Development, and
Experiment 1: Butter, p. 2 the Research Chef’s Association. These
Experiment 2: Casein (Milk Protein), p. 2 events offer participants networking and
Experiment 3: Role of Salt in Meat learning opportunities for future career
Processing, p. 3 growth.
Experiment 4: Exploding Marshmallows, It is also possible to pursue a career as
p. 4 a veterinarian through an option in the
Experiment 5: Food Flavors, p. 4 food science curriculum. This is an excel-
Experiment 6: Determining Flavor with lent opportunity for students interested in
Your Nose?, p. 5 veterinary school to work towards an
Experiment 7: Candy Making (Hard- undergraduate degree while completing
Crack Stage, 300 ˚F), p. 5 the pre-veterinary (pre-vet) required cur-
Experiment 8: Gluten, p. 7 riculum. The veterinary school acceptance
rate for food science majors is very com-
petitive compared to the acceptance rate
Introduction: for all pre-vet disciplines. But students
What Is Food Science? with food science backgrounds and
This laboratory manual has two pur- degrees who do not get accepted in veteri-
poses. The first purpose is to describe nary school still have great job
what food science is and what food scien- opportunities making $45,000 to $55,000 a
tists do. The second purpose is to describe year to start, with room for rapid advance-
fun laboratory experiments that demon- ment. Such an annual income and
strate practical applications of food opportunities may not be available to stu-
science. Food science is all of the science dents who graduate from other programs
involved in taking agricultural food prod- with pre-vet curriculums.
ucts from the farmer’s gate to the grocery Laboratory exercises in this manual
store, restaurant, or dinner table. Food demonstrate principles behind butter
scientists generally work with all sectors making (density, lipid chemistry), cheese
of agriculture. Food science includes both production (acid precipitation, protein
basic and applied biology, microbiology, chemistry), processed meat production
chemistry, math, business, engineering, (use of salt in meats, protein chemistry),
physics, and other disciplines. A food sci- meat marination (use of vacuum in meat
entist’s goal is to make safe, high quality processing), sensory evaluation (principles
food products that are profitable to all seg- of sensory science; appearance, taste, and
ments of agriculture. smell), candy production (candy chem-
Those who earn a bachelor of science istry, carbohydrate crystallization), and
in the food science discipline have starting bread production (bread texture, gluten
salaries of $45,000 to $55,000 per year and proteins). These laboratory experiments
work for some of the largest food manu- demonstrate some simple scientific princi-
facturing companies in the country. Food ples that apply to food and explain why
science students also have opportunities to and how it is possible to make certain
compete in national competitions dealing food products.
 2
Experiment 1: Butter Homogenizing milk prevents the cream (butterfat)
layer from separating from the milk. Homogenizing
Purpose breaks down the fat globules into smaller globules and
This experiment demonstrates the principles of butter disperses them evenly in the milk. The smaller glob-
making. ules will not rise to form cream during normal storage
conditions.
Materials
• 1/3 cup heavy cream
• measuring cups
Experiment 2: Casein (Milk Protein)
• clean jar with secure, tight-fitting lid Purpose
• salt (1/3 teaspoon or to taste) This experiment demonstrates (1) the precipitation of
• crackers protein (casein) from milk with an acid (vinegar) and
(2) the effectiveness of casein as a bonding agent to
Procedure make casein glue.
1. Pour 1/3 cup of heavy cream into a clean jar. Cap
the jar. Materials
2. Shake the jar. Take turns shaking; you may need to • measuring cups and spoons
shake for 15 to 20 minutes. The cream will start • 1/4 cup milk
looking like cottage cheese (whipped cream). • 400 milliliter beaker
Continue shaking. • stir bar
3. You will note a separation of solids and liquids. • pH meter
4. The solid is butter, and the liquid is buttermilk. • thermometer
5. Pour off the buttermilk. Add salt to the butter for • hot plate
more flavor. Try the butter on crackers. • stir plate
• 1 teaspoon vinegar
Notes • cheesecloth
Dairy milk is composed of 87 percent water, 3.2 per- • weigh boats
cent protein, 3.9 percent fat, 4.8 percent carbohydrate, • 1/2 teaspoon household ammonia
and roughly 1 percent minerals and vitamins. The fat • glass rod
in milk is a mixture of lipids. Triglycerides are the • wooden craft sticks
main type of lipid. Lipids have a lower density than
water, so when raw milk sits for several hours, the Procedure
cream (butter) will rise to the top. 1. Pour 1/4 cup of milk into a 400 mL beaker. Place
The density of cream is the basis for butter mak- stir bar into beaker.
ing. The cream is churned to separate the butter 2. Measure the pH of the milk. Place a thermometer
(solids) from the buttermilk (liquid). Butter contains in the beaker.
at least 80 percent milk fat by weight. The butter can 3. Heat the milk to 70 ˚C on a hot plate. Remove the
be salted and poured into molds for further process- beaker from the heat. Remove the thermometer.
ing. Butter remains solid when refrigerated but 4. Place the beaker with the warm milk on a stir plate
softens to a spreadable consistency at room tempera- and add 1 teaspoon vinegar. Stir for 2 minutes.
ture and melts to a thin liquid consistency at 32 to 35 Allow the milk to sit for a few minutes. The casein
˚C (90 to 95 ˚F). Butter is generally pale yellow but can will precipitate into heavy white curds. The
vary from deep yellow to nearly white. The yellow remaining liquid is the whey.
color is the result of the b-carotene in the grass that 5. Measure the pH of the liquid portion again.
dairy cows eat. 6. Cover the top of the beaker with a piece of cheese-
cloth. Drain off the vinegar and whey over a sink.
Carefully remove the cheesecloth and collect the
curds (casein) in the cheesecloth. Rinse the cheese-
cloth containing the casein in cool water and
squeeze the cheesecloth until the casein is almost
dry. Spread out the cheesecloth to let the casein dry
for a few minutes.
7. After drying them, place the curds into a weigh
boat.
8. Very carefully add 1/2 teaspoon ammonia solution
to the curds. (CAUTION: ammonia is an irritant.)
 3
Slowly stir with a glass rod until the mixture Procedure
becomes thick and creamy in texture. Wear gloves when working with raw meat. Keep
9. Rub the casein glue onto two wooden craft sticks meat away from other food products. Wash hands
and join them together. Allow the glue to dry for a and workplace after completing the experiment.
few minutes.
1. Place 50 g ground beef into a small food processor.
Notes 2. Add 10 mL water. Chop the meat for 15 seconds.
Milk is composed of many proteins. The main groups 3. Remove the meat from food processor. Form it into
are casein and whey proteins. Caseins are very a ball. Flatten it like you are making a hamburger
digestible when compared to other food proteins, patty.
making it a very important human food. Casein is 4. Now, put the slightly flattened meat in the palm of
negatively charged in its natural state. This negative your gloved hand (palm up). Turn your hand over
charge permits the casein to disperse in milk. When (palm down). What happens? Does the meat stick
you add an acid, the H+ concentration neutralizes the to your hand, or does it fall down?
negatively charged casein. When you acidify milk, its 5. Repeat step 1 in this procedure with the other half
pH is allowed to reach 4.6, which brings casein to its of the meat. In step 2, dissolve 2 g salt into the 10
isoelectric point. The isoelectric point is the point at mL of water before adding the water to the meat.
which all charges are neutral. When casein loses its Follow steps 3 and 4 with the new mixture.
negative charge, it precipitates as curds. This acid 6. Tape a piece of white (butcher) paper to the wall.
casein is the basis for the manufacture of cottage Place plenty of newspaper on the floor below.
cheese and cream cheese. Acid casein is also used in Throw the two meat patties at the paper. Does
the chemical industry; in the production of adhesive either one stick to the paper?
products, textiles, and cosmetics; and as a binding
agent in food products. Notes
Casein can also be precipitated with rennin, an In this experiment, ground meat without salt probably
enzyme found in calves’ stomachs. This rennin coagu- did not stick to your hand or to the target. When you
lum is made of casein, whey protein, fat, lactose, and added salt to the ground meat, it made the salt-soluble
minerals. It has a fluffier and spongier texture than proteins come to the surface of the meat. In scientific
the acid precipitate. This is the basis for the manufac- terms, it extracted the salt-soluble proteins from the
ture of cheese. cellular structure. The proteins then acted like glue.
Salt serves many purposes. It brings out natural fla-
Reference vors, slows growth of spoilage microorganisms, and
http://members.ift.org/IFT/Education/TeacherResources/ enhances a food’s color, odor, and appearance. This
experiment shows that salt also creates the protein
Experiment 3: structure necessary to make processed meats like hot
dogs and deli meats. Salt helps bind meat by extract-
Role of Salt In Meat Processing ing its proteins, which “glue” together adjacent pieces
Purpose of meat. Salt also increases water-binding properties,
This experiment demonstrates the importance of salt which reduce cook losses and contribute to enhanced
in meat processing. texture. It also helps give a smooth, firm texture to
processed meats. In addition, it helps with the color
Materials development of ham, bacon, hotdogs, and other
• food preparation gloves processed muscle food products.
• food scale that measures in metric units
• 100 grams raw ground beef, divided equally Did You Know?
• small food processor Without salt, it would be
• 20 milliliters water, divided equally impossible to make hot
• 2 grams salt dogs, deli meats, and other
• spoons processed meats. Can you
• large white paper such as butcher paper explain why?
• paper towels
• newspapers
 4
Experiment 4: Exploding Marshmallows Experiment 5: Food Flavors
Purpose Purpose
This experiment demonstrates (1) the principles of air This experiment demonstrates how appearance influ-
pressure, (2) how changes in air pressure can affect ences our perception of how foods taste.
food products, and (3) the principle behind applying a
vacuum in meat processing. Gatorade
Materials
Materials
• small sampling cups with lids (2 oz size is ideal)
• vacuum pump
• Gatorade (lemon-lime flavor and orange flavor)
• glass jar suitable to be attached to the vacuum pump
• red food color
(The jar should have a rubber stopper with a hole in
it to insert a tube. The tube connects to the vacuum
Procedure
pump. You could also use a capped Erlenmeyer
1. Add a few drops of red food coloring to lemon-lime
flask with a side arm to attach a tube that will con-
flavored Gatorade. Mix until the color resembles the
nect to the vacuum pump.)
orange of orange flavored Gatorade.
• marshmallows (different sizes)
2. Pour the two orange-colored Gatorades, lemon-lime
and orange, into sampling cups. Label each cup
Procedure
using a code to identify each type of drink.
1. Place a marshmallow inside the glass jar.
3. Give students both samples.
2. Cap the jar. Connect the tube from the rubber stop-
4. Ask the student to pinch his or her nose and taste
per to the vacuum pump.
each Gatorade sample. Record the response.
3. Turn on the vacuum pump. What happens?
5. Ask the student to release his or her nose and taste
4. Turn off the vacuum pump. What happens now?
each Gatorade sample. Record the response.
5. Discuss your results.

Variations: You can place several marshmallows Soft Drink

inside the glass jar or make a marshmallow man. You Materials
can also try expanding chicken meat. • small sampling cups with lids
(2 oz size is ideal)
Notes • Sprite or other clear soda
Marshmallows are a mixture of sugar, air, and gelatin. • Coca-Cola or other brown cola
The sugar makes them sweet, the air makes them • caramel color
fluffy, and the gelatin is a protein that holds every-
thing together. By volume, marshmallows are mostly Procedure
air. When subjected to vacuum, the air from around 1. Add a few drops of caramel
the marshmallow is removed. This decrease in pres- color to Sprite until the color
sure causes the air trapped inside the marshmallow to is similar to that of Coke.
push outward, expanding it. Eventually the vacuum 2. Pour both drinks (Coke and colored Sprite) into
is strong enough to pull air from inside the marshmal- labeled sampling cups. Each cup should have a
low, causing it to shrink. When the air in the jar code to identify its drink.
returns to normal atmospheric pressure, you end up 3. Provide students with both samples.
with a “mallow grape” because the air has been 4. Ask the student to pinch his or her nose and taste
removed from inside the marshmallow. each soda sample. Record the response.
This same principle is used in the meat and poultry 5. Ask the student to release his or her nose and taste
industry to marinate chicken and other pre-marinated each soda sample. Record the response.
meats. Vacuum meat tumblers marinate meat in a
very short time. Under vacuum, the foods’ fibers Variation: If you cannot find caramel color, you can
stretch, becoming more porous. This allows the mari- try a red-colored soda like cherry and an unflavored
nade to penetrate evenly throughout the product. clear soda like club soda or seltzer water. Add a few
Vacuum tumbling allows meat to absorb up to about drops of red color to the clear soda until it looks like
20 percent of its starting weight in marinade without the red soda, pour the sodas into the sampling cups,
extended preparation. There is an increased yield in and ask the students to taste both drinks.
the raw product, which means increased yield after
cooking and a product that is juicy and tasty. Did You Know?
Most of the time we assume things about a food’s fla-
Reference: vor based on its color. Changing the color of
www.spacegrant.hawaii.edu/ScienceDemos/vacuumDemos.html lemon-lime Gatorade can make it look like orange-fla-
 5
vored Gatorade, but it still tastes like lemon lime. Experiment 7:
However, your mind can play tricks on you and con-
vince you that it is orange flavored. Similarly, the
Candy Making
color of Sprite is changed so it looks like Coke, but it (Hard-Crack Stage,
does not taste like Coke. 300 ˚F)
Purpose
Experiment 6: This experiment demon-
Determining Flavor With Your Nose? strates (1) the chemistry
of candy making and
Purpose (2) the effect of temperature on the texture of candies.
This experiment demonstrates how your mouth and
nose work together to perceive different flavors.
Materials
• shallow baking pan (8x8x2 inch)
Materials • heavy duty aluminum foil
• jelly beans of different colors • oil spray
• small sampling cups • 435 grams (about 2 1/8 cups) sugar
•1/2 cup light corn syrup
Procedure •1/2 cup water
1. Place two jellybeans of the same color in the sam- • 2-quart saucepan or 1000 mL beaker
pling cup. • candy thermometer
2. Ask the student to pinch his/her nose and taste a • stove (for saucepan) or hot plate (for beaker)
jellybean from the cup. Record the response. • food color
3. Ask the student to release his/her nose and taste • 1/2 teaspoon oil flavoring
another jellybean from the same cup. Record the • spatula
response.
Procedure
Notes 1. Line an 8x8x2 inch pan with heavy duty alu-
You cannot determine flavor without your nose. minum foil, extending foil over the
Without the sense of smell, foods would not be tasty. edges of the pan. Oil the pan lightly.
You would not be able to tell the difference between 2. Combine sugar, corn syrup, and water in a 2-quart
foods with the same texture. A food’s odors allow us saucepan or a 1000 mL beaker. Place a candy ther-
to determine its flavors. About 80 to 90 percent of mometer in the pan. The thermometer should not
what we perceive as “taste” is actually due to the touch the bottom of the pan or beaker. Stir the
sense of smell. This is why foods taste bland when mixture over high heat until it boils.
you have a cold or a stuffy nose. 3. Reduce heat to medium. Continue cooking over
There are four different types of true tastes: sour, medium heat. Do not stir the mixture while it is
sweet, salty and bitter. The salty/sweet taste buds are cooking. When the syrup reaches 260 ˚F, add food
near the front of the tongue, the sour taste buds line color. Do not stir; boiling action will incorporate
the sides of the tongue, and the bitter taste buds are at color into the syrup. Remove from heat precisely
the very back of the tongue. Children are very sensi- at 300 ˚F. Remove thermometer.
tive to the flavors in foods. As people age, their taste 4. Once boiling has stopped, add flavoring. Pour
buds become less sensitive. syrup quickly but carefully into prepared pan.
(CAUTION: mixture is very hot.) Let it stand for
5 minutes.
5. Using a broad spatula, mark candy surface in 1/2
inch squares. Retrace previous lines and press the
spatula deeper each time until you can press the
spatula to the bottom of the pan.
6. Cool completely. Use foil to lift candy out of the
pan. Break candy into squares and store in plastic
bags.

Variation: You can use plastic molds for hard candy

or lollipops. Lightly oil the molds before pouring the
hot mixture. Twist the lollipop stick to make sure it is
covered with the syrup. Let lollipops cool until hard-
ened before removing from molds.
 6
Notes
Sucrose, or table sugar, and other sugars are the main saturated. This means that the solution has reached a
ingredients in candy. Sucrose is made of two simple delicate balance of just enough sugar molecules and
sugars, glucose and fructose, that are bound together. enough heat to keep the sugar molecules dissolved,
Sugar crystals are solid at room temperature. When but in an unstable state. The sugar molecules begin to
sugar crystals are dissolved in water, the sugar goes crystallize back into a solid at the least disruption of
into solution. At a particular temperature, water can heat or action. In other words, the sugar comes back
dissolve only a certain amount of a particular sugar. together as sugar crystals when the syrup cools.
The solution reaches the point where no more sugar To make candy, you boil a mixture of sugar and
can be dissolved, and extra sugar will just sink to the water to create sugar syrup. The water evaporates,
bottom. This point is called the saturation point. and the sugar concentrates. The higher the tempera-
Heating the sugar/water solution increases the ture, the more concentrated the sugar becomes. The
amount of sugar that can be dissolved. The heat caus- texture of a candy (hard, soft, or chewy) depends on
es the crystals to break into smaller molecules. The its cooking temperature and ingredients.
sugar molecules move faster and farther apart,
enabling the solution to dissolve more and more sugar References
molecules. The solution turns into a clear sugar syrup. http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/candy/index.html
As you add more sugar, the solution becomes super- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy

Temperature (˚F) Use Description

Soft-Ball Stage (235-240 ˚F) Fudge, fondant, pralines, Soft ball: a small amount of syrup dropped into
Sugar concentration: 85% peppermint creams, ice water forms a soft, flexible ball but flattens like
and buttercreams a pancake after a few moments.

Firm-Ball Stage (245-250 ˚F) Caramels Firm ball: syrup forms a firm ball that will not flat-
Sugar concentration: 87% ten when removed from water but remains
malleable and will flatten when squeezed.

Hard-Ball Stage (250-265˚F) Nougat, marshmallows, Hard ball: syrup dropped into ice water forms a
Sugar concentration: 92% gummies, divinity, hard ball, which holds its shape on removal. Can
and rock candy change shape when pressed.

Soft-Crack Stage (270-290 ˚F) Taffy and butterscotch Soft crack: syrup dropped into ice water separates
Sugar concentration: 95% into hard but pliable threads, which bend slightly
before breaking.

Hard-Crack Stage (300-310 ˚F) Toffee, nut brittles, Hard crack: syrup dropped into ice water sepa-
Sugar concentration: 99% hard candy, rates into hard, brittle threads that break when
and lollipops bent.

Caramelized sugar Temperatures are higher than any of the candy

stages, creating caramelized sugar.
 7
Experiment 8: Gluten
Notes
Purpose Gluten is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley.
This experiment demonstrates (1) what gluten is, (2)
All breads made with wheat flour have a certain
its importance in bread making, and (3) its presence in
amount of gluten, depending on the type of flour. For
all-purpose flour.
example, cake flour has the lowest amount of gluten (5
to 8 percent), while high-gluten flour has greater than
Materials 14 percent. All-purpose flour is 11 to 12 percent
Mixing bowls gluten.
Measuring cups and spoons Gluten is the substance that gives bread its struc-
1/2 cup + 2 teaspoons all-purpose flour ture, texture, and elasticity. Gluten is made up of two
1/2 cup soy flour main groups of proteins: gliadins and glutenins.
1/2 cup water, divided Without these proteins, it would not be possible to
make bread with an acceptable texture. Gluten is
Procedure developed in the dough when gliadins and glutenins
1. Measure 1/2 cup of soy flour into a bowl. Measure absorb water and are pulled and stretched in the
1/2 cup of all-purpose flour into a different bowl. kneading process. As the proteins are worked, they
2. Add 1/4 cup of water to each bowl of flour and become long, flexible strands. The yeast produces
mix. gases in the dough, mostly carbon dioxide. These
3. If the all-purpose flour mixture is sticky, add up to strands trap the gas bubbles, and the dough rises
2 teaspoons of additional flour, 1 teaspoon at a before it is baked.
time. Mix and knead after each flour addition. Do Without gluten, bread would be very dense or flat.
not add flour to the soy flour mixture. Rice, potato, and oat flours do not have gluten, and
4. Knead dough mixtures for about 5 minutes each. bread made from these flours does not turn out well.
Note texture, appearance, color, elasticity, and flexi-
bility of each dough ball. The soy flour dough Did you Know?
looks clumpy, yellowish, and has no elasticity. Some people are unable to eat gluten because of either
Why? The all-purpose flour is opaque, elastic, and a wheat allergy or celiac disease. Gluten causes dam-
flexible. age to the intestines and stomach of a person with
5. Place the all-purpose dough ball under the faucet celiac disease.
and run cool water over it. Squeeze the dough ball
to drain white, starchy water. Continue doing this Reference
under running water for about 5 minutes. What VanDyke, E.M. 2007. Chemistry Supplement to High
happened? Note how the dough shrinks in size, School Food Technology. Pittsburgh Teaching Institute.
changes color, and becomes thread-like. These are http:\\www.chatham.edu/pti/Kitchen_Chem/VanDyke_01.htm
the gluten threads. The water that drains from the
dough ball is white as the starch is washed out of
the dough ball.
 The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products or trade names are
made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended against other products that may also be suitable.
By Dr. M. W. Schilling, Assistant Professor, Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Promotion; Viodelda Jackson,
Research Associate II, Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Promotion; and Dr. J.B. Williams, Assistant
Extension/Research Professor, Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Promotion.
Copyright 2008 by Mississippi State University. All rights reserved. This publication may be copied and distributed without
alteration for nonprofit educational purposes provided that credit is given to the Mississippi State University Extension Service.
Discrimination based upon race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, or veteran’s status is a violation of
federal and state law and MSU policy and will not be tolerated. Discrimination based upon sexual orientation or
group affiliation is a violation of MSU policy and will not be tolerated.
Publication 2469
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in fur-
therance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. VANCE H. WATSON, Director (POD 02-08)

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