PREPARED BY

ALAMBO WILSON
Contact: +254 731987927

1ST EDITION

2023
TOPICAL

REVISION

QUESTIONS

INCLUDED

FORM TWO NOTES

HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT
Contents
FORM TWO ........................................................................................................................................... 2
TRADE ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION .......................................................... 16
COMMUNICATION .................................................................................................................................. 30
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY ............................................................................................................ 39
URBANIZATION ...................................................................................................................................... 68
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES IN THE19TH
CENTURY.................................................................................................................................................. 80
CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTION MAKING .............................................................................. 91
DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS .................................................................................................. 98

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FORM TWO
TRADE
Meaning
Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services for mutual benefit.
Factors for the Development of trade
Trade developed among communities due to the following reasons:
• Unequal distribution of resources necessary for human life for instance people exchanged
salt with foodstuffs which they lacked
• Desire to satisfy various human needs such as clothing and food led to trade
• Production of surplus or excess produce led to exchange
• Specialization in crafts such as iron working basketry and leather works led to trade as
other people could only obtain some goods from such people through trade
• The need to strengthen human relations for mutual benefit
• Increase in human population created high demand for commodities which could only be
met through trade
Methods of Trade.
There are two methods of trade namely: barter and currency trade
Barter Trade
It refers to the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services.
Advantages of Barter Trade
• It is suitable where there is no currency
• It was effective where there was no common language
• It is effective in meeting the demands of people whose economy is at subsistence level
Disadvantages of Barter system of trade
• It was difficult to determine the exact value of some goods
• Some goods could not be divided into smaller quantities
• It was difficult to transport bulky goods
• There was frequent lack of double coincidence of wants
• Perishable goods could go bad before they were sold

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• Language barrier affected transactions
Currency Trade
It refers to the use of money to buy goods or pay for services
The following items were used as money by the ancient communities: salt, gold, copper, cloth,
tea, oxen and cowrie shells.
Advantages of currency Trade
• Money can be divided into smaller units
• Money is a store of wealth even for many years
• Money is lighter hence can be carried from one place to another
• Money is a measure of value hence helps in determining the exact worth of goods and
services
• Money is durable hence can be stored for a long period of time
• Money can be converted into different forms such as electronic devices like visa card
Disadvantages of currency Trade
• The value of the currency may fluctuate depending on the strength of a country’s
economy
• Money remains valuable only when those using it have belief that it will continue
retaining its value.
Types of Trade
There are three types of trade namely;
a) Local trade
b) Regional trade
c) International trade
a) Local trade
It refers to the exchange of goods and services between people living within the same
geographical area such as a village, town or neighboring communities.
Characteristics of local trade
• It was carried out within a small area like a village
• The number of traders were few
• The range of goods were limited to resources available within a particular area

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• It was done by small scale traders and not professional merchants
• Trade was carried out at specific places such as community borders or junctions
• It was carried out at regular intervals such as weekly
• There were trade routes which facilitated the easy movement of traders
Impact of local trade
• It promoted peaceful coexistence/good relations between communities involved
• It led to development of trading centers which developed into towns such as Kisumu
• Led to development of early industries such as iron working and basketry to produce
items of trade
• There was intermarriages between communities involved thereby expanding relations
between them
• Communities were able to acquire what they did not produce and sold their surplus
• There were cultural exchange among communities leading to adoption of new cultures
• It led to development of chiefdoms as a result of levies and tributes paid by traders
• It laid the foundation for regional and international trade
b) Regional Trade
It refers to the exchange of goods between two or more geographical regions.
Characteristics of Regional Trade
• It takes place within a larger geographical region for instance between two parts of the
continent
• It involves exchange of a large variety of goods
• It involves traders who act as middlemen between buyers of goods and the producers
• It involves people who specialize in trade as their means of livelihood
• It has established markets but goods were not sold on specific market days
The Trans - Saharan Trade
It refers to the trade that existed between North Africa and West Africa (Western Sudan) across
the Sahara desert.
Factors for the growth and development of the Trans - Saharan trade
The following factors contributed to the growth and development of the trans Saharan trade:
• Existence of local trade in the region provided a base for the trade

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• Existence of pack animals such as the horses and the camels which were able to carry
heavy loads. The camels could travel long distance without water and could also travel on sand
with ease
• Availability of trading items especially gold from West Africa and salt from North Africa
• There was high demand for goods from West Africa in the north as well as high demand
for goods from North Africa in West Africa
• Existence of trade routes made it easy for them to travel
• Existence of rich merchants in the region who were willing to invest in the trade
• Existence of strong rulers in West Africa in Mali and Songhai provided security for the
traders
• Existence of Oases which provided water for the traders and acted as resting points
• Presence of the Tuaregs who served as guides, translators and provided security
Organization of the Trans - Saharan Trade
• It involved the Berbers/ Arabs from North Africa who traded with the people of West
Africa across the Sahara desert
• The traders were organized into caravans in order to enhance security across the desert
• Wealthy merchants from the North financed the trade
• The Tuaregs protected/guided the traders; they served as interpreters; maintained the
Oases; provided water, food and accommodated the traders.
• The camels were used as the main means of transport across the desert
• Trade goods were sourced from both North Africa and Western Sudan. Goods from West
Africa were: gold (main commodity), slaves, ivory. Kola nuts while goods from North Africa
were: salt (main commodity), horses, glassware, beads, mirrors, firearms, daggers and Cowrie
shells.
• There were definite trade routes followed by the traders in order to avoid getting lost
• The traders made stops at the oases to refresh themselves and let their camels drink water
• Kings / chiefs-maintained law and order in their territory thereby creating a conducive
trading environment
• Barter or silent trade was used as the traders lacked a common language
• Rulers of Western Sudan regulated the supply of gold, provided security to the Caravans
and ensured steady supply of goods.
Difficulties or problems encountered by the Trans - Saharan Traders.

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• The journey was long and tiring
• Lack of a common language made it difficult for the traders to communicate
• The caravans encountered insecurity in the desert
• The routes in the desert changed frequently hence occasionally the caravans got lost
• The desert climate was too hot during the day and too cold during the night hence making
the journey uncomfortable.
• They were attacked by desert creatures such as scorpions and snakes
• The Tuaregs would always turn against their employers, attack and rob them, before
abandoning them in the desert
• Blinding sand-storms hampered the progress of the caravans
• There was rivalry between caravans and competitions sometimes leading to war
NB: The Trans - Saharan trade started to decline in the 15th century AD.
The following factors led to the decline of the Trans- Saharan Trade
• The gold and salt fields got exhausted thereby discouraging some traders
• Fall of powerful kingdoms such as Mali, Songhai and Ghana created insecurity in the
region hence discouraging the trade
• Change of roles by the Tuaregs from guides to robbers discouraged traders from
participating
• The invasion of Western Sudan by Morocco in the 18th century caused destruction of
some commercial centers like Gao and Timbuktu hence undermining trading activities
• Development of the Trans - Atlantic trade which was more profitable rendered the trans -
Saharan trade unpopular
• European trading activities in the interior of Africa caused competition with African
middlemen hence leading to the decline of the trade.
• Abolition of slave trade from the 1840s in the Ottoman Empire denied the traders a
principal trading item
• The desert conditions characterized by sand sandstorms and scarcity of water made it
difficult for the development of the trade.
Effects of the Trans- Saharan Trade
The Trans - Saharan trade had far reaching positive and negative consequences on the people of
West Africa.

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i) It provided an important link between West Africa and North Africa hence making West
Africa known to the outside world.
ii) The trade led to the development of towns in West Africa such as Gao , Timbuktu, Kano
among others
iii) The trade led to the emergence of a class of wealthy merchants such as Mansa Musa and
Sundiata Keita of Mali
iv) The trade led to growth of powerful kingdoms and empires such as Ghana, Mali and
Songhai due to taxes levied on traders by rulers
v) It led to the introduction of Arabic architectural designs which influenced construction of
buildings in West Africa
vi) It led to the introduction of Islamic system of education in West Africa with
establishment of schools and universities such as the university of Timbuktu
vii) Many Africans were converted to Islam leading to the spread of Islamic way of dressing
and language
viii) It led to the introduction of Islamic Sharia laws in the administration of kingdoms in
West Africa.
ix) Introduction of new goods such as iron tools led to growth in agricultural production
Negative effects of the Trans - Saharan Trade
i) The introduction of guns and other weapons led to increased warfare in the region leading
to loss of life
ii) There was increased suffering and misery among families due to slave trade and slavery
iii) Demand for ivory led destruction of wild life
c) International trade
It refers to the exchange of goods across the seas and oceans. Examples includes:
• The Indian Ocean Trade
• The Trans - Atlantic Trade
The Trans - Atlantic Trade
The Trans-Atlantic trade was conducted along three triangular routes namely; Africa to
Americas, Americas to Europe and Europe to Africa.
The trade attracted Africans, Americans and Europeans.
Origin and development of the Trans - Atlantic Trade

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It started in the mid-15th century AD as a result of Portuguese and Spanish exploration. From the
16th century AD African slaves were exported to Americas to work in the plantation of sugar,
tobacco and cotton.
Factors that facilitated the growth and development of the Trans- Atlantic Trade.
The rise and growth of the Trans - Atlantic trade can be attributed to the following factors:
i) Availability of trade items from Africa such as slaves , gold , ivory among others
ii) High demand for slaves in the new world to work in the plantations
iii) Availability of sailing ships which were used in the transportation of slaves and other
goods
iv) The discovery of the compass direction which enabled traders to discover their routes
v) Availability of firearms which were used in raiding of villages for slaves
vi) Existence of trade links with West Africa which were strengthened during the Trans-
Atlantic trade
vii) Existence of well-developed trade routes to the interior made it easy for slaves to be
transported to the coast
viii) Existence of enterprising merchants who were able to finance the trade
Organization of the Trans - Atlantic Trade
• It was conducted along three triangular routes namely; West Africa to Americas; America
to Europe and Europe to Africa
• The main item of trade were slaves obtained from West Africa. Other items from West
Africa were: gold, hide, ivory, gum, Pepper and bees’ wax. Trading items from America were:
sugar, tobacco and cotton. Trade items from Europe were cloth, glassware, iron ware. Firearms
and liquor
• The Europeans brought manufactured goods to West Africa and exchanged them with
slaves
• Slaves were sold at particular centers along the West Africa coast
• The slaves were stored in Barracoons (warehouses) waiting for transportation across the
Atlantic ocean
• In America the slaves were sold through auction
Methods Used in acquiring slaves during the Trans - Atlantic Trade
The following methods were used to acquire slaves in West Africa during the Trans-Atlantic
trade:

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 ➢ They conducted slave raids
➢ Through exchange of slaves for European manufactured goods
➢ By selling prisoners of war to slave dealers
➢ Lonely travelers were captured or kidnapped and sold to slave traders Some rulers sold
their subjects to slave dealers
➢ By enticing people/children using desirable goods such as cloth and sweets
➢ Through Panyaring or sale of debtors
NB: African slaves were more preferred than other races due to the following reasons;
• The supply of African slaves were high due to large population in West Africa
• They were cheaper to acquire as compared to Europeans and Red Indians
• They were regarded as immune to tropical diseases such as malaria
• Their dark complexion made it difficult for them to escape
• They were stronger than Europeans and Red Indians
Reasons or factors for the Decline of the Trans - Atlantic Trade
The following factors contributed to the decline of the Trans-Atlantic Trade:
• The introduction of machines as a result of industrialization replaced human labour
leading to decline of demand for slaves
• Slave labour was perceived to be less productive by economists compared to free labour
• The campaign against slave trade and slavery by philanthropists and Christian
Missionaries who declared it evil, Inhuman and against religious teachings
• The closure of slave markets in America after the American civil war of 1865 left the
slave dealers with no market for their slaves
• Propagation of liberty and equality for all human beings following the French Revolution
which encouraged fair treatment of all people irrespective of their racial background.
• The development of legitimate trade which was more profitable and replaced slave trade
• The signing of treaties abolishing slave trade and slavery by Britain influenced other
countries to adopt the same
• The need to retain Africans in their homelands to produce raw materials for export to
Europe
• Slave revolts or rebellion in Haiti, Jamaica and British Guyana discouraged the trade
• The decline in the demand for sugar in European market as France produced cheaper
sugar

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• Contributions of Africans to stop slave trade for instance king Nzinga of Congo and
Olaudah Equiano who attacked the evils of slave trade
• The attainment of independence by the USA in 1776 left Britain without colonies where
slaves could work
Impact of the Trans - Atlantic Trade
The Trans - Atlantic trade had far-reaching effects on all the participants in Europe. America and
Africa
It had the following effects on the people of West Africa:
a) Social effects
i) There was serious depopulation in West Africa due to slave trade and slavery
ii) Many Africans lost their lives during slave raids
iii) There was suffering among families as their loved ones were separated and sold into
slavery
iv) There was fear and insecurity due to frequent raids on African settlements
v) The trade exposed West Africa to new diseases such as tuberculosis, syphilis among
others
vi) Africans lost confidence on their rulers who sold them to slave dealers
vii) It led to the rise of the mullato population in Senegal and other parts of West Africa
b) Economic effects
i) There was destruction of property as communities raided each other for trade items
ii) It contributed to decline of the Trans - Saharan trade as many people found it more
profitable
iii) A class of wealthy merchants emerged such as Jaja of Opobo who used their wealth to
gain political influence
iv) There was decline in agricultural production as able-bodied people were taken away into
slavery
v) It led to urbanization in West Africa as port cities such as Lagos and Elmina developed
into towns
vi) It created long lasting trade links between Africa , Europe and America
vii) Traditional industries declined as Africans acquired a taste of European manufactured
goods
c) Political effects

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i) The trade weakened African communities and thus could not resist colonial rule hence
colonization of the continent by the European powers
ii) The trade led to the emergence of very powerful kingdoms such as the Asante, Fante,
Dahomey and Oyo due to the profits generated by the trade
iii) The abolition of the trade led to the creation of Sierra Leone and Liberia as settlements
for freed slaves
iv) Some kingdoms declined due to inter - tribal wars in search of trading items
Impact on Europe
• It led to development of some large cities such as Liverpool, Nantes, Bristol, Glasgow
and Bordeaux.
• It led to the industrial Revolution in Europe due to the raw materials obtained from the
American plantations
Impact on America
• It led to the expansion of plantation farming in America due to slave labour
• It led to the emergence of Afro - Americans due the intermarriages between African
slaves and Americans
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1991 Q23
a) State five factors which contributed to the development of Trans – Sahara trade.
b) Explain five factors which contributed to the decline of the Trans –Saharan Trade.

2. 1992 Q21b, c
b) Give ways in which the Tuaregs contributed to the development of
Trans - Saharan trade. The Tuaregs
c) State five ways in which the Trans - Saharan trade led to development
of the Kingdom of Old Ghana.

3. 1993 Q23
a) Identify 5 factors which led to the development of the trade between
East Africa and the outside world up to the 19th century
b) What were the effects of the trade on East Africa?
4. 1995 Q3
a) Identify three factors leading to the abolition of slave trade in the
19th Century?
b) Explain six effects of the Trans-Atlantic slave on West Africa

5. 1996 Q7

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 a) What is barter trade? (1mark)
b) Identify one limitation of using barter as a method of trade. (1mark)

6. 1996 Q2 (section B)
a) What factors led to the development of trade between North Africa
and West Africa during the pre-colonial period? (3marks)

b) Describe the effects of the Trans – Saharan trade of West African

societies? (12marks).

7. 1997 Q7
State two ways through which slaves were obtained in West Africa during the
Trans- Atlantic trade. (2 marks)

8. 1997 Q17
(a) What factors contributed to the development of the Trans- Saharan Trade?
(8 marks)
(b) Describe the difficulties faced by the Trans- Saharan traders (7 marks)

9. 1998 Q7
Give one reason why the general agreement on tariffs and Trade (GATT)
was established (1 mark)

10. 1999 Q6-8

6. Give two ways in which air transport has improved trade between nations
(2 marks)
7. Distinguish between barter and currency systems of trade (2 marks)

8. (a) State the role played by the Tuaregs in the Trans- Saharan trade (1 mark)

(b) Identify two trade routes which connected trading centers in the
Western Sudan and North Africa during the Trans-Saharan trade. (2 marks)

9. Give the main aim of the United Nations Conference ob trade and
development (UNCTAD) (1 mark)

11. 2000 Q6, 7

6. State two objectives of international trade agreements. (1 mark)
7. What is the difference between barter trade and trade in which
currency is used as the medium of exchange? (2 marks)

12. 2000 Q20

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 (a) What five factors undermined the trans- Saharan trade? (5 marks)
(b) Explain five ways in which West African communities benefited
from the Trans- Saharan Trade. (10 marks)

13. 2001 Q18

a) Describe how the Trans – Sahara trade was organized (8marks)
b) What problems did the trans- Saharan trader face? (7marks)

14. 2002 Q3
State one main limitation of barter trade during the Trans- Saharan Trade.
(1 mark)
15. 2002 Q18
(a) Describe three ways through which slaves were obtained during the
Trans- Atlantic slaves trade
(b) Explain six factors that led to the decline of the Trans- Atlantic trade

16. 2003 Q4
Identify one advantage of barter as a method of exchange in the Trans-
Saharan trade. (1 mark)

17. 2003 Q7
State one reason why internal Trade Agreement are signed. (1 mark)

18. 2003 Q20

(a) Describe the organization of the Trans- Atlantic Trade. (3 marks)
(b) What were the results of the Trans- Atlantic Trade in West Africa?
(12 marks)
19. 2003 Q22a
(a) Give three reasons why the preferential Trade Area (PTA) was formed.
(3 marks)
20. 2004 Q9
Identify tow problems that may hinder the effective operation of international
Trade Agreements. (2 marks)

21. 2004 Q21

(a) What was the role of the Tuaregs in the trans- Saharan trade? (3 marks)
(b) Explain six effects of the trans-Saharan trade on the people of Western
Sudan. (12 marks)

22. 2005 Q 7
Identify the main commodity from Africa in the Trans- Atlantic trade (1 mark)

23. 2006 Q3

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 Identify one type of trade. (1 mark)

24. 2007 Q7
Identify the main method of trade in Africa during the pre-colonial period.
(1mark)
25. 2007 Q19
(a) Identify the three types of trade. (3marks)
(b) Describe the organization of the Trans-Saharan trade. (12 marks)

26. 2008 Q7
State the problems faced by traders when using the barter trade system (2marks)

27. 2008 Q19

a) Give three methods used to acquire slaves from West Africa during the
Trans-Atlantic trade (3marks)
b) Explain six factors that led to the decline of the Trans-Atlantic trade
(12marks)
28. 2009 Q8
State two advantages of the use of money over barter as a medium of
exchange. (2marks)

29. 2010 Q6
Give the two main items of the Trans-Saharan trade. (2 marks)

30. 2011 Q5
Why was ‘silent trade’ practised by Trans-Saharan traders (1mark)

31. 2011 Q20

a) State three factors that contributed to the development of Trans-Atlantic
Trade (3marks)
b) Explain six negative effects on Trans-Atlantic trade on African
Communities (12marks)

32. 2012 Q4,5 P2

4. Give the main form of transport used in the Trans-Saharan Trade. (1 mark)
5. Name two groups of people that were involved in the Trans-Atlantic Trade.
(2 marks)
33. 2013 Q4 P2
State one theory of origin about the knowledge of iron working in Africa.
(1mark)

34. 2013 Q6 P2

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 State two ways in which Africans participated in the Trans-Atlantic Trade.

(2marks)

35. 2015 Q19 P2

(a) State five disadvantages of using barter trade during the
Trans-Saharan trade. (5 marks)

(b) Describe the organisation of the Trans-Saharan Trade. (10 marks)

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DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATION
Meaning of Transport
It refers to the movement of goods and people from one place to another.
Early or Traditional Forms of Transport
These are forms of transport that were used in the ancient times. They include human porterage,
pack animals, raft, boats, and sailing ships.
They were used either on land or water.
Land Transport
Some of the traditional forms of land transport include:
a) Human Porterage
It refers to the carrying of goods on either people's heads, shoulders or backs.
Advantages of human porterage
• It was a cheap method of transport
• It was readily available
• It was flexible since it had no fixed times for departure or arrival
• Accidents were rare
• It was convenient as one travelled when ready
Disadvantages of human transport
• It was slow hence time consuming
• The porter could carry only a small load
• It was tiresome, forcing the porter to make frequent rests
• It was affected by adverse weather conditions such as rains
• The porters could be attacked by robbers or wild animals
b) Animal Transport
The following animals have been used in transport since ancient times; the Ox, the Donkey, the
Horse, the Mule, the Elephant, the Camel, the Reindeer and the Dog.
Advantages of Animal Transport
i) Animals are cheap to maintain since they require only feeding

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ii) Some animals can sense danger by sniffing out an enemy from a distance like horses and
donkeys
iii) Accidents are rare since animals do not speed
iv) Animals can be used in inaccessible areas such as mountainous regions
v) Animals do not need fuel apart from feeding
Disadvantages of Animal Transport
i) Animals may be attacked by wild animals
ii) Animal transport is slow hence time consuming
iii) Animal transport has limited carrying capacity
iv) Pack animals are stubborn when tired or heavily loaded
v) Animal transport is limited to day time and not night time
vi) Extreme weather conditions hampers the movement of animals
Vehicles Without Wheels
These earliest vehicles had no wheels and were dragged along the ground. They were slow and
carried limited loads. They included the following:
a) The sleigh (sledge)
The sledge glided on runners from back-to-back leaving only a small area in contact with the
ground to minimize friction.
It was commonly used in snowy terrains of northern Europe and North America.
Sledges were initially pulled by human beings but later teams of dogs were tied to it.
b) The travois
It was V-shaped with the narrow side tied to a horse or dogs using a pole. The border side had
cross - pieces that served as a base for the load.
It was commonly used in North America because of its treeless, dry and flat - terrain.
c) The sedan chair
It was a special chair fitted with two poles running on the sides from back to front. It was carried
by four people on these poles.
It was used in the cities of Europe from about the 17th century.
Passengers were protected against elements such as rain, heat and wind.
The Development of the Wheel

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The development of the wheel revolutionized transport in the ancient times.
The idea of the wheel was developed from the use of wooden rollers.
The wheel was first used by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia in about 3000 BC. It was solid,
heavy and fixed to the axle. Wooden wheels were improved when the spoked wheels were made.
Spoked wheels were used on horse - drawn chariots, making the lighter and swifter. They were
the first vehicles to be used in warfare.
The spoked wheels were improved by addition of a rubber strip on the outside. The Assyrians
introduced a metal strip to make the spoked wheel more durable.
The wheel was used in pottery and irrigation in Mesopotamia.
Impact of the Wheel in Mesopotamia
The use of the wheel in Mesopotamia had the following effects:
i) It revolutionized warfare as the Sumerians were able to build war chariots thereby
increasing the mobility of soldiers
ii) It enhanced transportation of people thereby facilitating travel over long distances
iii) It eased transportation of heavy goods
iv) It promoted trade through efficiency of transportation of goods and traders
v) It facilitated construction of roads
vi) It enhanced the making of pots of high quality
vii) It promoted early agriculture as the wheel was used on shadoof irrigation
NB:From Mesopotamia, the use of the wheel spread to central Asia, Africa and Europe.
The use of the wheel Revolutionized transport in Europe in the following ways:
i) People could travel faster than before
ii) They could cover long distances than before
iii) The chariots or wheel carts made travel more comfortable
iv) People could carry heavy loads over long distances
v) Travelling became more secure
Water Transport
Among the earliest vessels used in water transport includes;
• Rafts: they were made up of several logs tied together to improve their stability. A long
pole was used to steer and propel the raft.

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• The dug-out canoe: they were dug out of tree trunks with the hollowed section providing
room for passengers. They were mainly used for crossing rivers over shallow waters and fishing.
• Oar driven boats: they were propelled by use of use of oars that increased their speed and
power.
• Sailing ships/Dhows: they were propelled or driven by wind. They also had sails to
improve on their speed.
Limitations or Disadvantages of early forms of water transport.
• They were slow therefore time consuming
• .They could easily sink during strong winds and storms
• They could only move down streams as their movement relied on water current.
• .They carried only a few passengers and goods at a time
• Passengers and goods were exposed to the elements of weather.
Development in Modern Means of Transport
a) Road Transport.
Roman Roads
The Romans were the first known road builders in Europe from about 312 BC.
Reasons why the Romans constructed Roads
• To ensure faster movement of troops and administrators
• To facilitate movement of goods
• To facilitate movement of people or civilians to various parts of the Roman empire
Characteristics of Roman Roads
• They were raised above the ground to avoid flooding
• They were constructed straight
• They were well drained on each side
• They were built with bridges across and tunnels across hills
Macadam Roads
Macadam roads were constructed using the technology developed by a Scottish Engineer named
John Macadam The roads were constructed by removing the top soil and putting the top soil and
putting three layers of small broken stones. Carriage wheels were used to press the stones tightly.
The surface was curved to allow water to run off into ditches on the sides.

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These roads were later improved by adding tar to produce a water proof surface called Tarmac.
Characteristics or advantages of Macadam roads
• They were durable
• They were all weather roads
• They had smooth motoring surface
• The roads were wide hence could accommodate more traffic
• They were straight hence reduced accidents
The following improvements were made on macadamized roads in the nineteenth century:
• Tar was put on the top surface to make them smooth
• Roads were widened to create highways
• Roads were straightened
• The roads were strengthened by adding more layers of gravel/stones to make them
durable
NB: the following developments have taken place in road transport since 1750
• Fly - over bridges and under pass trunnels on cross roads have been constructed for faster
travel
• Tarmac roads that are durable have been constructed
Roads have been widened to cater for increased volume of traffic through the construction of
dual carriage ways
• Motor ways have been constructed in developed countries for exclusive use of faster or
speeding vehicles
• Bridges have been constructed to facilitate travel on roads.
Advantages of Road Transport
• It is cheaper over short distances
• Road transport is flexible hence can offer door to door services
• It is faster compared to water and rail transport
• Roads are cheaper to construct when compared to Railway’s transport
Disadvantages of Road
• Accidents are high on roads leading to loss of lives
• It is expensive to construct all weather roads

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• Traffic congestion leading to traffic jams is a common problem in urban centers
• Exhaust fumes from motor vehicles cause air pollution
• The use of roads is limited to specific areas as it cannot go across the sea or lake
• The quantity of goods carried is limited as roads cannot carry bulky goods compared to
railway.
Railway Transport
The first railways were used in Germany in around the 16th century. Development of railway
transport was made possible with the invention of steam.
Among the engineers who contributed towards the invention of the railway transport included:
• Thomas Slavery
• Thomas Newcomen
• James Watt
• Richard Trevithick
• Christopher Blackett
• William Hiedler
• George Stephenson
The Diesel Engine
The first diesel engine was designed in 1892 by a German Engineer named Rudolph Diesel.
The Electric Engine
The first electric railway system was built in Britain in 1883. It was designed by the Siemens
brothers and John H
NB: The major Trans - continental railways in the modern world are:
• The Trans - Siberian Railway Line- it is found in Russia and covers 7237 kilometers
• The Great American Railway found in the U.S.A
• The Canadian Pacific Railway found in Canada
Advantages of Railway Transport
i) It is suitable for transportation of heavy and bulky goods
ii) It is cheaper for transportation of goods and services over long distance.
iii) Electric trains are fast means of transport

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iv) It follows regular time table which enables passengers to plan their movements
v) It is a safe means of transport as accidents are rare
vi) Underground trains help to reduce traffic congestion on roads
Disadvantages of Railway Transport
i) It is expensive to construct railways and buy the wagons
ii) Accidents, though rare, are always fatal when they occur
iii) Diesel engines emit a lot of smoke leading to air pollution
iv) It is heavily affected by terrain as they cannot be constructed through certain landscapes
such as mountainous regions
v) Railway transport is not flexible hence has to be supplemented by other means of
transport.
Results or impact of Railway Transport during the 19th Century
i) It led to the development of urban centers or towns along railway lines.
ii) It led to the development of international trade as bulky goods can be easily transported
to the markets
iii) It promoted industrialization as raw materials could be transported to the industries and
finished goods to the markets
iv) It created employment opportunities to many people
v) It was a source of government revenue through taxes
vi) It led to exploitation of natural resources as it opened up remote continental interiors in
Africa, Asia and North America
vii) It led to environmental pollution through emission of large amounts of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere
QUIZ: Explain six ways through which the invention of the Railway speeded up industrialization
in Europe.
• The invention of the railway facilitated the transportation of bulky and heavy raw
materials to the industries
• It speeded up the transportation of manufactured goods to the various markets in different
parts of Europe.
• It facilitated the transportation of heavy sources of energy to the industries especially coal
• It facilitated transportation of industrial workers to the industries

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• It facilitated the migration and settlement of people to new lands which became sources
of raw materials
• It opened up mining and farming activities in the interior of most countries
• It facilitated the transportation of heavy industrial machinery for installation in factories
• Revenue generated from railway transport helped in setting up industries
• It facilitated interaction between towns and business people hence promoting investment
in industries.
Water Transport
Developments in water transport began with the invention of steamships during the Industrial
Revolution.
Canals
A canal is a man-made water channel constructed to join two or more water bodies.
Reasons for Construction of Canals
• To link up one water body such as a lake or a sea to another
• To shorten trade routes
• To control flooding/ drainage control
• To provide water for irrigation
• To connect industrial centers to ports so as to speed the supply of raw materials and fuels
NB: The major ship canals in the world include;
a) The Manchester - Liverpool Canal connecting the industrial center of Manchester to the
port of Liverpool
b) The Suez Canal joining the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea
c) The Panama Canal joining North and South America (joining Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans)
d) The Kiel Canal linking the North Sea and the Baltic Sea in Germany
Advantages of Water Transport
• It is free from traffic congestion
• It is route free hence does not require the construction of transport lines
• It is the cheapest means of transporting bulky goods over long distances
• Maintenance costs are low because there is less friction on water

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• Accidents are rare compared to road transport
Disadvantages of water Transport
• Water accidents are rare but very fatal when they occur
• It is a slow means of transporting people and goods
• Construction of port facilities is expensive
• May lead to pollution of water through oil spills
• Delays are caused by port congestion thereby leading to huge losses to business people
• It cannot be used by land - locked countries
Pipeline Transport
Pipelines are used to move liquids, gases or solid mixtures over long distances. They are often
placed underground.
Advantages of using the Pipeline over vehicles in transporting oil
• The Pipeline delivers oil faster than vehicles
• It is safer to transport oil by pipeline than vehicles
• The pipeline ensures regular or continuous supply of oil required
• It is easier to maintain the pipeline than vehicles
Air Transport
The invention of the aircraft is credited to Orville and Wilbur Wright.
The development of air transport gained momentum during the First World War (1914-1918)
The jet engines were developed during the Second World war by both Germany and Britain.
They travelled at much faster speed than normal aero planes.
Advantages of Air Transport
• It is the fastest means of transport
• It is suitable for transportation of perishable goods
• It is suitable for emergency services like flying doctor services
• Accidents are rare
• It can access remote and mountainous areas with rugged terrain
Disadvantages of air Transport
• It is expensive to procure and maintain aircraft

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• Construction of airstrips requires a lot of resources
• Aircrafts can only land and take off in designated areas thus inconveniencing the users
• Air freight charges are expensive hence not affordable by many people
• Its operations are affected by unfavorable weather conditions
• Aircrafts emit gases which contributes to the pollution of the atmosphere
• Travelling by air has facilitated international terrorism and drug trafficking
• The use of aircraft in military warfare has resulted to destruction of property
• Accidents by aircrafts are fatal hence minimal chances of survival
• It requires a lot of expertise skilled personnel to manage its operations
Space Exploration
Space exploration refers to the trips made by scientists into the outer space.
Space exploration is carried out by the use of space craft’s such as Rockets and Satellites
The First artificial satellite was launched into the orbit in 1957 by the Russians. It was called
Sputnik I.
In the USA, the space race has been spearheaded by the United States National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA)
Results of space exploration
• It has enhanced human understanding of the universe
• It has led to the development of advanced air defense system for instance countries have
developed the Anti - Missile Defence system
• It has enhanced effective mapping and surveillance on earth through the Global
Positioning Systems (GPS)
• It has also encouraged space tourism especially in developed countries
Disadvantages/challenges of Space Exploration
• It is very expensive and a preserve of only the rich nations
• It contributes to environmental pollution for instance degradation of the Ozone layer
• It has led to loss of life through accidents as happened to the space craft Colombia in
2003
• Cosmic radiations in the space can damage space craft
Impact of Modern Means of Transport

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Modern means of transport has had far reaching positive and negative effects on the modern
society
Positive effects:
i) It has led to development of both local and international trade by facilitating
transportation of goods and traders
ii) It has led to the emergence of urban centers along railway lines, roads and harbours
iii) It has facilitated exploitation of natural resources such as minerals, fisheries and forests
by opening up remote areas
iv) It has facilitated faster movement of people thereby encouraging migration from one part
of the world to another
v) It has provided employment opportunities to millions of people such as plots, engineers,
drivers among others
vi) Modern means of transport has provided revenue to the government through taxes
vii) It has facilitated the development of industries as raw materials are easily transported to
the factories and finished products to the markets
viii) It has promoted agricultural development as farm produce are easily transported to distant
markets
ix) It has led to efficient government administration as security personnel and government
officials can be moved easily from one part of the country to another
x) Air transport has facilitated the provision of emergency services in remote places such as
flying doctor services
Negative effects
i) It has led to massive loss of lives through accidents
ii) It has led to environmental pollution as the vessels emit dangerous gases into the
atmosphere
iii) The use of aircraft in modern warfare has led to destruction of property
iv) Increasing numbers of vehicles has resulted into serious traffic jams in many cities across
the world
v) Rapid interaction of people encourages spread of diseases such as Coronavirus, Aids,
Ebola among others
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1990 Q23
Discus the role played by telecommunication service in modern society.

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2. 1992 Q24b
Explain the impact of the development of transport and communication
network in Zimbabwe during the colonial period (1930).

3. 1994 Q3b
What has been the result of the development of telecommunication
Technology in the modern world?

4. 1996 Q5
List two forms of communication used to send messages to distant places in
the shortest possible time. (2marks)

5. 1996 Q3
a) Explain three ways in which Macadamised roads are an improvement
to road transport. (3marks)
b) What were the results of the development of railway transport in
Europe up the end of the Nineteenth century? (12marks)

6. 1998 Q6
Give one way in which poor transport network hinders industrialization in the
Third World countries. (1 mark)

7. 1998 Q20
(a) Describe the results of the development of railway transport during the
nineteenth century (5 marks)
(b) Discuss ways through which the modern society has benefited from the
development in telecommunications (10 marks)

8. 2000 Q3, 4
3. State two characteristics of the Macadamized roads (2 marks)
4. Give one advantage of drum beating as a form of communication over the
use of smoke signals in Africa during the pre- colonial period (1 mark)

9. 2001 Q4
Identify one way in which invention of the wheel promoted early transport.
(1 mark)
10. 2001 Q 14
State tow ways in which poor transport systems have contributed to food
shortages in Africa. (2marks)

11. 2002 Q 11
State two effects of the development of railway transport in the nineteenth

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 century

12. 2003 Q18a

(a) Give three developments that have taken place in road transport
systems since 1750. (3 marks)

13. 2004 Q5
Give two disadvantages of human transport. (1 mark)

14. 2004 Q7
State one advantage of the telephones as a means of communication. (1 mark)

15. 2005 Q2
Give two advantages of using the steam engine in the transport industry
in the 19th Century (2 marks)

16. 2005 Q4, 5

4. Identify one form of picture writing during the early civilizations (1mark)
5. State two advantages of cinemas (2 marks)

17. 2006 Q 4
Identify two improvements which were made on macadamized roads in
the Nineteenth century. (2marks)

18. 2006 Q19

a) Give three factors which should be considered when sending a message.
(3marks)
b) Explain the effects of Telecommunications on modern society. (12marks)

19. 2007 Q5, 6

5. State one disadvantage of using a messenger to pass on information.
(1mark)
6. State the main advantage of using air transport. (1mark)

20. 2008 Q6
State two disadvantage of using fire and smoke signals as a means of
communication (2marks)

21. 2008 Q18

a) Give three ways in which the invention of the wheel revolutionised
transport in Europe before the 19th Century (3marks)

b) What are the disadvantages of using air transport (12marks)

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22. 2009 Q7
Give two means of water transport used during the ancient times. (2marks)

23. 2010 Q5
State one advantage of using the pipeline over vehicles in transporting oil.
(1 mark)
24. 2011 Q4
State two limitations of using animal transport (2marks)

25. 2012 Q6 P2
State two negative effects of the development of motor vehicle transport. (2 marks)
26. 2013 Q7 P2
Identify two modern means of print media. (2marks)

27. 2014 Q4, 5, 6, 7 P2

4. Give the main reason why the camel was preferred as the means of transport
during the Trans-Saharan Trade. (1 mark)

5. Outline one role that was played by the middlemen during the
Trans-Atlantic Trade. (1 mark)

6. Give two benefits of the development of the railway transport in Europe

during the 19th century. (2 marks)

7. State two advantages of using fire and smoke signals to pass message in
traditional societies.
(2 marks)
28. 2015 Q5-6 P2
5. Give two features of the Roman roads by 300 AD (2 marks)

6. State one advantage of horn blowing as a means of communication

during the pre-colonial period (1 mark)
29. 2015 Q20 P2
(a) Identify five forms of print media used in communication. (5 marks)
(b) Explain five positive effects of telecommunication in society. (10 marks)

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COMMUNICATION
Meaning:
It refers to the sending and receiving of messages or information through a medium.
The following factors must be considered when selecting a means of communication or sending
a message:
i) The urgency of the message/ speed. Messages which are urgent must be sent through
faster means.
ii) The availability of communication facilities or means
iii) The distance between the sender and the receiver of the message
iv) The language of the receiver. Both the sender and the receiver must be aware of the
language used.
v) The cost of sending the message which is determined by how important the message is
vi) The geographical factors in which the receiver is operating from
vii) The complexity/simplicity/clarity of the message
Traditional Forms of Communication
The following were some of the early forms of communication:
a) Gestures
They refer to signals or body movements intended to pass a message. It may also be referred to
as sign language.
b) Fire and Smoke signals
A fire or beacon was lit on raised grounds, where it could be seen from a distance.
They were used to warn people of impending danger or attack and to locate direction.
Advantages of fire and smoke signals
• Fire and smoke signals conveyed messages faster
• It was a cheaper method of passing a message
• They were confidential as messages were coded for the users
• Messages cold reach many people due to its visibility
Disadvantages of using fire and smoke signals
• Its effectiveness depended on weather as it was difficult to start fire in wet conditions
• It can only be used to cover short distances

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• The message could be missed if no one is on the lookout/limited to sighted people
• They conveyed limited range of messages
c) Drum Beats
Drum beats were used to relay information over long distances especially among the African
communities.
They were used to announce village festivities, weddings, deaths or even to summon warriors to
assemble in a square.
Advantages of drum beats
• They could relay a wide range of messages
• The message was conveyed faster
• They could be used at any time, day or night, wet or dry season
• Messages could reach many people
d) Messengers or Runners
Chiefs and kings relied on messengers or runners to deliver urgent lengthy and confidential
messages.
The accuracy of the message depended on the memory of the messenger who always travelled on
foot. With the development of writing the runners could carry written messages.
Advantages of use of Messengers
• They could be used to send more detailed and confidential messages
• The messages could reach the specific intended recipients
Disadvantages of messengers
• It was very slow in sending messages
• One could give wrong message or forget the message
• One can die on the way or be killed by wild animals
• Distant covered by the messenger was limited
• A person carrying verbal message can be tortured to reveal it.
e) Horn Blowing
They were used to make public announcements like when a ruler took office or when people
were summoned to important meetings
Advantages of horn blowing

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• It was used to send a variety of messages
• It could be used at any time of day or night
• It was used to send messages over long distances
Disadvantages of horn blowing
• The horn could be brown when on one was listening
• The privacy or confidentiality of the message was not assured
• Messages could not travel beyond hills and mountains
• Messages were restricted to those who knew the tones
f) Screams / Cries / Ululations
Screaming was effective mostly on hills or mountain tops because of echoing.
Wailing signified bad news, like death or attack by raiders. Ululations signified good news, like
birth of a new child or feasting.
Advantages of screams/ Cries / Ululations
• It was used to convey a wide range of messages
• It was faster
• It was a cheaper means of communication
Disadvantages of Streams / Cries / Ululations
• The distance covered by the message was limited
• Messages were not confidential
Early Forms of Written Messages
The following were some of the earl forms of written messages:
a) Scrolls
A scroll is a roll of paper used for writing. They were made in ancient Egypt by splitting, soaking
in water and drying papyrus reeds. Pens were also made from the reeds while ink was derived
from glue, gum and charcoal.
The Egyptians had a pictorial system of writing known as Hieroglyphics while the Sumerians in
Mesopotamia had Cuneiform
b) Parchments
These were writing materials made from dried skins of goats and other animals
c) Stone Tablets

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Writing was done on clay tablets using a wedge-shaped nibor stylus while the clay was still wet
and when the clay dried a record was left. The ancient Sumerians used this in Mesopotamia and
it was called Cuneiform.
Advantages of written Messages
• The message could be stored for future reference
• The messages were more accurate
• The message was reliable as it could not be easily forgotten
• Information could be translated into different languages so that it could reach many
people
Disadvantages of written messages
• It is only effective in communication among the literate people
• They were also open to misinterpretation
• The information may be biased depending on the writer's orientation
Developments in Modern Means of Communication
Modern means of communication are categorized into two:
a) Telecommunication
b) Print Media
a) Telecommunication
It refers to the sending and receiving of messages over long distances using electronic equipment
(Electro - magnetic waves or devices)
Devices used in Telecommunication
• The telephone
It carries sound over a distance using electric current. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell
who constructed a transmitter and a receiver in 1876.
• The Cellphone
The cellular or the mobile phone is a two-way radio system which connects the caller to the
telephone network using radio waves instead of wires
The mobile phone was invented by Dr Martin Cooper of the Motorola Company of the USA in
1973.
• Television

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Television technology sends picture and sound messages by radio from transmitting station to a
distant television set.
The first demonstration of a television was given by a Scottish Engineer, John Logie Baiird in
1925. Earlier, television sets operated on analogue mode which has been changed into digital
television. Digital migration was adopted worldwide from 2015 because of the following
reasons:
i) It requires less band width compared to analogue hence giving room to more channels
ii) It provides better quality pictures and sounds due to its high-definition system
iii) It provides other services such as interactive multimedia services and watching archived
programmes
iv) Viewers are able to access the internet via television
• Radio
It is a set device which receives electro -magnetic radio waves and changes them into sound
waves.
It was first demonstrated by a British scientist James Clerk Maxwell, followed by Heinrich Hertz
a German scientist who proved the existence of these waves in 1888. This technology was
further developed by Gugliemo Marconi in 1901.
• The Telegraph
It sends coded electronic messages by wire over long distances. Its use was made possible by the
discovery of electricity.
• Electronic Mail (e - mail)
It is the exchange of computer stored messages by telecommunication between connected
computers.
• Facsimile Trans - receiver
A fax is an image of a document made by electronic scanning and transmitted as a data by
telecommunication links.
• Telex
It sends and receives messages electronically which are printed in ordinary language.
• Pager
It is a portable communications message service
It delivers short radio messages and the messages are read on the pager's screen.
• Internet

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It is a huge, worldwide system of millions of interconnected networks. A computer is connected
to the internet by telephone in order to easily exchange information.
Advantages of Telecommunications
• They are fast and efficient means of communication
• They store information for future reference
• Information can be transmitted all over the world
• It enables transmission of messages to more than one recipient at the same time
• Information can be transmitted instantly
Disadvantages of Telecommunications
• They can only be used where there is electricity
• They rely on experts to operate
• They are expensive to buy install and maintain
• There use are limited to places where there is network and reception
Impact or effects of Telecommunications on the modern Society
The use of telecommunication has had far reaching positive and negative effects on the society.
a) Positive Effects
• It has promoted storage of information for future use or reference through the use of
computers, cloud storage or drop in box.
• It has facilitated faster transmission of information to different parts of the world
• It has promoted education programmes as information can be accessed online through e -
learning
• It provides entertainment as one can watch videos, play games or music
• It creates employment opportunities enabling people to improve their standard of living
• It has promoted trade through e - commerce / e-banking / advertisement hence making
transactions more effective
• It has enhanced security systems in many countries through gadgets like CCTV cameras
• It generates revenue to the government through taxation which enables it to undertake
development projects
• They promote water and air transport through the use of telecommunication devices to
guide the crew

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• They have promoted space exploration, weather forecasting and navigation leading to
better understanding of the outer space.
b) Negative effects
• Some means of telecommunication such as the internet erode moral values through
pornography
• The disposal of telecommunication gadgets may result in environmental pollution
• Continuous use of some means of telecommunication may be a health hazard
• It has promoted international social crimes such as fraud, drug trafficking and terrorism
• Telecommunication devices have addictive effect on users
• Most of the devices are expensive hence not accessible to many people
b) PRINT MEDIA
These refers to written and published documents which provide information such as newspapers,
newsletters, magazines, journals(periodicals), brochures, brails, pamphlets, posters and books.
• Newspapers
This is a document produced daily to disseminate information about significant local and
international current events. It also contains editorial, which is the official opinion of the
Newspaper on an issue of public interest.
• Magazines
A magazine is a regular publication providing specialized information on a particular issue. They
are usually bound within covers and published weekly, fortnightly or monthly.
• Periodicals
A periodical is a regular publication at weekly, monthly or quarterly intervals.
Advantages of print media
• They provide a permanent record of information for future reference
• They can be distributed in many parts of the world
• They can be translated into many languages
• They provide materials for reading and reference
• They provide detailed information
Disadvantages of print media
• They can only be used by the literate people

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• They are expensive to obtain hence inaccessible to many people
• They can be used to spread malicious propaganda
Impact of print media
i) They have enabled transmission of information all over the world
ii) They have promoted literacy and education through provision of reading and reference
materials
iii) They have created employment opportunities to many people
iv) They are a source of government revenue
v) They promote moral decadence through publication of obscene information
Impact of Modern Forms of Communication
Modern means of communication have had far reaching positive and negative effects on the
society
a) Positive Effects
i) It has promoted education programmes as information can be accessed online or through
print media or radios and television
i) They provide entertainment as one is able to watch video, play games, play music thereby
enabling positive use of leisure time
ii) It has promoted space exploration through the use of satellites technology thereby
improving our understanding of the universe
iii) It has improved water and air transport as ships and planes are constantly monitored
through telecommunication industry
iv) It has improved trade through e- commerce and advertising thus making transactions
more efficient
v) It creates employment opportunities enabling people to improve their living standard ads
by earning income
vi) It generates revenue to the government which enable it to undertake development
programmes
vii) It enhances security as crime could easily be detected using CCTV cameras
viii) It has facilitated faster transmission of information hence saves time
ix) It has improved weather forecasting hence helping in averting weather hazards like
hurricanes, typhoons and tornadoes
b) Negative effects

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i) It has promoted international crimes such as drug trafficking, terrorism, fraud and money
laundering
ii) It has led to erosion of moral values through the dissemination of pornographic materials
iii) It has contributed to noise pollution especially through high and loud volume by radio
and TV
iv) They have promoted addictive tendencies as users spend long hours to watch TV and
play computer games
v) Exposure to radioactive rays through mobile phones, computers and other
telecommunication devices may be harmful to people's health.
vi) They have revolutionized warfare thereby making wars more destructive
REVISION QUESTIONS ON TRANSPORT

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DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY
Introduction
Meaning of Industry
Industry refers to the skill of making other products from raw materials
It is an economic activity concerned with extraction and processing of raw materials into finished
products.
Among the early industries of man includes;
• Tool making
• Pottery/ basketry
• Cloth making
• Wood carving
• Boat making
• Iron working
Early Sources of Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. It is a basic requirement in the development of industry
The following were some of the early sources of energy:
a) Wood
Wood is the earliest source of energy developed by man after the discovery of fire.
Advantages of wood as a source of energy
• It was cheap to obtain
• It was readily available from natural forest
• It was a renewable source as trees which were cut down regenerated
Disadvantages of wood as a source of energy
• It produces smoke that polluted the environment
• Continued use of wood leads to deforestation
• It is cumbersome to use
• Use of wood is affected by rain
b) Wind
Wind is moving air with the capacity to create energy on objects upon contact.

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Uses of wind as a source of energy
• It was used to winnow grains
• Used to dry grains
• It was used to propel or drive boats or sailing ships
• To drive wind mills for grinding grains
To drive water pumps
Advantages of wind as a source of energy
• It was cheap to obtain
• It was naturally available
• It was a renewable source of energy
• It was a clean source of energy
Disadvantages of wind as a source of energy
• It was unreliable since it was not always available
• It was irregular as it was influenced by the prevailing weather and topography
• Excessive wind could result in destruction of life and property
c) Water
When water drops from a cliff or over a fall, it can be harnessed to generate power because of
high speed.
Uses of water in industries
• To turn water wheels for grinding grains into flour
• To turn spinning machines in textile industries
• To produce steam power to drive machines
• To cool machines
• To clean or wash machines
Advantages of water as a source of energy
• It was a cheap source of energy
• It was a renewable source of energy
• It was easy to tap and use
• It is a clean source of energy

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• It was readily available in certain regions
Disadvantages of water as a source of energy
• It depended on river levels which were influenced by rainfall
• Excessive water could result in destruction of life and property
• Flow of water depended on topography of land
Uses of Metals in Africa
The Metal Age
It refers to the period when mankind used metals to make items such as tools and weapons.
The metal age is divided into two:
• The Bronze Age
• The Iron Age
Before the age of metals people depended on stones to make items.
Advantages of metals over stones
• Metals were durable and could not break easily
• Metal tools were lighter compared to stone tools
• Cutting edges of metals could be sharpened
• Broken metals could be smelted and reworked into new useful items
The following metals were used in pre-colonial Africa
Gold Bronze Copper Tin Silver Iron
a) Gold
Gold was the earliest metal used by man. It was obtained from river beds or on earth’s surfaces.
Uses of Gold
• It was used in making utensils such as plates, cups and bowls
• It was used to make jewelry or ornaments such as rings and bangles
• It was used as a currency (medium of exchange)
• It was used as an item of trade in Central and West Africa
• It was used as a measure of wealth in Egypt
• It was used to make weapons such as swords and knife blades

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Advantages of Gold
• Gold was easily obtained on the surface of the earth and river beds
• Gold had a dark yellow attractive appearance
• It was easily moulded into different shapes as it was malleable
• It did not require much smelting as it was mined in almost pure form
Disadvantages of Gold
• It was not easily available in many parts of the world
• Tools made from gold easily bent as gold was a soft metal
b) Copper
It is a soft brown durable metal. It was first used by the ancient Egyptians in Africa.
Uses of copper in Pre- colonial Africa
• It was used in making utensils and containers such as pots and pans
• It was used for making ornaments such as bangles, rings, beads, anklets and bracelets
• It was used for making weapons such as daggers
• It was used in making tools such as axes, chisels, knives
• It was used as a trade item in many parts of Africa
• It was used in making alloys for metals such as Bronze
• It was used as a currency or as a medium of exchange
• It was used to make statues, hamlets, plagues among others
Advantages of copper
• It was easy to use in making tools as it was soft
• Copper tools were more durable than some other metals such as gold
• Copper mixes easily with other metals to produce stronger alloys
Disadvantages of copper
• Copper tools bend easily because copper was soft
• Copper was not easily available in many parts of the world
c) Bronze
Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. It was mainly used in Nigeria, Benin and Egypt

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Uses of Bronze in Pre- Colonial Africa
• It was used for making weapons such as shields, spears, arrowheads, daggers among
others
• It was used in making tools for various purposes
• It was used in making ornaments such as rings, bracelets and anklets
• It was used in making utensils such as containers, knives, pans and vases
• It was also used as an item of trade
Disadvantages of Bronze
• Bronze tools required frequent sharpening as they became blunt quickly
• Bronze tools were expensive as the mixture of copper and Tin were not always found at
the same place
• It was not easy to mix copper and tin in correct proportions
• Availability of copper and tin depended on trade which was not always possible during
war
NB: because of these limitations, there was need for alternative metal hence discovery of iron
The Iron Age in Africa
The Iron Age referred to the period when man relied on iron for purposes of making tools.
Theories about the origin of Iron Working in Africa
There are two theories that explain the origin of iron working in Africa:
a) Diffusion Theory/one area / Centrifugal Theory
This theory holds that the knowledge on iron working came from outside the continent. It
suggests that the knowledge of iron working was introduced into North Africa from the Middle
East by the Phoenicians and Assyrians.
From North Africa, the knowledge on iron working spread to West, Central and South Africa
b) Independent Development Theory
It holds that iron working developed independently in different parts of Africa. This theory is
supported by archaeological work in Buhaya in North West Tanzania, Kavirondo Gulf and
northern Uganda.
Factors which facilitated the spread of Iron working in Africa
The following factors facilitated the spread of iron working skills:

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• The migration of the Bantu who had acquired knowledge about iron working led to the
spread iron smelting skills in West, Central and Southern Africa
• Through trade; as traders crossed the Sahara from North Africa, they spread the
knowledge of iron working to the Kush and Chad basin
• It spread through warfare for example, during the inter-tribal wars
• Intermarriages between communities led to the spread of iron working skills especially
those who married from families of blacksmiths
• Development of agriculture as better tools were made for cultivation so as to improve
food production
Uses of Iron in Pre - Colonial Africa
• It was used as a trade item as smithers exchanged iron bars for other goods
• It was used for making weapons such as spears and arrows
• It was used in making farm tools such as hoes, axes and machetes.
• It was used as a medium of exchange (used as a currency)
• It was also used to make house hold items such as knives, blades, among others
• Some kingdoms used iron to make artistic designs such as sculpture
The Impact of Iron Working in Africa
Iron working had the following effects in Africa during the pre - colonial period:
• The use of iron tools made cultivation of land easier as they were efficient
• The use of iron tools increased food production since more land was brought under
cultivation
• Iron tools were used to clear forests thereby enabling people to migrate and settle in new
areas
• Iron weapons were used to fight other communities thereby increasing warfare and
conflicts
• The demand for iron tools enhanced trade between communities; iron implements were
also used as medium of exchange thereby facilitating trade
• It led to the building and expansion of kingdoms as iron weapons were used to conquer
weaker communities
• It led to the rise of professional smiths who were accorded high status in the community
• It led to the development of various towns in Africa such as Meroe which had large
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• Widespread use of iron led to the decline in the use of other metals like Bronze and
Copper
The Industrial Revolution
Meaning:
It refers to the rapid economic and technological changes which saw the replacement of cottage
(home) industries with the factory system in Europe from the 18th century.
The Industrial Revolution in Europe occurred in two phases:
a) The First phase (old phase) from 1750 - 1850
b) The Second phase (new phase) 1850 to the present day
Features or Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution in Europe was marked by the following features or characteristics:
• The use of machines which replaced human and animal labour
• The rise of the factory system, which replaced the cottage (home) industry
• Mass production of goods due to the use of machines
• Continuous production of goods with workers organized in shifts
• Development of science and application of scientific knowledge in production
• Development in trade as manufactured goods were sold locally and abroad
• The development of better forms of transport such as railways, roads and water
• The use of new sources of energy such as steam, coal, electricity and oil
Uses of Various sources of Energy
The emergence of large-scale factory production necessitated the use of new sources of energy
such as:
a) Coal
It is a mineral of vegetable origin used as fuel. It is obtained from either underground or surface
mines.
Uses of coal during the Industrial Revolution
i) It was used to heat water to produce steam
ii) To provide lighting
iii) To drive steam engines
iv) To drive locomotives

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v) To produce coke
vi) Used as a raw material in the manufacture dyes and pharmaceuticals
Disadvantages of coal
i) It was bulky hence difficult to transport
ii) It caused environmental pollution
iii) It was expensive to mine and transport
iv) It is a non- renewable source of energy
v) Mining of coal can lead to death or injuries to the miners
NB: coal was the main source of energy during the early period of the Industrial Revolution due
to the following reasons:
• It was a cheap source of energy
• It was available in large quantities
• It was more efficient than other sources of energy
b) Oil
Oil or petroleum is a drilled mineral. Oil is the main source of energy especially from the 19th
Century.
Uses of oil during the Industrial Revolution
i) It was used for domestic lighting, like kerosene
ii) To power or drive motor vehicles, aero planes and ships
iii) It was used to run factory and domestic machinery
iv) It was used in lubrication of machinery
v) It was used to provide power to produce thermal electricity
vi) Its by product tar, was used in the tarmacking of roads
vii) It was used in Petro - chemical industries to make plastics and synthetic fiber
Advantages of oil
i) It was cheaper than the other sources of energy
ii) It was easy to transport through the use of pipeline unlike coal
iii) It can be used for various purposes
iv) It was convenient as it can be purchased in various quantities

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Disadvantages of oil
i) It is a non-renewable source of energy
ii) It caused environmental pollution
iii) It is highly inflammable hence may cause accidents
iv) Prospecting and extraction of oil is expensive
v) It was expensive to the non - producing countries
c) Steam
Steam is harnessed by boiling water to turn it into gas. The use of steam power began in the First
Century BC when the Hero of Alexandria used steam power to open the massive doors of
temples in Egypt.
Uses of Steam
i) It was used to pump water out of coal mines
ii) Used in driving early locomotives and steam ships
iii) It was used to drive heavy machinery in the factories
iv) It was used in driving turbines that generated electricity for industrial use
v) It was used for driving, spinning and weaving machines in the textile industry
Advantages of steam
i) It was readily available from heated water
ii) It did not pollute the environment
iii) It was used for various purposes such as driving locomotives and generation of electricity
iv) It produced a lot of energy compared to any other source available at that time
Disadvantages of steam
i) It was an expensive source of energy as its generation depended on coal
ii) It was only suitable for heavy machinery in factories and not for domestic use
iii) Steam engines were huge and cumbersome hence not adaptable to many uses
d) Electricity
Electricity is transmitted through cables. The use of electricity became popular after the
invention of electric dynamo by Michael Faraday in 1831.
Uses of Electricity

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i) Used for driving machines in factories
ii) It was used in lighting
iii) It was used in cooking/heating
iv) It was used in powering telecommunication gadgets
v) Used in running electric trains
Advantages of electricity
i) It was a clean source of energy
ii) It was convenient for many uses
iii) It can be easily transported through the use of electric cables
iv) It can be generated from various sources such as water, petrol, atomic, nuclear and
geothermal machines
v) Its use can be controlled through power rationing when not enough
vi) Electric cables were flexible as they could be installed as per specific requirements such
as for cooking, lighting, heating among others
Disadvantages of Electricity
i) Potential sites for its generation is limited
ii) It requires well trained personnel for installation and maintenance
iii) It is expensive to generate and distribute
iv) It can cause fire or destruction of property
v) It can electrocute hence cause loss of life
NB: The use of electricity in industries in Europe in the 19th Century had the following effects:
i) It lowered the cost of production since it was a cheaper source of energy
ii) Work was carried out for long hours as there was light
iii) It enabled goods to be produced quickly and in large quantities
iv) Work became lighter as machines operated efficiently
v) Transportation was made easy and faster
vi) There was a clean working environment in factories
vii) It led to the ___location of industries away from sources of energy

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Uses of Iron and Steel
Iron is a mineral obtained from ferrous ores. It was used during the Industrial Revolution in the
making of a number of items.
Uses of Iron during the Industrial Revolution
• Used in making of water pipes
• Used in making of machines
• Used in making steam engines
• It was used in the construction of bridges
• Used in the construction of trains, railway lines and ships
• Used for making of ox-drawn ploughs
Disadvantages of Iron
• It could not be relied on making heavy machinery because it was weak
• It was too heavy to transport
• It easily rusted when exposed to moisture
NB: Scientific technologies of the Industrial Revolution led to the production of steel from iron
Uses of steel
i) Construction of storied buildings
ii) Making utensils such as sauce pans, food containers and cutlery
iii) Construction of railways and bridges
iv) Used in manufacturing machinery and motor vehicles
v) Making of surgical instruments
vi) Used in building of ship
Advantages of steel over iron
i) Steel did not rust
ii) Steel was strong compared to iron
iii) Steel was lighter compared to iron
iv) Steel could bend without breaking
Disadvantages of steel
i) It is expensive

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ii) All metals required metals for making steel were not always available
iii) It was difficult to mix the various metals in the correct proportions to produce good
quality steel
Industrialization in Britain
Britain was the first European country to undergo industrialization. Up to 1870,she was the most
powerful country in the world.
Factors that facilitated Industrialization in Britain
The following factors facilitated the industrialization in Britain;
i) Early Scientific Inventions - inventions in the textile industry such as; The Flying Shuttle
by John Kay, the Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves, the Water Frame by Richard Arkwright,
the Spinning Mule by Samuel Crompton, the Power Loom by Edmond Cartwright, the Cotton
Gin by Eli Whitney and the Cylindrical Calico Printing Machine by Thomas Bell
ii) Availability of capital which she accumulated from trade which she invested in the
industries
iii) Availability of raw materials from her colonies such as Sugarcane, Cocoa, Palm oil
among others also facilitated industrial development.
iv) Availability of adequate sources of energy such as coal HEP and Atomic energy also
promoted industrialization
v) Availability of skilled and unskilled human labour provided by her large population
encouraged industrial growth
vi) The large population provided a ready market for industrial products. Her overseas
colonies also provided external market for the industrial products
vii) The existence of well-developed roads and railway transport facilitated transportation of
raw materials to the factories as well as finished products to the markets
viii) Britain enjoyed a long period of political stability and peace which favoured
industrialization process
ix) The existence of well-established cottage industry provided a base for industrial
development
x) Government policy- the government encouraged a free and open-market economy hence
encouraging private sector investments. The government also removed all custom barriers that
could hinder industrial investment.
xi) The existence of varied mineral resources to sustain the process of industrialization such
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xii) Existence of good banking and insurance system also boosted industrialization as banks
provided credits and insurance provided security against loans
Industrialization in Continental Europe
European nations such as France, Germany, Russia and Belgium developed their industries after
Britain.
Factors that facilitated Industrialization in Continental Europe
• Political stability after the abolition of Feudalism. Germany and Italy were united and
Napoleonic rule came to an end in France
• Availability of raw materials from Agrarian Revolution as well as from their overseas
colonies
• Availability of both skilled and unskilled labour provided by the high population in these
countries
• Availability of adequate capital provided internally by rich traders and externally by
loans from Britain
• Existence of a well-developed transport system such as roads and railways facilitated
easy transportation of raw materials and finished products
• Existence of domestic and external market for manufactured goods. Internal market was
provided by the high European population
• Government policy - European governments supported industrialization through;
provision of subsidies; tax concessions and provision of industrial or technical education and
research
• Availability of various sources of energy such as coal, steam power and electricity
enhanced industrial growth
• European settlers sent their people to acquire scientific and technical skills from Britain
which improved their industries.
• Existence of banking and insurance services boosted the growth of industries
Effects of the Industrial Revolution in Europe
The Industrial Revolution had far reached social, economic and political effects on European
societies
a) Social effects
• The Industrial Revolution led to social stratification such as the upper class comprising of
the rich industrial owners and rulers; the middle class composed of professionals working in
factories and towns while the lower class consisted of unskilled workers.

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• It led to rural urban migration as many people migrated to towns to look for jobs leading
to overcrowding.
• It led to increase in population in Europe due to improvements in food supply and
medical services
• Increased population in towns led to shortage of housing thereby resulting into the
development of slums
• There was poor sanitation and congestion in towns which made many people to suffer
various diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid.
• Those who did not secure employment in the industrial towns engaged in crime and other
social evils
• There was growth in pauperism or state of begging due to high levels of unemployment
• It led to sound, air and water pollution as the factories emitted effluent waste into rivers
and seas
• There was wide spread exploitation of women and children as they worked for long hours
for little pay
b) Economic effects
• It led to increase in agricultural productivity due to the ready market for agro-products in
industrial towns, invention of artificial fertilizers and machines.
• It boosted transport and communication systems through construction of roads, railways,
waterways and air networks.
• It led to expansion of local and international trade as the industrial countries were looking
for markets for their products and sources of raw materials.
• It led to urbanization in Europe as many people migrated from rural areas to seek jobs in
factories. Places around factories grew into towns.
• The rise of the factory system led to the decline and collapse of cottage-based industries
• Increased migration of people to urban centers in such of employment led to serious
unemployment in towns
• European countries amassed a lot of wealth hence leading to improved living standards
• It promoted developments in science and technology as there was increased utilization of
scientific knowledge in production
• It led to increased exploitation of natural resources and exploitation of new sources of
energy such as electricity and solar energy
c) Political effects

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• It led to the scramble and partition of Africa as the colonies acted as markets, provided
raw materials and investment areas for surplus capital
• It led to the growth in power of the middle class, comprising of urban workers who
became vocal in demanding for reforms and took an active role in decision making process
• It led to the emergence of the Trade Union Movement in order to fight for the welfare of
the Industrial workers
• It led to the rise of Marxism; an ideology advocated by Karl Marx. It condemned
capitalism for its exploitative tendencies.
• It led to intensification of economic rivalry between European states which culminated
into the outbreak of the First World War.
• Mass unemployment offered a fertile ground for grievances and organizations opposed to
the state. This offered a base for violent revolutions which occurred in the 19th and 20th
Centuries.
The Scientific Revolution
Meaning
It refers to a period in history when man made many discoveries about the universe. These
discoveries and developments in science increased human knowledge and understanding.
The Revolution began in Europe during the Renaissance Period or rebirth of learning or
knowledge picking up from the time of ancient Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese and Romans.
During this period scholars gained new insight and knowledge and made many
discoveries/inventions
Early Scientific Inventions
The world ancient civilizations contributed in various fields of science such as medicine,
biology, chemistry and geometry.
Scientific inventions
From 1700, many scientific discoveries about the universe were made and this ushered the
Scientific Revolution.
Factors which facilitated the Scientific Revolution
• The need to solve various problems such as population explosion in Europe and control
diseases led to invention of machinery and promoted scientific research in medicine
• Governments and wealthy individuals provided funds to support scientific research
• The emergence of the Renaissance Period in Europe encouraged further learning and
scientific research.

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• The discovery of the printing press promoted the dissemination of scientific knowledge
and skills all over the world through publication of books, magazines and Journals.
• Overseas explorations and discoveries of new lands by explorers such as David
Livingstone encouraged interest in new spheres of knowledge and research
Key Personalities in the Scientific Revolution
The Impact of the Scientific Inventions
Scientific inventions had both positive and negative effects in the fields of Agriculture, Industry
and Medicine.
a) Impact on Agriculture
Positive effects:
• Use of fertilizers to improve soils has led high yields of crops
• The invention of machines such as tractors has quickened the agricultural process hence
promoting large scale farming
• The invention of food preservation methods like canning, refrigeration and pasteurization
has minimized loss of agricultural produce
• Improvement in infrastructure such as roads and railways led to effective marketing of
farm produce
• Cross breeding of crops and animals led to improved quality
• Use of pesticides in farming and bio technology has contributed to the development of
high yielding variety of crops and animal species
• Controlling of temperatures in storage rooms led to preservation of farm products for
long
Negative effects
• Continuous use of artificial fertilizers has led to soil impoverishment
• Use of hybrid species has led to loss of some traditional plant and animal species which
are more resistant to diseases
• Pesticides, fertilizers and other farm inputs are expensive hence lowering profits in the
agricultural sector
• Some Agro- chemicals like pesticides, fungicides and fertilizers are toxic hence harmful
to both plants and animals
b) Impact on Industry
Positive effects

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• The invention and use of machines in factories has led to mass production of goods
• Scientific research has led to the production of alternative sources of energy for industrial
use such as solar energy, methanol among others
• The invention of the printing press has led to mass production of books, newspapers,
magazines thus enabling people to acquire knowledge
• The invention of steam engine has improved transportation of raw materials to the
industries and finished products to the market
• Data storage and processing has been improved by use of computers
• Robots have been developed which have reduced over reliance on human labour hence
reducing the cost of production
• Development in telecommunication has led to the buying and selling of goods on the
internet (e- commerce)
• Research has enabled industries to recycle waste products in manufacturing usable goods
• It has led to development of satellites used in space exploration, photographing of earth's
surface and in weather forecasting
• Industries have created job opportunities to many people
Negative effects
• Development of industries has led to environmental pollution
• There has been loss of life due to industrial accidents and production of military hardware
• Use of machines in industries has led to loss of jobs
c) Impact on Medicine
Positive Effective
• It has led to eradication of killer disease, like small pox. This has led to a higher life
expectancy
• It has led to the invention preventive or curative medicine
• It has led to increase in population through reduction of mortality rates
• Advancement in medicine has helped relieve pain hence reducing human suffering
• It has made surgical operations safer thereby reducing the number of people who die
during and after operations
• The invention of the X-ray has made it possible to examine the extent of broken bones

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• The technology of developing test tube babies has helped childless couples to have
children
• It has made it possible for one to have a heart, liver and kidney transplant.
• It has led to job creation for medics and other workers who perform various duties in
health institutions
• It has led to the manufacture of drugs for treating different diseases
• The invention of vaccines has helped to prevent the spread of diseases leading to
increased life expectancy
Negative Effects
• It has led to loss of life through abortion
• It has weakened the immune system due to overdependence on drugs or drug abuse
• Drugs are sometimes expensive and beyond the reach of many people
• Careless disposal of used medical products cause harm to human beings
• Use of contraceptives has led to sexual immorality in the society
Emergence of Selected World Industrial Powers
The World Industrial powers are the most industrialized and developed countries of the world.
They include the United States of America, Russia, Germany, Japan and China.
The United States of America
The USA was a British colony until her independence in 1776. It is a federal republic of 50 states
and today she remains the only super power in the world after the disintegration of the former
USSR in 1990.
Factors that led to Industrialization in the USA
The following factors contributed to the Industrialization in the United States of America
• Good economic policies initiated by the government made many people to be involved in
business and diversified the economy
• Availability of raw materials such as cotton, wheat and tobacco from her advanced
agricultural sector
• American unity and long periods of political stability assured investors of security hence
paving the way for industrialization
• Presence of adequate sources of energy such as coal, oil, natural gas and HEP provided
the required power for industrialization

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• The existence of varied natural or mineral resources such as iron ore and copper to
sustain the process of industrialization
• She had abundant skilled and unskilled labour from both local population and immigrants
who worked in industries
• Availability of internal capital from her large wealthy population as well as external
capital from foreign investors promoted industrial development
• Availability of internal market from her large population as well as external market due
to her high-quality products promoted industrialization
• Scientific and technological inventions and discoveries in communication, astronomy and
medicine has enabled the USA to dominate the world economy
• The collapse of European economies during the Second World war enabled the USA to
extend her Industrial influence (goods) to Europe and other parts of the world.
Germany
Before 1871, Germany was not united as a nation under one leader. The many but small German
states had weak economies with inadequate labour.
Germany was united after the defeat of the French during the Franco - Prussian war of 1870 -
1871.
Factors that led to Industrialization in Germany
• Presence of adequate sources of energy such as coal, HEP and nuclear energy has
facilitated industrialization
• The existence of varied mineral resources such as coal and iron ore which were able to
sustain the process of industrialization
• Availability of external capital provided by the USA under the Marshall plan as well as
internal capital from her rich citizens boosted her industrial growth
• Germany had well developed transport system comprising of road, railway and water
transport which facilitated transportation of raw materials and finished products
• Availability of domestic market for her products from the large population as well as
external market due to her high-quality products
• She had a large population which provided skilled and unskilled labour for her industries
• The existence of hardworking and enterprising citizens promoted industrialization
• The government supported industries through the introduction of uniform custom system
(the Zollverein) thereby easing movement of goods from one state to another

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• Their existed long period of political stability in Germany after the unification in 1871.
This assured investor of security hence boosting Industrialization
Japan
Japan has made tremendous efforts towards industrialization especially after the Second World
War.
Factors that led to Industrial Revolution in Japan
• The government made education compulsory and encouraged research leading to
innovative ideas. People were encouraged to study abroad leading to technological advancement.
• The government policies such as abolishing feudalism and internal customs duty;
constructing modern railways and harbours boosted industrial growth.
• The development of hydro-electric power, solar and atomic energy provided much
needed power for industrialization.
• The prevailing peace and political stability promoted industrial development
• The culture of hard work and enterprising citizens encouraged local and foreign
investments
• Availability of capital from the rich citizens as well as loans from the USA promoted
industrial growth
• The improvement in transport systems through the construction of roads, railways and
harbours facilitated industrial growth
• Availability of external market due to her cheap and skillfully made products or high-
quality products
Industrialization in the Third World Countries
Introduction:
Third World Countries refers to the developing nations which depend on foreign aid for
development. They are mainly found in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Many of the Third World Countries have made significant progress towards Industrial
Development. Their efforts have been supported by the United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO)
a) South Africa
Many of the South Africans industries developed during the Apartheid period. The main
industries in South Africa includes; Iron and steel industries, Engineering, Locomotive,
Chemical, Textile, Cement and Tourism.
Factors that Contributed to Industrial Development in South Africa

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• The availability of many sources of energy such as HEP provided the required power for
industrialization
• The existence of varied mineral resources such as gold, diamond and coal sustained the
Industrialization process
• The presence of well-developed transport network facilitated the movement of raw
materials and finished products to the market
• The existence of both internal and external markets for her manufactured goods due to
her large population and high-quality goods
• Availability of both skilled and unskilled labour from her large population boosted
industrial growth
• The government's sound industrial policies which encouraged both local and foreign
investors to boost industrialization
• Availability of capital generated from South Africa trade in other goods has enabled her
to set up industries
• Political stability in the country since the end of apartheid era has created a conducive
environment for industrial development
Challenges Facing Industrialization in South Africa
• The imposition of economic sanctions which prevented her from trading with other
countries
• The long period of apartheid created an unconducive environment for industrialization
• Competition for more developed countries such as western European countries whose
manufactured goods were of better quality than those ones from South Africa
• Industrial strikes which were organized by trade unions led to closure of some industries
• High levels of poverty which created inadequate market for manufactured goods due to
low purchasing power
• Violence or xenophobia against foreigners has discouraged foreign investors
• HIV/AIDS has affected the workforce in industries thereby undermining industrial
production
• High incidences of insecurity or criminal activities which has been caused by
unemployment
• Inadequate infrastructure such as transport, insurance, communication and banking has
undermined industrial growth.
b) Brazil

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Brazil was a Portuguese colony until her independence in 1822. The major industries in Brazil
includes; motor vehicle, petrochemical and air craft.
Factors that have contributed to Industrial Development in Brazil
• Existence of raw materials for her industries such as coffee, rubber, cocoa maize and
fruits
• Availability of adequate sources of energy such as Hydro-electric power for her
industries
• Sound economic policies by the government encouraged both local and foreign
investments
• The government received financial aid from the United States of America which was
invested in heavy industries
• Improvement in transport infrastructure such as roads and railways facilitated
transportation of raw materials and manufactured goods to the market
• Availability of domestic capital provided by the government which was invested in
energy and transport
• The large population provided a ready domestic market for her industrial products. She
also had a wider external market in Latin America
• Availability of skilled and unskilled labour from her large population was a boon to
industrialization
• Development of efficient banking facilities facilitated provision of loans to local
investors
Challenges to Industrialization in Brazil
The following factors have hampered industrial development in Brazil;
• High levels of poverty have led to low purchasing power and hindered investments
• Poor transport systems characterized by poor roads especially in the rural areas, has led to
under exploitation of natural resources
• Huge foreign debts have also undermined investment in the industries
• Brazilian industrial products face stiff competition from already industrialized nations
such as the USA, Britain, France and Germany
• Poor levels of technology have led to ineffective exploitation of her rich natural resources
hence undermining industrial development
• Foreign multinational companies repatriate profits back to their mother countries thereby
denying the country much needed revenue for industrial investment

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c) India
India is one of the most industrialized countries in the Third World.
India was a British colony and attained independence in 1947. Some of the industries found in
India includes; Iron and Steel industry, Chemical industry, Textile, Motor Vehicle, Aircraft and
Mining industries.
Factors that contributed to Industrial development in India
• The existence of cottage industries laid the foundation for industrial development as
people acquired relevant skills
• The provision of technical and scientific education emphasized by the government
produced skilled labour force required in the industries
• The country has enjoyed long periods of political stability which has encouraged foreign
investments
• The provision of loans to local investors by the government facilitated the expansion of
industries
• The development plans adopted by the government emphasized on industrialization
thereby giving impetus to the sector
• The availability of various sources of energy required enabled the establishment of more
industries
• Good transport system made transportation of goods cheaper thereby encouraging
investments
• The existence of mineral resources which were used as raw materials to establish more
industries
• The large population provided both skilled and unskilled labour needed by the industries
• Existence of both domestic and external markets within the Third World Countries has
also promoted industrialization
• The availability of funds provided by foreign governments enabled the country to set up
industries
Challenges Facing Industrialization in India
• High poverty levels in India has led to low purchasing power hence undermining
industrial development
• The spread of HIV/AIDS has negatively affected the domestic market and labour force
• Poor transport system undermines transportation of raw materials and finished products
to the market

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• The country has huge foreign debt thereby denying the industrial sector of much needed
investments
• Stiff competition from products from developed countries such as the USA, Japan among
others
• Political conflicts especially with Pakistan and sectarian unrests has led to the diversion
of huge financial resources at the expense of industrial development
• Frequent occurrence of natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes which destroys
infrastructure hence disrupting industrial activities
• The high poor population in the country makes the government to spend a lot of money
on provision of social services such as health and education at the expense of industrial
development
• Brain-drain; skilled manpower in India leaves the country for better terms in countries
such as the USA
Problems Hindering Industrialization in the Third World
The following problems have hindered industrialization in the Third World Countries:
• Inadequate capital due to high levels of poverty has led to reliance on foreign loans which
attracts high interest rates hence undermining industrial development
• Shortage of skilled manpower due to poor education systems has led to over reliance on
foreign expatriates who are expensive to hire and maintain
• Poor transport systems have undermined the transportation of raw materials and finished
products to the market
• Third World Countries faces stiff competition from high quality and cheaply produced
goods from developed economies
• High poverty levels have contributed to low purchasing power hence undermining
industrial development
• Political instability characterized by civil wars, military coups and conflicts have
disrupted industrial activities
• Inappropriate expenditure especially in buying military hardware for defense and security
has undermined investment in industries
• Natural calamities such as drought, earthquakes, floods and epidemics such as
HIV/AIDS, Ebola and Covid-19 has consumed huge financial resources at the expense of
industrial development
Solutions to Challenges Facing Industrialization in the Third World
• Provision of capital and cheap credit to their people, to establish industries

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• Improve purchasing power of their people by increasing incomes
• Boost and encourage regional co-operation for a wider industrial market
• Encourage industrial investments by giving incentives and protection of local
manufacturing sectors
• Develop and extend transport/communication infrastructure
• Promoting good governance and democratization to enhance political stability
• Provide a conducive environment to attract foreign investment
• Develop early warning systems to reduce the impact of natural calamities
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1990 Q 21
a) Give four inventions that improved textile manufacturing it Britain
during the industrial revolution.
b) State six reasons why the industrialization revolution first took place in Britain.

c) State six economic effects of the industrial revolutions in Europe.

d) State four social problems brought about by the Industrial Revolution in Europe

2. 1993 Q22
a) State 5 uses of copper in pre-colonial Africa
b) Explain impact of iron technology from the people of Africa

3. 1993 Q27b
Explain six factors which have contributed to the rise of China as a powerful
nation

4. 1994 Q4
a) State five factors which have facilitated industrialization in the third world
countries

b) Explain five ways in which industrialization in the third world

countries has affected them

5. 1995 Q 4
a) State three ways in which the industrial revolution contributed to urbanization
In Europe
b) Explain six factors which led to emergence of USA as an industrial revolution

6. 1996 Q4

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 Identify one use of bronze in Ancient Benin (1marks)

7. 1996 Q15 (Sect B)

a) In what ways did the development of the steam engine contribute to the
growth of industries in Europe during the nineteenth century. (3marks)

b) Explain six factors which led to the emergence of Japan as an

industrial power after the second world war. (12marks)

8. 1997 Q4
Identify three uses of bronze in the kingdom of Benin (3marks)

9. 1997 Q6
What was the main source of energy during the early period of the Industries
revolution in Europe?

10. 1997 Q11

State two government policies which have contributed to industrialization in
India (2 marks)

11. 1997 Q 16
(a) Describe the working conditions of factory workers in Britain during the
industrial revolution (5 marks)
(b) What factors favoured the development of industries in Britain by 1850?
(10 marks)
12. 1998 Q 4,5
State two scientific discoveries in the field of medicine in the nineteenth century
(2 marks)
Identify the main source of industrial energy in Europe from the mid
twentieth century. (1 mark)

13. 1998 Q18

(a) In what ways did overseas colonies contribute to the expansion of
industries in Europe? (3 marks)
(b) Discuss the problem which the European society faced as a result of
industrialization (12 marks)

14. 1999 Q 3,4

3. Give one main reason why trade union movements were formed in Europe
during the nineteenth century (1 mark)
4. Identify two scientific discoveries during the nineteenth century which
contributed to food preservation (2 marks)

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15. 1999 Q 5
State two inventions during the eighteenth century which improved textile
industry in Britain (2 marks)

16. 1999 Q13

Show two ways in which the industrial Revolution in Europe promoted
European colonization of Africa. (2 marks)

17. 1999 Q18

(a) Describe the uses of gold in ancient Egypt
(b) Explain how the discovery of iron in Africa affected people’s lives in the
continent.

18. 2001 Q 3
State two uses of bronze in early Egypt. (2 marks)

19. 2001 Q8
Give two reasons why coal was used as the main source of industrial power in
Britain during the industrial Revolution.

20. 2001 Q13,21

13. Identify one way in which the industrial Revolution contributed to
colonization of colonization of Africa by Europeans

21. a) Which scientific inventions of the twentieth century have led

to a reduction in death rates? (5marks)

b) Explain the positive impact of scientific inventions on industry.

(10marks)
21. 2002 Q6
Give one disadvantage of using coal as a source of industrial energy during
the nineteenth century. (1 mark)

22. 2002 Q 9,10

9. Give two inventions that improved textile manufacturing industry in
Britain in the eighteenth century. (2 marks)
10. State one contribution of Joseph Lister in the field of medicine in the
nineteenth century (1 mark)

23. 2002 Q19

(a) What factors led to the industrialization in German in the 19th century?
(b) Explain five results of the industrial Revolution in Europe during the
19th century

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24. 2003 Q3
State two disadvantages of using coal as a source of industrial energy (2 marks)

25. 2003 Q18b

(b) Explain six ways through which the invention of the railway speeded up
industrialization in Europe. (12 marks)

26. 2004 Q3
Give two uses of Bronze in Mesopotamia. (2 marks)

27. 2004 Q6
Give two contributions of the inventions of the steam to industry in the 18th
century in Europe. (2 marks)

27. 2005 Q8
Identify two economic effects of industrial revolution in North America
(2 marks)
28. 2005 Q20a
(a) What were the effects of using electricity in industries in Europe during
the 19th century? (5 marks)

29. 2006 Q 5,6

5. State two advantages of use of electricity in industries during the industrial
Revolution (2marks)
6. State the main contribution of the discovery of chloroform in the field
of medicine. (1 mark)

30. 2007 Q 4
Identify two early sources of energy. (2 marks)

31. 2008 Q 4
Identify two uses of copper in Africa during the 19th Century.

32. 2009 Q 4,5

4. Identify the greatest contribution of Michael Faraday in the field of science
(1mark)
5. Give the main use of steam power during the industrial revolution in Europe
(1mark)
33. 2009 Q6
State two disadvantages of using wood as a source of energy. (2marks)

34. 2009 Q19

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 (a) Identify three ways in which water was used in industries during the18th
century. (3marks)
(b)Explain six local effects of the industrial revolution in Europe during the
18th century (12marks)

35. 2010 Q 4
Name two metals that were used as currency in pre-colonial Africa. (1 mark)

36. 2010 Q 19
a) Give three problems faced by factory workers in Europe during the
Industrial revolution. (3 marks)
b) Expalin six factors that have promoted industrialization in South Africa
(12 marks)
37. 2011 Q19a
State three disadvantages of coal as a source of energy (3marks)

38. 2012 Q7 P2
Give two inventions that revolutionalized the textile industry in Britain
during the 18th Century. (2 marks)

39. 2012 Q19 P2

a) Give three uses of wind as a source of energy in ancient times. (3 marks)
(b) Explain six effects of iron working technology on African communities
before the 19th century. (12 marks)

40. 2013 Q5P2

Identify the earliest method of trade used during the Trans-Saharan Trade. (1mark)

41. 2013 Q19 P2

(a) Identify five uses of coal during the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
(5marks)
(b) Explain five effects of scientific inventions on medicine. (10marks)

42. 2014 Q19 P2

(a) Give three uses of electricity in Europe during the 19th century. (3 marks)
(b) Explain six factors which promoted industrial revolution in India. (12 marks)

43. 2015 Q6 P2
Identify the main sources of energy used in the early stages of
Industrial Revolution in Europe (1 mark)
44. 2015 Q7 P2
State one advantage of using steel over iron during the Industrial
Revolution in Europe. (1 mark)

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URBANIZATION

Meaning of urbanization
It refers to the process by which people migrate and settle in urban centres.
Early urbanization in Africa
Factors that contributed to Early Urbanization in Africa
The following factors contributed to development of early urban centres in Africa:
• Trading activities; trading centres developed into towns such as Sofala, Kilwa, Timbuktu
among others
• Security; some towns were located on Islands or hilltops since they offered natural
defense against attacks. Such towns included Mombasa
• Administration; The areas where rulers such as kings or emperors had their headquarters
grew into urban centres because of the high number of people who served the kings, soldiers and
those who visited them
• Mining Activities; Areas with mineral deposits such as iron ore, gold and salt grew into
towns like Meroe and Taghaza
• Education; the presence of major centres of education such as universities contributed to
the growth of towns such as Timbuktu, Fez among others
• Religion; Religious activities contributed to the development of urban centres such as
Timbuktu in the kingdom of Mali
• Availability of water; Urban centres grew around fresh water sources like rivers, springs
and oases
• Agriculture; Places with fertile soils attracted huge settlements because of adequate food
supply such as the Nile Valley
• Presence of ports or deep harbours; ports and deep harbours which were used as calling
stations for replenishments led to the growth of towns such as Malindi.
Early Urban centres in Africa
Among the early urban centres in Africa include; Cairo, Meroe and Kilwa.
Cairo
The city of Cairo developed from 969 Ad when the Fatimid dynasty from Tunisia conquered
Egypt

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Factors that led to the Growth and Development of Cairo
i) Agriculture; it was located in the Nile Delta which provided water for irrigation hence
adequate food supply
ii) Religion; The city was a major religious centre with several mosques for worship
iii) Education; It was a centre for higher learning with several universities such as the
University of Cairo and Azher University
iv) Trade; It was one of the principle cities of the Trans - Saharan trade with commodities
such as cotton, linen and gold being traded
v) Presence of harbor; Its ___location on the Nile enabled it to serve as a harbor that links upper
Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea
vi) Development of industries; the presence of industries like food processing and
construction attracted people to Cairo
vii) Administrative activities; effective administration led to the levying of taxes which were
used for the construction of public works and payment of soldiers
viii) Development of transport; with the construction of roads and railways in the 19th century
as well as the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 enhanced linkage to Europe leading to its
growth
Functions of Cairo
i) It was an administrative capital of Egypt, where the Pharaohs ruled from
ii) It was a centre for trade and commerce in agricultural and industrial materials
iii) It served as an education centre for the Egyptians and the Arab world with various
universities such as the Al- Azhar university
iv) It was a cultural centre for the Egyptian civilization manifested through the construction
of pyramids
v) It was a religious centre for Muslim pilgrims with a number of mosques
vi) It was also an industrial centre
Meroe
It was located in the ancient kingdom of Kush between the White Nile and the Atbara rivers. It
became the capital of Kush after the destruction of the previous capital Napata by the Egyptians
in 593 BC.
Factors that contributed to the growth of Meroe city

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i) It was an iron working centre.
ii) It had abundant wood fuel which facilitated iron working
iii) Agriculture; the town was located on a rich agricultural land which contributed to high
food production
iv) Religion; the development of Meroetic religion based on the worshiping of a Lion-god
Apedemek which attracted pilgrims
v) Development of industries; such as iron working, cloth making and pottery
vi) Strategic ___location; It was located on the junction of transport routes with easy access to
the Red Sea and the Nile.
Social effects of the growth of Meroe
i) It led to the development of the Meroetic language which replaced the Egyptian language
previously used by the Nubian founders of Meroe
ii) Development of new architectural designs comprising of tombs, ruins of temples, palaces
and homes
iii) Development of the Meroetic religion centered on the worship of Lion-god (Apedemek)
Functions of Meroe
i) It was an administrative centre serving as the capital of the kingdom of Kush
ii) It was a major iron-smelting centre in the region
iii) It was a major centre for agriculture
iv) It was a trading centre in the Kingdom of Kush
v) It was a major religious centre where the Lion-god (Apedemek) was worshiped in
the Lion Temple
Factors for the Decline of Meroe
The city of Meroe began to decline from the fourth century AD due to the following factors:
i) The rise of Axum kingdom which developed East of Meroe denied Meroe access to the
Red sea causing decline in trade
ii) The attack and conquest by king Ezena of Axum in 350 AD
iii) Desertification due to deforestation led to decline in food supply for her people
iv) Exhaustion of forest due to charcoal burning and farming led to decline of iron
working industry
Reasons why the early urban centres in ancient Egypt developed along the Nile Valley

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i) Water from the river was used for transportation
ii) Water from the river was used for domestic and industrial use
iii) The Nile valley contained fertile soil for farming / availability of food
iv) The Nile valley had cool temperatures which encouraged settlement
v) Vegetation along the river provided building materials
Kilwa
The city of Kilwa was one of the numerous city states that developed along the East Africa Coast
by the 10th century AD. Its greatness was established in the 13th century AD the Shirazi rulers
from Persia
Factors for the Growth of Kilwa
i) It developed mainly because of its control of the Sofala gold trade which gave the Island
a measure of economic power
ii) Strategic ___location; the town was located on an island hence secure from attacks
iii) Religion; Islamic religion was used by the rulers to unify the people especially during
war
iv) Effective administration; the Shirazi leaders established the Shirazi dynasty thus
providing able leadership
Functions of the ancient city of Kilwa
i) It was a major trading centre in the Indian Ocean Trade
ii) It was a religious centre for the Muslims
iii) It was an administrative centre which housed palaces for the rulers such as Husuni
Kubwa
iv) It was an industrial centre
v) It was a major transport centre serving as a link between the coast and southern Tanzania
NB: the city of Kilwa began to decline during the 15th century due to the following factors:
i) The disruption of the gold trade due to civil wars
ii) There was dynastic rivalries caused by competition for power by some royal families
iii) Constant rebellion by the vassal states which weakened the city state
iv) Attack, conquest and eventual occupation by the Portuguese
Early Urbanization in Europe

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Urbanization in Europe developed following the Greek and Roman influence. Among the early
urban centres in Europe included London and Athens.
London
London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and is located on the banks of River Thames. It
was established by the Romans in the First Century AD.
Factors for the growth of London
The following factors contributed to the growth of the city of London:
• Trading activities; it was a major trading centre between the locals and the Romans
• Strategic ___location; It was located on the banks of River Thames which enabled it to
access both the interior and the sea leading to its growth
• Religious activities; it was a major religious centre with several Cathedrals and
Monasteries such as St. Paul's Cathedral. It was therefore able to attract religious pilgrims
leading to its growth
• Educational Activities; the city had numerous public schools such as Charterhouse, St.
Paul's and the city of London for the children of the poor.
• Efficient Administration; it was a major administrative centre for the Roman Empire with
several courts and parliament
• Construction; the city had well established building industry with the construction of Old
London bridge, fine palaces, Cathedrals and Monasteries. These constructions drew a continuous
flow of builders to the city hence it's growth.
• Development of Industries; the existing textile industries attracted industrial workers
during the Industrial Revolution.
• Cultural Activities; It was a focal point for the British and Roman culture with major
theatres where great Thespians like William Shakespeare staged their plays.
Functions of London as an early urban centre
• It served as the capital city of the United kingdom and administrative centre of the city
government of London
• It was a major trading or commercial centre in Europe
• It was a cultural centre with various sporting and theatre facilities
• It was an educational centre with several schools and Universities
• It was a major religious centre with several Cathedrals, churches and Monasteries
• It was an industrial centre with several industries and factories

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• It was a financial centre with several banking and financial institutions
Athens
The city of Athens is the modern capital city of Greece. It was located at its highest point for
purposes of security.
The city is surrounded by four mountains.
There existed four social classes in Athens:
i) The highest social class comprised of the wealthiest citizens. They paid the most tax and
magistrates were drawn from amongst them
ii) The second class provided cavalry for the army
iii) The third class provided soldiers for the infantry
iv) The lowest class was composed of the slaves who paid no taxes
Factors for the of Athens as an early urban centre in Europe
• Security; It was surrounded by mountains and sea making it secure from attacks by
enemies
• Trade; The city of Athens engaged in trade selling wine, olive oil and wool in exchange
for grains.
• Education; It was a centre of learning and art which attracted many people. It was known
for its Philosophers and scientists such as Plato, Socrates, Archimedes, Pythagoras, Hippocrates
and Aristotle.
• Religion; It was a centre of worship of the goddess Athena
• Culture; it was an important cultural centre with several theatres which attracted many
people leading to its growth
• Efficient administration; it was an administrative centre with a well-established
democracy
• Availability of food; there were valleys with fertile soils for food production
Functions of Athens
• It was a religious centre where the goddess Athena was worshipped
• It was an education centre where several philosophers taught
• It was a cultural centre for music, arts and theatre
• It was a sports centre with well-developed gymnasiums where games such as running,
wrestling, jumping and discus were taught

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• It was a major trading centre for wine, ceramics, oil, wood and grain
• It was a transport and communication centre
• It was a recreation centre as it provided entertainment in music
Emergence of Modern Urban Centres in Africa
The coming of the Europeans and their subsequent forays into the interior led to the
establishment of several urban centres in Africa. Such centres have expanded rapidly into large
cities such as Nairobi, Abuja and Johannesburg.
a) Nairobi
It is the capital city of the republic of Kenya and is situated on the Athi plains.
Factors for the Growth of Nairobi
• Cool Temperature; The city has a high altitude with cool temperature which favoured the
early settlement by Europeans
• Availability of water; It had adequate water provided by the Nairobi River and was useful
in the establishment of the early railway camp and workshops
• Trading Activities; Local trade among the Agikuyu and Masai and later the Arab -
Swahili caravan trade enhanced its growth
• Administration; the transfer of the colonial government headquarters from Mombasa to
Nairobi in
1907 led to the expansion of the city
• Suitable Landscape; it was located on a plain which favoured the construction of
buildings
• Rich Hinterland; The area around Nairobi had great economic potential for settler
farming activities
• Construction of the Uganda Railway attracted early settlements leading to the growth of
the city
Functions of Nairobi
The city of Nairobi performs the following important functions:
• It is an administrative centre being the capital city of Kenya and the headquarters the
Nairobi county and various organizations
• It is a commercial and financial centre with various financial institutions such as banks
and the Nairobi Stock Exchange

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• It is a transport and communication centre for East and Central Africa with railway, road
and airlinks to various parts of the region
• It is a tourist centre with various attractions such as the Nairobi National Park
• It is a residential centre for close to 3 million Nairobians
• It is also an educational centre with several schools, polytechnics, colleges and
universities
• It is an industrial centre with many industries such as glass making , brewing and motor
vehicle assembly
• It is also a cultural centre with the Kenya National Theatre and Bomas of Kenya
Problems Facing the City of Nairobi
The city of Nairobi faces several challenges:
• Inadequate water and sewerage services due to its ever-increasing population
• Inadequate social services such as education and health has led to the mushrooming of
informal schools and clinics
• Poor housing and sanitation due to overcrowding has led to the development of sums
• There is congestion on the roads due to increase in traffic leading to traffic jams
• Inadequate waste disposal has led to poor garbage collection and disposal services
thereby creating garbage crisis
• Large scale migration of unemployed people into the city has led to mass unemployment
• Increase in the number of street families and mass unemployment has led to increase in
crime, such as robbery, prostitution and drug abuse
• Poor town planning has led to the problem of drainage, especially during heavy rains
• Pollution mainly from industries in the city is a common menace
Solutions to the problems facing Nairobi
• Expansion of water projects to supply water to the rising population of the city
• Building of affordable housing to replace the slums
• Development of infrastructure such as road bypasses and flyovers to decongest the city
• Rehabilitation of street families to get them out of the streets
• Expansion of the informal sector to solve problems of unemployment
• Installation of CCTV cameras to combat crime

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• Implementation of cost -sharing programmes to expand social services such as education
and health
• The government should partner with the private sector to provide sewerage and garbage
collection services
b) Johannesburg
The city of Johannesburg is located on the Highland Plateau of Gauteng Province. The city
developed as a result of the discovery of Gold in the Witwatersrand region of the province.
Factors for the Growth of Johannesburg
The following factors contributed to the growth of the city of Johannesburg:
• The discovery of gold at Witwatersrand attracted several miners leading to the growth of
the city
• Availability of clean water supply from River Vaal which was used for both domestic and
industrial purposes
• It was located on a plain (veld) which enabled buildings to be constructed
• Existence of minerals such as coal which served as a major source of energy as well as
other minerals such as diatomite
• Availability of food as the areas surrounding the town have fertile soils therefore
agriculturally productive
Functions of Johannesburg
• It is a commercial centre with a number of financial services such as banks and insurance
• It is an industrial centre with major manufacturing industries such as chemical, electrical
and car assembly
• It is a transport and communication centre with road, rail and air links to major towns like
Durban
• It is a residential centre housing millions of people
• It is an educational centre with many educational institutions such as the University of
Witwatersrand
• It is an administrative centre as the headquarters of the Gauteng province
• It is a mining centre with gold and coal as the major minerals
• It is a tourist centre and attracts tourists from various parts of the world
Challenges facing the city of Johannesburg
• There is inadequate housing which has led to the development of slums or shanties

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• There is high rate of crime due to unemployment
• There is congestion in the town due to rural urban migration
• Inadequate social amenities such as water, schools, hospitals and sanitation due to high
population
• It experiences air, water and land pollution caused by emission of poisonous gases from
the industries
• There exists a huge gap between the wealthy Europeans and the poor Africans
• High rate of HIV/AIDS pandemic has increased the cost of treatment leading to loss of
lives
• It experiences industrial strikes by industrial workers
• There is discrimination where Africans are mistreated in work places
• Traffic jams are rampant due to many vehicles on the roads
Solutions to problems facing Johannesburg
• Development of infrastructure to decongest the city, such as roads and railways
• Building of better and affordable houses to replace shanties or slums
• Improvement of revenue collection to provide better services to residents, such as
garbage collection
• Partnership between the police and the community to reduce crime rates
• Encouragement of investors to start business so as to create employment
• Creating public awareness to reduce the rate of HIV/AIDS infection
Impact of Agrarian and Industrial Development on Urbanization
Developments in Agriculture and Industry have had profound impact on urban centres. The
following are some of the ways in which the impact has been felt:
i) Development s in agriculture led to settled life. The settlements developed into urban
centres which later grew into big towns.
ii) The land enclosure system led to landlessness among the poor. These landless people
moved to urban centres in search of employment hence expansion of towns
iii) The Agrarian Revolution resulted into increase in food production hence adequate food
supply for the urban population
iv) Production of surplus food due to Agrarian Revolution promoted trade, trading centres
developed into towns

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v) The Agrarian Revolution led to production of raw materials for industries
vi) Exports and imports of agricultural produce and manufactured goods led to expansion
and growth of port towns such as Liverpool in England
vii) Industrial developments led to rural-urban migration resulting into overcrowding and
congestion in urban centres
viii) High concentration of industries in the urban centres led to air, noise and water pollution
in urban centres
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1990 Q22
a) State five factors that led to urbanization in pre-colonial Africa
b) Discuss the problems of urbanization in Cairo

2. 1993 Q24
a) List 5 factors which led to rapid development of urban centers.
b) Explain the result of urbanization in Europe in the 19th Century.

3. 1996 Q3
Give two factors which led to the early urbanization in Africa (2marks)

4. 1998 Q2
Give two factors which influenced the development of urban centers in
Ancient Greece (2 marks)

5. 2000 Q17
(a) What five factors influenced the development of early urban centers in
Africa? (5 marks)
(b) Explain five consequences of urbanization on European communities
during the nineteenth century. (10 marks)

6. 2001 Q1
a) What factors led to the development of urban centres in Africa
during the pre-colonial period? (8marks)

b) Explain the social effects of urbanization in Europe during the

nineteenth century. (7marks)
7. 2002 Q8
Identify two features of Early Greek city states (2 marks)

8. 2003 Q2
Give two factors that influenced the growth of early urban centres in Africa.

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 (2 marks)
9. 2004 Q4
State two functions of early urban centers in Egypt. (2 marks)

10. 2006 Q7
Identify two factors that led to the growth of Athens as an urban centre.

11. 2007 Q8, 20

8. Identify one reason that led to the decline of Meroe as an early urban centre.
(1mark)
20. (a) State three factors that have contributed to the growth of Johannesburg
city. (3 marks)
(b) Describe six social problems faced by the residents of Johannesburg
since the end of apartheid. (12marks)

12. 2008 Q8
What is the meaning of the term “Urbanisation” (1mark)

13. 2009 Q9
Give two reasons why early urban centres in ancient Egypt developed in the
Nile valley (2marks)

14. 2010 Q7
Identify two social functions of the ancient city of Athens in Greece.
(2 marks)
15. 2011 Q6
Identify the main factor that led to the growth of the Ancient town of Meroe
(1mark)
16. 2012 Q8 P2
Identify the main factor that contributed to the growth of Athens in
Ancient Greece. (1 mark)

17. 2013 Q8 P2
State the main factor that led to the growth of the ancient town of Kilwa. (1mark)

18. 2014 Q 8 P2
State two ways in which the growth of the city of Cairo was influenced by the
River Nile. (2 marks)
19. 2015 Q8 P2
Give the main factor that contributed to the emergence of Johannesburg
as a modern urban centre. (1 mark)

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SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES IN
THE19TH CENTURY
Introduction:
African societies had attained some measures of socio-political and economic advancement by
the 19th Century. Although many communities were decentralized, there existed a number of
centralized Kingdoms with high level of political administration. Such communities included the
Baganda, the Shona and the Asante.
The Baganda
Origin and Development of the Buganda Kingdom
There are two myths that explain the Buganda kingdom. One states that the founder was Kato
Kintu, who came to Buganda from the direction of Mount Elgon in the 14th Century.
Another tradition claims that the kingdom was founded by Kimera, a brother to Isingoma
Mpunga Rukidi who founded the Luo-Babito dynasty of Bunyoro Kitara kingdom.
Buganda started off as a small and weak state. It was one of the vassals of the powerful Bunyoro
kingdom to whom it paid tribute.
Factors for the Growth of Buganda Kingdom
The following factors contributed to the emergence of a strong Buganda kingdom:
i) The decline of the Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom created a power vacuum which Buganda
took advantage of to fill.
ii) Existence of good, strong and able leaders who were able to unite their people and
restructure the existing administrative system such leaders included, Kabaka Kyabagu, Junju,
Suna and later Kabaka mutesa I.
iii) Availability of food; the kingdom had a strong economic base since it was located on a
fertile area with abundant food supply especially bananas.
iv) It prospered from trade with the Arab-Swahili traders who gave her revenue and arms for
expansion.
v) The kingdom had a strong standing army with a royal navy that patrolled Lake Victoria
hence enabling her to protect the kingdom and conquer her neighbours.
vi) Buganda acquired a lot of wealth such as ivory, livestock, iron-ore, grains and slaves
from areas that she conquered such as Busoga, Buddu and Kyaggwe hence boosting her trade.
vii) Proximity to Lake Victoria provided a good means of transport as well as a natural
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viii) Centralization of authority under the Kabaka enhanced effective control, promoted
control of other traditional rulers thereby promoting unity and also enhanced loyalty to one
single leader.
ix) Cohesiveness; Buganda started off as a very small, cohesive kingdom hence facilitating
easy administration and stability
x) The Buganda traditions encouraged the growth of the kingdom as women undertook
farming activities thereby leaving men free to engage in other activities such as politics,
carpentry, war, bark-cloth making and smithing.
Political organization of the Baganda
• The kingdom was headed by a king known as the Kabaka
• The position of the Kabaka was hereditary meaning upon her death, he was succeeded by
one of his sons
• The Kabaka was the commander-in-chief of the army; presided over religious
ceremonies; was the final court of appeal or chief judge and had powers to appoint, transfer and
fire senior government officials.
• The kingdom had a strong army whose work was to defend the kingdom and conquer
more lands
• The Kabaka appointed a council of ministers who included the Katikiro (Prime
Minister Omulamuzi (Chief Justice) and (Treasurer)
• There was also a chain of officials such as chiefs court officials, pages, messengers and
slaves
• There were Vassal states which were governed by chiefs appointed by the Kabaka. They
were called Batangole
• The kingdom was divided into Sazas (Counties) headed by a Saza chief appointed by the
Kabaka. The Saza chiefs collected taxes; maintained law and order; they recruited men for
military service; settled minor disputes and advised the Kabaka
• The Counties were further sub-divided into sub-counties called Gombololas, headed by a
Gombolola chief.
• Below the Gombolola chief were the Bataka chiefs in charge of clans
• The Baganda had a traditional parliament called the Lukiiko consisting of an assembly of
chiefs, the Katikiro and the Kabaka. The Lukiiko performed the following functions:
i) It was the law-making body
ii) They advised the Kabaka on matters affecting the kingdom

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iii) It acted as the final court of appeal or settled disputes
iv) It presented the wishes of the people to the Kabaka
v) It directed the collection of taxes in the kingdom
vi) It assisted the Kabaka in general administration
Economic Activities of the Baganda
• They grew food crops such as bananas, millet, sweet potatoes and vegetables.
• They practiced trade among themselves and also took part in the long-distance trade with
the Swahili-Arabs
• They practiced livestock keeping and kept cattle, sheep and goats
• They were also iron workers and made implements such as hoes, knives, axes and spears
• They practiced hunting and gathering
• They also carried out fishing in Lake Victoria and other rivers
• They practiced craft such as basketry, pottery and bark-cloth making
Social organization of the Buganda
• They were organized into clans which had their own traditions and customs
• They were divided into four social classes comprising of the Kabaka and the royal
family; the chiefs; the peasants(Bakopi) and the slaves(Budu)
• They had a Supreme God called Katonda whom they prayed to
• They worshiped many gods meaning they practiced polytheism
• The people highly regarded the Kabaka whom they considered to be semi-divine
• They performed sacrifices especially during times of misfortunes
• They had special religious shrines where they conducted worship which were scattered
all over the kingdom
• They had symbols of royalty in form of Royal drums, Royal spears and Royal crowns
which were kept at the Kabaka's palace
• They believed in life after death since they worshiped the spirits of the dead
• They were polygamous. They thus married many wives to strengthen social relations
Factors for the decline of the Buganda Kingdom
The Buganda kingdom never collapsed but its power in the region declined in the 20th Century
due to the following factors:

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i) The death of Kabaka Mutesa I who was succeeded by Kabaka Mwanga who was
incompetent hence could not effectively control the Saza chiefs
ii) Emergence of the religious conflicts between the Christians, Muslims and the
Traditionalists leading to a civil war
iii) The disposition of Kabaka Mwanga and his replacement by Daudi Chwa who was an
infant
iv) Colonization of the kingdom by the British leading to the signing of the Buganda
Agreement.
The Asante
Origin
The Asante are the largest group of the Akan speaking people of modern Ghana. The kingdom
was created in the late 17th Century AD occupying the central part of modern Ghana.
Factors that led to the Rise and Growth of the Asante Empire
The following factors led to the emergence of strong Asante Empire:
i) The empire was located in a fertile area for farming hence providing sufficient food for
the rising population.
ii) The Asante participated in the Trans - Atlantic trade which generated a lot of wealth
which enabled the empire to prosper
iii) The centralized political system ensured stability as there was a clear command
iv) Presence of a strong efficient standing army provided defense and expanded the empire
through conquest
v) The need to free themselves from the oppressive rule of the Denkioyira rule made them
to unite and dominate others
vi) It had skilled, shrewd and able rulers who were courageous to propel the kingdom. Such
leaders included Obiri Yeboa, Osei Tutu and Opoko Ware
vii) They had a symbol of unity (The golden Stool) which bound people together.
viii) The Odwira festival brought the leaders and people together thereby making the empire
more cohesive.
ix) Availability of gold enabled the kingdom to generate wealth that was used for further
development
Social Organization of the Asante
• The kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language

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• They were organized into clans each with its own dialect and traditions
• They believed in the existence of one Supreme creator called Nyame
• They worshiped many gods and goddesses
• They also believed in the existence of ancestral spirits as ancestors were taken as
intermediaries between the divine and the living.
• The golden stool was the most important or main symbol of unity or symbol of religious
reverence hence it was sacred
• There was an annual cultural (Odwira festival) held at Kumasi. The festival promoted
unity; brought the kings together to pledge loyalty to the Asante; provided opportunity for the
kings to settle disputes and provided opportunity for the kings to honour the dead.
• The kings were regarded as semi-divine hence they were regarded as religious leaders
• The Asante were polygamous and marriage between members of the same clan was
prohibited
• The society was divided into social classes with the kings being in the highest social class
and the slaves being in the lowest
• The inheritance of property was matrilineal hence birth right was passed through the
mother.
Economic organization of the Asante
The Asante people participated in the following economic activities during the pre-colonial
period;
• They practiced cultivation of food crops. They grew crops such as kola nuts, yams, fruits
and grains.
• They also practiced livestock keeping and kept animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
• The Asante traded among themselves and with their neighbours as well as participating in
the Trans - Atlantic trade.
• They were miners as they participated in gold mining activities
• They practiced domestic craft such as weaving, basketry and pottery
• They were iron workers and made iron implements such as hooks, swords and hoes
• They practiced hunting and gathering as they lived in a forested area
• Those who lived along rivers and at the coast practiced fishing
Political organization of the Asante

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• The Asante empire consisted of three parts, Metropolitan Asante, provincial Asante and
the Amatoo.
• The empire was ruled by the Asantehene
• The Asantehene ruled with the help of a confederacy of kings called Omanhenes. They
took oath of allegiance to ensure loyalty to the Asantehene.
• The conquered states were ruled by their kings but treated as provinces of Asante. The
Asantehene appointed representatives in each conquered state.
• The empire had a standing army which defended the empire and conquered other
territories
• The Asante states were bound together by the Golden Stool which was introduced by
Osei Tutu in 1695. It acted as the main symbol of unity.
• Each Omanhene was given a symbolic black stool to signify unity of purpose in the
province
• The states also attended an annual festival at Kumasi (Odwira Festival) where the state
kings pay allegiance to the Asantehene, honour the dead and settle any disputes among them.
• The empire had a well-established Judicial system based at Kumasi and was headed by
the Asantehene.
Decline of the Asante Empire
The Asante Empire began to decline from 1850 due to the following factors:
• The death of Osei Tutu created a power vacuum as there were no immediate personality
to unify the empire
• The rebellion by the conquered states as Opuku Ware failed to incorporate them into the
Asante Union
• Colonization of West Africa by the British who supported the Fante against the Asante
The Shona
The Shona are Bantu-speaking people living on the fertile plateau between the Limpopo and
Zambezi rivers. The Shona founded three kingdoms between the 13th and 19th Centuries. The
first was the state of Great Zimbabwe in about 1200 AD. The second kingdom was called
Mwene Mutapa located in the Mazoe valley and the third one was the Rozwi kingdom on the
Zambezi plateau.
Factors for the Growth of Shona Kingdom
The following factors contributed to the growth of the Shona Kingdom:

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• Availability of food; the kingdom was located in a region suitable for cattle keeping and
crop growing.
• Able leadership provided by leaders such as Chikura and Nyatsimba Mutota
• The kingdom had a strong standing army which enabled her to conquer her neighbours
• The Shona participated in the long-distance trade which provided arms and revenue for
growth and expansion
• The Shona had a strong religion based on the Mwari cult which promoted unity in the
kingdom leading to its prosperity
• Availability of minerals as the kingdom was rich in gold and copper which was used for
craft manufacturing
Political organization of the Shona
• The Shona were ruled by an emperor who had absolute authority over the subjects
• The position of the emperor was hereditary so as to reduce succession dispute
• The emperor was assisted in administration by the queen mother, the queen sister, army
commander, head drummer, head cook, head door keeper and the head cook.
• There was an advisory council whose work was to advise the emperor
• The empire was divided into provinces headed into provinces headed by provincial kings
or lesser kings
• The provinces were divided into chiefdoms ruled by chiefs
• Under the chiefs were headmen who were in charge of villages
• The empire had a standing army whose main duty was to defend and expand the empire
• There existed priests who acted as spies for the king
• The emperor was a symbol of unity. Another important symbol of national unity in the
empire was the royal fire lit at the court of the emperor.
Social organization of the Shona
• They were organized into clans which had their traditions
• They believed in one Supreme creator called Mwari
• They believed in the existence of ancestral spirits whom they consulted from time to
time. There were three types of sprits; Vadzimu(family spirits/, Mhondoro (clan spirits) and
Chamiruka (national spirits)
• The priests from the Rozwi clan presided over religious such as offering sacrifices to god

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• They were polygamous society hence married many wives. Marriage between related
clans was prohibited.
• The Shona had sacred places of worship or shrines
• The Shona had medicine men (Nganga) who treated the sick. They also consulted the
spirits to define the cause of troublesome cases.
Economic organization
• They grew food crops such as cassava, beans, millet, fruits and vegetables
• They practiced livestock keeping and kept animals such as cattle, sheep and goats
• They were also hunters and gatherers and hunted animals such as elephants and gathered
wild fruits
• They practiced trade where they participated in the long-distance trade
• They carried out fishing especially those who lived near rivers
• They practiced mining as they mined minerals such as iron and gold
• They also practiced domestic crafts such as basketry, cloth making, pottery and curving
• They were iron workers and made iron implements such as spears, shields and hoes.
The decline of the Shona Kingdom
The following factors led to the decline of Shona kingdom by the end of the 19th Century:
• The exhaustion of gold led to loss of revenue which contributed to its decline.
• Changes in trade routes which passed in the kingdom to the north also led loss of wealth
• The increasing population exerted pressure on land for cultivation and pasture leading to
the decline
• The invasion of the kingdom by the Portuguese resulting into chaos
• The kingdom also conquered by the Ndebele from South Africa who ruled over it up to
the time of the British invasion
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1992 Q22a
Give three characteristics of African traditional education

2. 1993 Q25
a) State three factors which led to the growth of Buganda
b) Describe the Buganda system of government during pre-colonial period

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3. 1996 Q8
Give two functions of the Buganda traditional parliament (2marks)

4. 1997 Q9
State two functions of the Lukiko of the Buganda Kingdom during the pre-
colonial rule (2 marks)

5. 1998 Q 10,21
10. State one way in which centralization of authority contributed to the
growth of the Buganda Kingdom. (1 mark)
21. (a) What were the economic activities of the people of the Asante Empire?
(3 marks)
(b) Describe the political organization of the Asante Empire during the
nineteenth century (12 marks)

6. 1999 Q12
Give the main reason why the Golden stool was important for the Asante
Empire (1 mark)

7. 2000 Q10
Give two functions of the Kabaka of Buganda. (2 marks)

8. 2000 Q22
(a) Describe the social organization of the Shona during the Pre- colonial
period. (5 marks)

(b) Explain the political organization of Mwene Mutapa Kingdom during the
pre- colonial period. (10marks)

9. 2001 Q2
State the main function of the Golden stool in the Asante Empire during the
pre- colonial period. (1 mark)

10. 2002 Q7
State two factors that facilitated the growth of the Asante Kingdom (2 marks)

11. 2003 Q9
State two similarities between the Buganda and the Ndebele system of
government in the 19th century. (2marks)

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12. 2004 Q22
(a) What were the economic activities of the Buganda during the pre-
colonial period? (3 marks)

(b) Describe the political organization of Buganda during the pre- colonial
period. (12 marks)

13. 2005 Q6
Give one importance of the Odwira festival in the ancient kingdom of
Ashanti (1 mark)

14. 2005 Q12

Give one reason why the Shona supported the British during the Ndebele war
of 1893 (1 mark)
15. 2006 Q8
Name two officials who assisted the ruler of the shona to administer the
Kingdom. (2marks)
16. 2006 Q22
a) Give three ways through which trade contributed to the rise of Asante
Kingdom during the eighteenth century. (10marks)

b) Describe the social organization of Asante Kingdom in the eighteenth

century. (12marks)

17. 2007 Q9
State the role of the ‘golden stool’ in the Asante Kingdom during the 19th
century. (1mark)

18. 2008 Q9
State two functions of the Saza Chiefs among the Baganda in the 19th Century
(2marks)
19. 2009 Q10
State two economic activities of the shona during the pre-colonial period
(2marks)
20. 2010 Q9, 10
9. Which was the main factor tht unified the communities of the Shone
Kingdom during the pre-colonial period?

10. State two fgunctions of the Lukiko in Bunganda Kingdom during the
19thCentury. (2 marks)

21. 2011 Q22

a) Give three functions of the Kabaka of Buganda kingdom during the pre-

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 colonial Period (3marks)
b) Describe the political Organisation of the Shona during the pre-colonial
period (12marks)

22. 2012 Q20 P2

(a) State five economic activities of the Asante during the 19th century. (5 marks)

(b) Describe the social organization of the Buganda Kingdom during the pre-colonial
period. (5 marks)
23. 2013 Q9 P2
Give one reason why the ‘Goldenstool’ was important in the Asante Empire.
(1mark)

24. 2013 Q10 P2

Apart from an empire, name one other type of government that existed
in Africa during the pre-colonial period. (1mark)

25. 2014 Q9, 10 P2

4. Identify one symbol of unity in shona kingdom during the pre-colonial period.
(1 mark)
5. State one way in which the acquisition of fire arms enabled the king
of Buganda to expand during the pre-colonial period. (1 mark)
26. 2015 Q22 P2
(a) Give three functions of the Lukiiko in the kingdom of Buganda
during the pre-colonial period. (3 marks)

(b) Discuss three factors that led to the growth of the Asante empire
by the 19th Century. (12 marks)

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CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTION MAKING
Meaning of a constitution
It refers to a set of agreed principles and rules which states how a country is governed.
Components of a constitution
The constitution comprises of the following:
• The structure of government
• All rules pertaining to the head of state including powers and extent of authority
prerogatives
• The composition, function and powers of parliamentary law
• The composition of the executive organ of government
• The composition of the judiciary including the duties and powers of the courts
• The rights and duties of citizens
Functions or Importance of a constitution
A constitution is an important document in a country and performs the following roles or
functions:
i) It defines the structure of the government and states the functions and powers of different
branches of government.
ii) It spells out the duties and responsibility of the government stating its limits hence
promoting good governance
iii) It is the basis of all legislations as it provides the legal framework from which other laws
are made
iv) It spells out the rights and freedoms of citizens
v) It ensures equality of all Kenyans
NB: Different countries have different forms of constitutions due to different historical
experiences.
Factors which determines the form of a constitution which a country may adopt:
• Geographical factors; countries with many states or islands such as the USA or Japan
may adopt a federal constitution to take care of the interest of such states
• Historical background; newly independent states borrow a lot from the colonial masters
as they make their constitutions

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• Religious or cultural backgrounds; religious and cultural beliefs of a people must be
taken into consideration when making constitutions such as customary laws and sharia laws
• Racial or ethnic composition; multiracial societies must consider the interest different
races or ethnic communities into consideration.
Types of Constitutions
There are two types of constitutions: Written constitution and Unwritten constitution.
a) Written Constitution
A written constitution refers to one in which the fundamental principles and rules of the state are
contained in a single document.
The Kenyan constitution is an example of a written constitution.
Advantages of Written Constitution
i) It is readily available for reference especially in times of crisis
ii) It is rigid hence it’s not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter
or tamper
with it
iii) It provides a clear guideline o the procedure to be followed thus creating stability in the
country.
iv) It helps promote national unity since it acquires recognition and acceptance from
majority of the
citizens.
v) It helps in safeguarding the interests and rights of minority groups
vi) It eliminates conflicts between different branches of government as it clearly spells out
the powers and functions of each branch
Disadvantages of Written Constitution
i) It is rigid hence it can fail to respond easily to changing circumstances within the state
ii) The procedure for amendment is slow and costly which may cause delays leading to civil
disorder
iii) Due to its rigidity in amending it, it fails to respond to emerging issues or needs in the
society on time.
iv) It may be too detailed or complex and are rarely understood by ordinary citizens.
b Unwritten Constitution

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It refers to a situation where the fundamental principles and rules of a state are not contained in a
formal document but are found in several documents.
A good example of a country with such a constitution is Britain.
Sources of Britain's Constitution
The following are the sources of the British constitution:
• Historical documents or Constitutional Milestones such as the Magna Carta (1215 AD)
• Acts of Parliament or Legislation or Statutes laws made by the British parliament such as
the Bill of Rights Act (1628), the Habeas Copus Act (1679), the Petition of Right Act (1628)
among others
• Case Laws or Laws of Precedent; this refers to specific rulings made by the British courts
that have had an impact on the principles of the state.
• The Hansard; This refers to the verbatim record of Parliamentary proceedings
• Customs; These refers to ancient or traditional practices or common law such as the first
born of the sovereign succeeds the King or the Queen
• Constitutional Conventions; These are political traditions or agreements which have been
followed or applied over a period of time. The party system and the powers of the Prime Minister
are the results of such a convention.
• Commentaries or Publications written by respected scholars such as John Selden who
denied the divine origin of the Monarchy asserting that the institution was man-made for the
benefit of human beings.
Advantages of an unwritten Constitution
i) It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the state
ii) They are relatively simple to amend as they are altered like ordinary laws
iii) It has a wider acceptability because it is usually home grown
Disadvantages of Unwritten Constitution
i) It is open to manipulation by the legislative arm of government as it is easily amended
ii) It is imprecise and indefinite in reference to specific issues in comparison to the written
ones
iii) It tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it has the responsibility of interpreting the
constitution
iv) It does not guarantee sufficient protection to the rights of the citizens.

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v) It tends to overload the judiciary as they look for constitutional principles not only in
judicial decisions but in statutes.
Characteristics of a good Constitution
A good constitution should have the following common features:
• Clarity; It should clearly define and spell out its content in a language that eliminates
ambiguity in order to enable all who read it to understand it.
• Comprehensiveness; It should address itself in detail to all the components of the state to
eliminate disputes or misunderstanding.
• Flexibility; It should easily respond to the changes in the state as soon as they occur while
maintaining the State's overall principles and aspirations
• Bill of Rights; It should provide for the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of
all citizens
• Durability; It should last for a reasonable length of time without requiring amendment
• Amendment; It should contain clear and realistic provisions for its amendment stating
who may participate in that process.
The Independence Constitution
The independence constitution refers to the constitution that ushered the country to independence
in 1963.
It was drafted or formulated in London during the Second Lancaster House Conference. It was
also referred to as the Majimbo constitution because it provided for a federal system of
government.
Features of the Independence Constitution (1962)
The independence constitution had the following features;
i) It provided for a federal system of government, where the country was divided into seven
regions each with its own executive and legislative structures.
ii) It provided for the position of a Governor General who was the head of state on behalf of
the Queen
iii) It provided for the position of the Prime Minister as the head of government.
iv) It provided for an independent civil service that was to be recruited and supervised by the
Public Service Commission
v) It provided for the establishment of a bi-cameral legislature comprising of the Senate and
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vi) It established an independent judiciary according the judges and the Attorney General
security of tenure. It also established the Judicial Service Commission to appoint judicial officers
vii) It spelt out the Rights and obligations of individuals in the Bill of Rights
viii) It spelt out the necessary conditions for acquisition of citizenship
ix) It provided for a multy party democracy in Kenya spelling out a competitive electoral
process that was to be supervised by an independent electoral commission
x) It provided for separation of powers between the legislature, the judiciary and the
executive
The Constitution of Kenya
Kenya has a written constitution. The constitution is important to a state as it forms the basis of
legislation in the country
Constitution Making
It refers to the process followed by a country to come up with a constitution.
The constitution making process began in Kenya in the 80s when the Kenyan people demanded
and fought for a review of the constitution.
The following steps were followed in the constitution making process in Kenya hence they
constitute the requirements of the constitution making process;
• Civic education; making the people aware of the need to have a new constitution
• Collecting views from the public about their wishes
• Documentation of the people's views and publication of the draft
• Holding of public hearing throughout the country so as to get people's views
• Holding the National constitutional conference for deligates, MPs and commissioners
• The drafted constitution is taken to parliament for discussion and thereafter published by
the Attorney General
• The referendum is held if passed, it is taken to the Attorney General who takes it to
parliament for approval
• Thereafter, it receives Presidential Assent
• The final step is the promulgation where the president presents it to the people
Features of the Constitution of Kenya (2010)
The Kenyan constitution is a Written Constitution. It has 264 articles divided into 18 chapters.
The following are the features of the Constitution of Kenya 2010:

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• It vests sovereign power on the people of Kenya who can exercise it directly or through
their representatives
• It contains a comprehensive Bill of Rights which has been expanded to include socio-
economic and cultural rights as well as group rights
• It contains affirmative action for women, youths, persons with disabilities and
marginalized communities as it protects them from all discrimination
• It outlines the principles of land policy and classification
• Leadership and integrity; it states the responsible conduct and restrictions on activities of
sate officers
• It establishes a bi-cameral legislature composed of the National Assembly and the Senate
• It defines the powers of the executive which comprises of the President, Deputy President
and the Cabinet
• It creates an independent judiciary composed of a system of courts with superior and
subordinate courts
• It provides for devolved government by creating 47 counties
• It establishes three National Security Organs namely; The Kenya Defence Forces, The
National Intelligence Service and The National Police Service
• It provides a mechanism for its implementation by creating specific organs for that
purpose. It provides for commissions and independent offices
• It provides for stringent amendment procedures in order to safeguard people's interest. It
can be amended by parliamentary initiative or popular initiative.
• It has provision for transitional requirements that ensures smooth transition and
consequential provision
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1996 Q15
Which provision in the Kenya constitution protects the wealth of individuals
in the country? (1mark)

2. 1996 Q12 (pp2)

What is constitution?

3. 1997 Q21a
Describe the main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya. (3marks)

3. 1998 Q21b
Describe the constitutional amendments which took place in Kenya between
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 1964 and 1992. (12 marks)

4. 2000 Q22
(a) What were the three features of the independence constitution of Kenya?
(3 marks)
(b) Explain six powers that the constitution of Kenya gives to the president.
(12 marks)
5. 2001 Q12 (pp2)
State one advantage of a written constitution over an unwritten Constitution.
(1mark)
6. 2003 Q11
State two provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya. (2 marks)

7. 2003 Q14 (PP2)

State one advantage of a written constitution. (1 mark)

8. 2005 Q16
Give one way in which the constitution of Kenya guarantees the rule of law.
(1 mark)
9. 2008 Q24
a) Identify five requirements in the constitution making process (5marks)
b) Describe five features of the independence constitution of Kenya (10marks)

10. 2010 Q23a

Give three reasons why the constitution is important in Kenya. (3marks)

11. 2011 Q7
What constitutional Amendment made Kenya return to multi-party state (1mark)

12. 2013 Q6 P1
State two ways in which the National Accord and Reconciliation Act, 2008
affected the composition of the government in Kenya (2marks)

13. 2014 Q22 P1

(a) State five decisions reached after the first Lancaster House conference of 1960.
(5 marks)
(b) Describe five main features of the constitution of Kenya. (10 marks)

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DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Meaning of Democracy
It refers to a system of government in which the supreme authority rests with the people.
Abraham Lincoln defined it as "government of the people, for the people and by the people”
It was first practiced in the ancient Greek city states especially Athens.
Aspects of Democracy
Democracy has three main aspects, namely social, political and economic.
The social aspect: it emphasizes and promote the dignity and worth of the individual hence
according individuals the necessary respect and freedom by the state to enable them to enjoy
their rights.
The political aspect: It emphasizes on the governing of the society based on the consent of the
people in which the will of the majority prevails. The people's consent is expressed directly or
indirectly through their elected representatives.
The economic aspect: It ensures that individuals have the freedom to engage in any kind of
economic activity within the law. It seeks to ensure that all citizens have fair and equal access to
all opportunities for pursuit of their livelihood. It seeks to eliminate exploitation of humans by
fellow humans.
Types of Democracy
There are various types of democracy: Direct or Pure Democracy, Indirect or Representative
Democracy and Constitutional or Liberal Democracy
Direct (Pure) Democracy
This is where every member of the society is free to participate directly in the affairs of the state.
It was first exercised in ancient Athens.
Direct democracy is today exercised or practiced through the following devices or ways:
• Referendum; It refers to a way of seeking the opinion of the people on a single political
question through a yes or no vote or a vote by the electorate on a single political question which
has been referred to them for direct decision.
• Plebiscite; It refers to a device used to obtain a direct popular vote on a matter of public
importance.
• Initiative; It refers to the right of the citizens to originate legislation and present it to the
legislature for debate
• Recall; It refers to the procedure by which voters remove an elected representative from
office through a vote before the expiry of his or her term.

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Indirect (Representative Democracy)
It is a system where the members of the society elect their representatives to run the affairs of the
state on their behalf. Such representatives may be Members of Parliament or Members of the
County Assembly.
Characteristics of Indirect Democracy
• Universal Adult Suffrage; every adult member of the society has the right to vote.
• Free and Fair Elections; free of manipulation, corruption or intimidation of voters
• Supremacy of the people; all power belongs to the people and can only be exercised in
accordance with the constitution
Advantages of representative democracy
i) People elect leaders of their own choice
ii) Elected leaders are accountable to the people since people are able to air their grievances
iii) It easy or faster to make decision
iv) Supreme power is vested in the people
Constitutional (Liberal Democracy)
It refers to a situation where the rights and the power of the majority are exercised within the
limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed by the constitution.
Principles of Democracy
For democracy to flourish, several factors are necessary. These are:
• Consent of the people; this refers to participation of all the people in their government on
a continuous basis
• Equality before the law; It recognizes equality among the people regardless of colour,
gender or creed. It therefore means that judgement or decisions should be made in accordance to
the law
• Open and Accountable mass Media (Freedom of the Press); Free press educates the
people on the events in the country so that they make informed decisions.
• Freedom of speech, debate and enquiry; It allows people to express their views without
fear.
• Economic Freedom and Empowerment; It provides an enabling environment for people
to generate their own wealth
• Transparency and Accountability; The state keeps the people informed of its activities
and explains how it is using public resources.

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• Regular, Free and Fair Elections ensures that citizens express their free will
• Competition; Democracy thrives well in a situation where several ideas compete for the
participant's attention in order for them to make the best choices.
• National Stability and Peace; Peace encourages the people to express their opinions on
various issues or exercising their right to vote
• Bill of Rights; This safeguards the citizens from abuse of their rights and freedoms.
Advantages of Democracy
• It is the most popular form of government as it is based on the consent of the majority of
the people
• It serves as a means of political education since civic education is carried out before
elections
• It promotes peace in the country as it encourages the spirit of co-existence within and
beyond the country
• It promotes a sense of accountability and responsibility among leaders hence contributing
to good governance
• It protects fundamental rights and freedoms hence ensuring balance between the authority
of the state and the liberty of the citizens
• It enables citizens to peacefully change their governments regularly hence minimizing
chances of political instability
• It allows for fair competition for power between all people regardless of their origin or
socio-economic background
Disadvantages of Democracy
• It is a form of dictatorship as it disregards the interest of the minority
• It is expensive to implement since both civic education and general elections require
funding.
• It may promote inefficient and incompetent leadership since those elected are the most
popular but may not possess the best leadership skills
• It is also time consuming since certain procedures must be adhered to before important
decisions are
made.
• It encourages class struggle and corruption since the wealthy uses their resources to
influence voters at the expense of those with limited resources
Human Rights

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Meaning
It refers to legal entitlements which every individual is endowed with by virtue of belonging to
the human race.
The fundamental human rights are those which are essential for the development of the human
personality.
Importance of Human Rights
It is important to respect Human Rights due to the following reasons:
• They promote human dignity as the rights of people are respected
• They help to protect the rights of minorities for instance Women, Children and persons
with disabilities
• It promotes democracy as citizens can freely express themselves
• They provide guidance to state organs when exercising powers
• It promotes unity among the people by encouraging peaceful co-existence as people feel
equally treated
• It promotes good governance as it empowers citizens by giving them right to decision
making
• It promotes respect for other people's culture as by appreciating cultural diversity
• It promotes tolerance by accommodating other people's ideas or views
• It promotes development by creating a conducive environment for investment
• It promotes international relations by observing international treaties on human rights
Characteristics of Human Rights
Human Rights have the following features or characteristics:
• They are universal meaning they apply to human beings through the world equally
• They are inalienable or inborn meaning they cannot be separated from the person
• They are indivisible since one cannot enjoy them half way
• They have limitations meaning that as people enjoy their rights, they must respect the
rights of others
• Their applications may be suspended if circumstances dictate such as during war or
disease outbreak
Classification of Human Rights
There are three main categories of Human Rights;

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a) Civil and Political Rights
These are rights which secure people's space to pursue their values and interests by limiting state
intervention in their personal lives. They include the right to vote, think and have access to
information
b) Social, Political and Cultural Rights
They secure people's access to a decent living and basic needs such as health care and education.
The state is expected to take specific action to facilitate their enjoyment. They include the right
to own property, right to education and right to work.
c) Solidarity Rights
They require the state to pursue policies which do not destroy natural resources or waste
financial resources, but create opportunities for individuals and groups to achieve their social and
economic interest. They include the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment, peace
and development.
Monitoring of Human Rights
The purpose of monitoring human rights is to ensure they are respected and not violated at any
one stage. The following groups are established to ensure the state respects human rights:
• The mass media or the press
• Trade union movements
• Special interest groups such as the Law Society of Kenya and religious organizations
• Constitutional Institutions such as the Judiciary and the Ombudsman
• Constitutional commissions such as the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality
Commission
The United Nations Charter on Human Rights
The human rights for all are contained in a document called the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights adopted on the 10th of December 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly.
The Charter outlines the following Human Rights:
• All human beings are born free and equal
• Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security
• No one should be held in slavery or servitude
• No one shall be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
• All people are equal before the law and are entitled to protection without discrimination
• No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile

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• Everyone has a right to freely participate in the cultural life of a community
• A man and a woman of full age without any limitation have a right to marry and start a
family
Importance of the United Nations Charter on Human Rights
The UN Charter on human Rights provides an international measure of judging how
governments respect human rights. The UN applies sanctions on countries which violate human
rights. Charter is important in the following ways:
• It helps promote territorial integrity and sovereignty of nations as it recognizes the right
to self determination
• It advocates for gender equality hence provides for equal opportunities and treatment of
both men and women
• It promotes human dignity by emphasizing the protection of fundamental human rights
• It encourages governments to provide essential social services such as education and
health care hence promoting physical and mental health
• It promotes justice as it guarantees the individuals the right to fair trial
• It protects the rights of the minorities such as children, women, the disabled and national
minorities
• It promotes international peace and security by minimizing conflicts
• Respect for human rights promotes good governance
• It has enabled the UN to provide humanitarian assistance through organizations such as
the UNHCR.
The Kenyan Bill of Rights
The Kenyan Bill of Rights is contained in Chapter Four of the Constitution of Kenya. It is
divided into five parts.
Application of the Kenyan Bill of Rights to Specific Groups of People in Kenya
The Constitution clarifies certain rights to groups of persons who are considered vulnerable and
marginalized. These are Children, persons living with disabilities, youth, minorities and
marginalized groups, older members of the society, arrested and detained persons.
Children
A child is a person below the age of 18. The Bill of Rights guarantees every child the following
rights:
• The right to name and nationality from birth

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• The right to free and compulsory education
• The right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care
• The right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, violence,
inhuman treatment and exploitative labour
• The right to parental care
• The right not to be detained except as a measure of last resort.
Persons Living with Disabilities
These are persons with either visual, physical or mental impairments. They are entitled to the
following rights:
• To be treated with dignity
• To access educational institutions and facilities
• To reasonable access to all places, public transport and information
• To access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person's
disability
• To use sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication
The Youth
These are persons between the ages 18 and 35 years. The bill of rights promotes the interest of
the youth in the following ways:
• It guarantees them access to relevant education and training
• It guarantees the them freedom to associate
• It guarantees them access to employment opportunities
• It protects them against harmful cultural practices exploitation
• It guarantees them the freedom to be represented
Minorities and Marginalized Groups
The Bill of Rights protects the rights of the minorities and marginalized groups in the following
ways:
• It guarantees them the freedom to be represented in government
• It guarantees them access to special opportunities in educational and economic fields
• It guarantees them access to employment opportunities
• It guarantees them reasonable access to social services such as health and water

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• It guarantees them the freedom to develop their cultural values, languages and practices
Older Members of Society
The Bill of Rights promotes the interest of the Older Members of the Society in the following
ways:
• It guarantees them the freedom to participate in the affairs of society
• It guarantees them the freedom to peruse their own personal development
• It protects them from abuse
• It guarantees them reasonable access to care and assistance from their family and state
• It accords them the freedom to live in dignity and respect
Rights of Arrested Persons
The Bill guarantees an arrested person the following rights:
• To be informed in a language that the person understands of the reason for the, the right
to remain silent and the consequences of not remaining silent.
• To communicate with an advocate or other persons whose assistance is necessary
• Not to be compelled to make any confession that could be used as evidence against the
person
• To be held separately from persons who are serving a sentence
• To be brought before a court as soon as reasonable
• To be charged or informed of reason for the continuing detention or be released
• To be released on bond or bail on reasonable conditions
• Not to be remanded in custody for an offence which is punishable by a fine only or by
imprisonment for not more than six months
Rights of Persons Detained, Held in Custody or Imprisoned
The Bill guarantees the following rights to such persons:
• Retention of all the fundamental rights and freedoms except those incompatible with
being detained, held in custody or imprisoned
• Entitlement to rights of habeas corpus
• To humane treatment as spelt out in the law
• Treatment in keeping with relevant international human rights instruments
Rights of an accused person in a court of law during trial in Kenya

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The Bill guarantees the following rights to such a person:
• The accused person is presumed innocent until proven guilty
• He/she should be informed of the charge with sufficient detail so as to prepare a defense
• One should be given adequate time to consult with the advocate or witnesses
• One should be present when court proceedings are taking place
• One should be given a chance to plead for leniency
• One should not be forced to give evidence
• One should be allowed to appeal against ruling
• Right to legal representation
• Have the trial begin and be concluded without delays
• Remain silent not to testify during proceedings
• Assistance of interpreter so as to understand the language
KENYA NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND EQUALITY COMMISSION
_ It comprises of at least three and not more than nine members appointed by the president with
the approval of the National Assembly.
Functions of the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission
• To promote respect for human rights and develop a culture of human rights in the country
• To promote gender equality in the country
• To receive complaints about alleged abuses of human rights from citizens
• To investigate and report on the observance of human rights in the country
• To ensure that the country complies with international treaties regarding human rights
• To implement programmes intended to create public awareness of the rights
• To provide a shadow report to the United Nations on the status of observance of human
rights in the country
• To make recommendations to the state to improve the functions of state organs
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1991 Q25
Explain how the bill of rights in Kenya Constitution protects the rights of the
individuals.

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2. 1997 Q21b
b) Explain the circumstances which may force the government to limit the rights
and the freedoms of the individual. (12marks)

3. 1998 Q14
State one fundamental right of the individual which a person in prison is
deprived of (2 marks)

4. 2002 Q6b
(b) Explain six ways in which the Bill of Rights protests the rights of the
individual (12 marks)

5. 2003 Q 3
State one reason why the government may limit the freedom of speech (1 mark)

6. 2006 Q8
Identify two development rights of children (2 marks)

7. 2006 Q7
What is direct democracy? (1 mark)

8. 2006 Q22
(a) What five situations can make a registered voter to be denied the right
to vote in Kenya (5 marks)

(b) Explain the right to an accused person during trial in a court of law in
Kenya (10 marks)

9. 2007 Q17 (pp2)

Identify two types of democracy. (2 marks)

10. 2008 Q12

Give one reason why the government of Kenya may limit a persons
Freedom Of speech (1mark)

11. 2010 Q17

Give one type of human rights. (1 mark)

12. 2011 Q8
Name the document which contains the rights of the child in Kenya (1mark)

13. 2012 Q10 P1

State two advantages of representative democracy. (2marks)

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14. 2012 Q22 P1
(a) Give three circumstances in which one's right to life may be taken away.
(3 marks)
(b) Explain six reasons why it is important to respect human rights.
(12 marks)

15. 2014 Q23 P1

(a) Give five reasons why human rights are important. (5 marks)

(b) Explain five functions of the Kenya National Commissions on

Human Rights.
(10 marks)
16. 2015 Q8 P1
State two ways in which direct democracy is exercised in Kenya. (2 marks)

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