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Planar Multibody ­Dynamics
Planar Multibody Dynamics
Formulation, Programming with MATLAB®,
and Applications

Second Edition

Parviz E. Nikravesh
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.

CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Nikravesh, Parviz E., 1946- author.

Title: Planar multibody dynamics : formulation, programming with MATLAB®, and
applications / Parviz Nikravesh.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018017483| ISBN 9781138096127 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315105437 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Machinery, Kinematics of. | Machinery, Dynamics of.
Classification: LCC TJ175 .N527 2018 | DDC 621.8/11—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018017483

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This book is dedicated to the memory of

Dr. Moris Nikravesh

“The Medicine Man”

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xvii
Author............................................................................................................................................ xix

1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Multibody Mechanical Systems...................................................................................1
1.2 Types of Analyses..........................................................................................................2
1.3 Methods of Formulation...............................................................................................2
1.4 Computer Programs......................................................................................................9

2. Preliminaries.......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Reference Axes............................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Scalars and Vectors...................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Arrays............................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Matrices......................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.1 Matrix Operations.......................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Linear Algebraic Equations........................................................................... 26
2.4 Vector, Array, and Matrix Differentiation................................................................ 27
2.4.1 Time Derivatives............................................................................................. 27
2.4.2 Partial Derivatives.......................................................................................... 28
2.5 Equations and Expressions......................................................................................... 31
2.5.1 Compact and Expanded Forms.................................................................... 31
2.6 Problems........................................................................................................................ 32

3. Fundamentals of Planar Kinematics................................................................................. 37

3.1 A Particle....................................................................................................................... 37
3.1.1 Kinematics of a Particle................................................................................. 37
3.2 Kinematics of a Rigid Body........................................................................................ 38
3.2.1 Coordinates of a Body.................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Velocity of a Body...........................................................................................43
3.2.3 Acceleration of a Body....................................................................................44
3.3 Definitions..................................................................................................................... 46
3.3.1 Array of Coordinates...................................................................................... 46
3.3.2 Degrees of Freedom........................................................................................ 48
3.3.3 Constraint Equations...................................................................................... 49
3.3.4 Kinematic Joints.............................................................................................. 51
3.4 Problems........................................................................................................................ 53

4. Fundamentals of Planar Dynamics................................................................................... 57

4.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion........................................................................................... 57
4.2 Particle Dynamics........................................................................................................ 58
4.2.1 Dynamics of a System of Particles............................................................... 58
4.3 Rigid body Dynamics.................................................................................................. 61
4.3.1 Moment of a Force and Torque..................................................................... 62

vii
viii Contents

4.3.2 Centroidal Equations of Motion...................................................................63

4.3.3 Noncentroidal Equations of Motion............................................................. 67
4.4 Multibody Dynamics................................................................................................... 69
4.4.1 Applied Forces................................................................................................. 69
4.4.2 Reaction Forces................................................................................................ 75
4.5 Friction Force................................................................................................................ 76
4.5.1 Wheel and Tire................................................................................................80
4.5.2 Motor and Driver............................................................................................ 82
4.6 Work and Energy.........................................................................................................83
4.7 Problems........................................................................................................................84
References................................................................................................................................ 88

5. Vector Kinematics.................................................................................................................. 89
5.1 Use of Vectors............................................................................................................... 89
5.1.1 Unit Vectors.....................................................................................................90
5.1.2 Types of Vectors.............................................................................................. 92
5.2 Open-Chain Systems................................................................................................... 94
5.3 Closed-Chain Systems................................................................................................. 97
5.3.1 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................... 97
5.3.2 Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 101
5.3.3 Six-Bar Quick-Return Mechanism.............................................................. 105
5.3.4 Six-Bar Dwell Mechanism........................................................................... 107
5.3.5 Complete Kinematic Analysis..................................................................... 108
5.4 Problems...................................................................................................................... 108

6. Free-Body Diagram............................................................................................................. 113

6.1 FBD Examples............................................................................................................. 113
6.1.1 Two-Body System (Unconstrained)............................................................ 113
6.1.2 Two-Body System (Constrained)................................................................ 116
6.1.3 Sliding Pendulum......................................................................................... 118
6.1.4 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................. 120
6.1.5 Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 122
6.2 Equations of Motion.................................................................................................. 126
6.3 Force Analysis............................................................................................................ 126
6.3.1 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................. 127
6.3.2 Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 128
6.3.3 Generalization of Force Analysis............................................................... 130
6.4 Problems...................................................................................................................... 130

7. Body-Coordinate Formulation.......................................................................................... 135

7.1 General Procedure..................................................................................................... 135
7.2 Kinematic Joints......................................................................................................... 137
7.2.1 Revolute (Pin) Joint....................................................................................... 139
7.2.2 Translational (Sliding) Joint......................................................................... 141
7.2.3 Revolute–Revolute Joint............................................................................... 142
7.2.4 Revolute–Translational Joint........................................................................ 144
7.2.5 Rigid Joint...................................................................................................... 145
7.2.6 Simple Constraints........................................................................................ 146
Contents ix

7.2.7 Circular Disc.................................................................................................. 146

7.2.8 Driver Constraints........................................................................................ 147
7.2.9 System Jacobian............................................................................................. 148
7.3 Unconstrained Equations of Motion....................................................................... 149
7.4 Constrained Equations of Motion........................................................................... 152
7.4.1 Reaction Forces and Lagrange Multipliers............................................... 153
7.5 Total Energy................................................................................................................ 160
7.6 Problems...................................................................................................................... 161

8. Body-Coordinate Simulation Program........................................................................... 169

8.1 Application Examples................................................................................................ 170
8.1.1 Double A-Arm Suspension.......................................................................... 170
8.1.2 MacPherson Suspension.............................................................................. 173
8.1.3 Cart................................................................................................................. 177
8.1.4 Conveyor Belt and Friction.......................................................................... 180
8.1.5 Rod Impacting Ground................................................................................ 182
8.2 Problems...................................................................................................................... 183

9. Joint-Coordinate Formulation........................................................................................... 185

9.1 Definitions................................................................................................................... 185
9.1.1 Joint Coordinate and Joint Reference Point............................................... 186
9.1.2 Recursive Kinematics................................................................................... 188
9.2 Open-Chain Systems................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1 Absolute Angle.............................................................................................. 195
9.2.2 Equations of Motion..................................................................................... 197
9.3 Closed-Chain Systems............................................................................................... 203
9.3.1 Cut-Joint Constraints.................................................................................... 203
9.3.2 Equations of Motion..................................................................................... 206
9.3.3 Jacobian Matrix............................................................................................. 213
9.3.4 Initial Conditions.......................................................................................... 217
9.3.5 Reaction Forces.............................................................................................. 218
9.3.6 Driver Constraint.......................................................................................... 220
9.4 A MATLAB Program................................................................................................. 221
9.5 Problems......................................................................................................................222

10. Point-Coordinate Formulation.......................................................................................... 229

10.1 Classical Method........................................................................................................ 229
10.2 Primary and Stationary Points................................................................................. 231
10.3 Constraints.................................................................................................................. 233
10.3.1 Length Constraint......................................................................................... 235
10.3.2 Angle Constraints......................................................................................... 235
10.3.3 Simple Constraints........................................................................................ 236
10.4 Secondary Points........................................................................................................ 238
10.5 Equations of Motion.................................................................................................. 241
10.6 Force and Torque Distribution................................................................................. 242
10.7 Mass Distribution...................................................................................................... 246
10.8 Mass Condensation.................................................................................................... 248
10.8.1 Two Primary Points...................................................................................... 248
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10.8.2 Three Primary Points................................................................................... 253

10.9 F  orce and Mass Addition..........................................................................................254
10.10 Problems...................................................................................................................... 255

11. Contact and Impact.............................................................................................................. 261

11.1 Piecewise Analysis..................................................................................................... 261
11.1.1 M  omentum.................................................................................................... 261
11.1.2 I mpact of Particles........................................................................................ 262
11.1.3 U  nconstrained Bodies.................................................................................. 267
11.1.4 C  onstrained Bodies...................................................................................... 271
11.1.5 I mpact with Friction..................................................................................... 273
11.2 Continuous Analysis................................................................................................. 274
11.2.1 A  Body Contacting a Rigid Surface............................................................ 274
11.2.2 T  wo-Body Contact......................................................................................... 277
11.3 Problems...................................................................................................................... 281
References.............................................................................................................................. 283

12. Kinematics and Inverse Dynamics.................................................................................. 285

12.1 Kinematic Analysis.................................................................................................... 285
12.1.1 Solution Procedures...................................................................................... 288
12.1.2 Nonlinear Algebraic Equations.................................................................. 290
12.1.3 A Program for Four-Bar Kinematics.......................................................... 294
12.2 Inverse Dynamic Analysis........................................................................................ 297
12.2.1 A Program for Four-Bar Inverse Dynamics.............................................. 302
12.2.2 Application in Robotics................................................................................305
12.3 Problems...................................................................................................................... 307
Reference................................................................................................................................309

13. Forward Dynamics.............................................................................................................. 311

13.1 Unconstrained Formulation..................................................................................... 311
13.1.1 Initial Value Problems.................................................................................. 312
13.1.2 Runge–Kutta Algorithm.............................................................................. 313
13.1.3 Integration Time-Step Size.......................................................................... 315
13.1.4 General Procedure........................................................................................ 318
13.2 Constrained Formulation.......................................................................................... 319
13.2.1 Initial Conditions.......................................................................................... 321
13.2.2 General Integration Procedure................................................................... 321
13.3 Constraint Violation.................................................................................................. 323
13.3.1 Constraint Violation Stabilization Method............................................... 323
13.3.2 Coordinate Partitioning Method................................................................ 326
13.3.3 Penalty Method............................................................................................. 328
13.3.4 Joint-Coordinate Method............................................................................. 331
13.3.5 Momentum Method..................................................................................... 331
13.4 Contact and Impact.................................................................................................... 333
13.5 Adding or Deleting Constraints.............................................................................. 337
13.6 Combined Analyses...................................................................................................340
13.7 Problems...................................................................................................................... 341
References..............................................................................................................................348
Contents xi

14. Complementary Analyses.................................................................................................. 349

14.1 Static Analysis............................................................................................................ 349
14.2 Static Equilibrium...................................................................................................... 351
14.3 Initial Condition Correction..................................................................................... 353
14.4 Redundant Constraints............................................................................................. 355
14.5 Friction......................................................................................................................... 356
14.6 Deformable Body....................................................................................................... 360
14.7 Problems...................................................................................................................... 361

15. Application Examples......................................................................................................... 365

15.1 Film-Strip Advancer.................................................................................................. 365
15.2 Web-Cutter Mechanism............................................................................................ 366
15.3 Six-Bar Quick-Return Mechanism........................................................................... 368
15.4 Six-Bar Dwell Mechanism........................................................................................ 368
15.5 Windshield Wiper Mechanism................................................................................ 369
15.6 Double A-Arm Suspension....................................................................................... 371
15.7 MacPherson Strut Suspension................................................................................. 372
15.8 Half-Car....................................................................................................................... 374
15.9 Mountain Bike............................................................................................................ 374
15.10 Motorcycle................................................................................................................... 377
15.11 Dump Truck................................................................................................................ 377
15.12 Creeping Robot........................................................................................................... 381
15.13 Sled Test and Belted Dummy................................................................................... 382
15.14 Head and Neck........................................................................................................... 385
15.15 Elliptical Exercise Machine...................................................................................... 386
15.16 Swing........................................................................................................................... 388
15.17 Satellite Panels............................................................................................................ 389

Appendix A: L-U Factorization................................................................................................ 393

Appendix B: Dynamic Analysis Program: Body Coordinates (DAP_BC)...................... 399
Appendix C: Dynamic Analysis Program: Joint Coordinates (DAP_JC)........................ 401
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 403
Preface

The basic premise of this textbook is to introduce fundamental theories, computational

methods, and program development for analyzing simple to complex planar mechanical
systems. Such a combination of theory, computational methods, and programming did
not exist in any mechanical engineering curricula four decades ago, but since then it has
become a standard course in most programs. In the late 1970s, different institutions began
to offer graduate-level courses on these combined subjects. Several textbooks and mono-
grams were published soon after, all at the graduate level. Eventually, selected chapters
from these books were offered as technical elective courses at the senior undergraduate
level, and shortly after, some of these topics were introduced at the junior level, either
replacing or complementing some of the more traditional courses.
The first edition of this textbook that was published in 2008 was the first book written
specifically for undergraduate students and practicing engineers. In the process of writing
the first edition, I intended for the book not to become a simpler version of a graduate-level
research monogram. The first edition covered three methods for formulating the kine-
matic and dynamic equations of motion, namely, the point-coordinate, body-coordinate,
and joint-coordinate methods. The methodologies for deriving the equations of motion
were all based on Newton’s laws of motion, where as much as possible the use of graduate-
level principles of mechanics was avoided. The methods of analyses that were described
in the first edition included kinematics, inverse dynamics, and forward dynamics, in addi-
tion to other complementary procedures. Due to its popularity and ease of use, MATLAB®
was chosen as the programming language for the book.

New Features
This edition may appear as a completely new textbook to some readers due to numerous
changes and new materials. These changes were made based on the feedback I received
from colleagues and students, and also from my own experience. Every time I taught a
course on planar multibody dynamics, I noticed that most undergraduate students needed
a review of the methods of analyses from their earlier course on kinematics and dynamics
of mechanisms. Therefore, in this edition, an overview of the classical vectorial method
of kinematic analysis, which most mechanical engineering students should be familiar
with by their junior year, and a review of the free-body diagram approach for construct-
ing Newton’s equations of motion have been added. A review of these classical methods
should clarify to students that the more modern computational multibody approaches are
not very different than the classical methods, except for being applied in a more systematic
process.
Other added topics to the second edition are modeling impact between bodies of a mul-
tibody system and a thorough discussion on modeling friction. The discussion of impact
covers two common approaches: the piecewise and continuous methods. In the piecewise
method, the conservation of momenta and momentum–impulse concepts are discussed.
The methodology of modeling friction is extended to represent interacting forces between

xiii
xiv Preface

a wheel–tire model and the ground. These new topics should provide a wide range of
application examples for modeling and simulation.

Computer Programs
Most chapters contain examples that are solved with MATLAB. All of the programs from
the first edition have completely been revised. Since a reader may not be a skilled pro-
grammer, the examples and exercises in the earlier chapters provide a tutorial that begins
with basic commands before introducing the reader to more advanced programming
techniques. All of the programs can be downloaded from the following website: www.
crcpress.com.
Two user manuals that accompany a general-purpose program based on the body-­
coordinate formulation and a semi-general-purpose program based on the joint-coordinate
formulation can also be downloaded. These programs can be used to model and analyze
a variety of multibody systems based on the description provided by the user. A special-
purpose program for kinematic and inverse dynamic analyses of four-bar mechanisms is
also included in this edition. Most of these programs contain an animation routine to dis-
play a stick drawing of the simulated system in motion. Because the listed programs may
contain programming, logical, or typesetting errors, the posted programs will be revised
as the errors are found. Additional complimentary programs and other relevant materials
may also be posted on the website as they become available. The reader is encouraged to
visit the website on a regular basis.

Organization
Almost all of the topics from the first edition have been kept in this edition but slightly
rearranged. With the exception of the first and last chapters, the other chapters can be cat-
egorized into four groups: fundamentals, fundamental formulations, multibody formula-
tions, and analyses.
Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to multibody dynamics and different forms of
describing the equations of motion for a system.

Fundamentals
Chapter 2 describes the notation and reviews the fundamentals of vector and matrix
algebra.
Chapter 3 begins with a brief review of the fundamentals of particle and rigid-body kine-
matics before discussing commonly used types of kinematic joints, constraints, degrees of
freedom, and other related topics.
Chapter 4 provides a review of planar dynamics beginning with a particle, a system of
particles, a rigid body, and then a multibody system. Formulations for computing applied
forces, such as springs and dampers, and representing reaction forces caused by kinematic
Preface xv

joints are discussed. A discussion on modeling friction between rigid bodies, and comput-
ing kinetic and potential energies are new additions to this chapter.
Understanding these fundamentals is essential in learning the remainder of the textbook.

Fundamental Formulations
Chapter 5 (new to this edition) reviews the classical method of vector kinematics and the
vector-loop method that can be found in most textbooks on mechanisms.
Chapter 6 (new to this edition) provides an overview of the classical free-body diagram
technique for constructing the dynamic equations of motion.

Multibody Formulations
Chapter 7 presents the method of body coordinates to formulate multibody equations of
motion. This formulation may be considered the simplest and, at the same time, the most
powerful method for computational multibody dynamics. This formulation is a systematic
extension of the free-body diagram method in Chapter 6, which is suitable for computa-
tional procedures.
Chapter 8 introduces the reader to a general-purpose program based on the body-­
coordinate formulation of Chapter 7. Several examples that have been modeled and ana-
lyzed by this program are presented in this chapter. The program and its user manual are
available for download.
Chapter 9 describes a method known as the joint-coordinate formulation. This method
is a systematic process that transforms the equations of motion from the body coordinates
to a minimal or a much smaller set of equations. This formulation provides computational
efficiency while preserving all the advantages of the body-coordinate formulation. A semi-
general-purpose program accompanies this chapter that can be downloaded. The program
requires some programming by the user to describe a multibody system for analysis.
Chapter 10 presents a method that describes a body or a multibody system as a collection
of interconnected particles, and therefore, it bypasses the use of rotational coordinates.
The resulting equations of motion do not introduce any approximation in describing the
dynamics of a system.
Chapter 11 (new to this edition) discusses two well-known methods for modeling the
impact or contact in multibody dynamics. In the piecewise analysis method, the concepts
of momentum and impulse are reviewed. In the continuous analysis method, several con-
tact models are studied.

Analyses
Chapter 12 provides algorithms for kinematic and inverse dynamic analyses. Numerical
methods for solving linear and nonlinear algebraic equations are reviewed. A special-­
purpose program for these two types of analyses of four-bar mechanisms is also presented.
Chapter 13 begins with a brief discussion on numerical methods for solving ordinary
differential equations. Algorithms for forward dynamic analysis of unconstrained and
constrained equations of motion are presented. The issue of constraint violations in solv-
ing constrained equations of motion is discussed in detail. Finally, solution techniques
for impact analysis with the piecewise method, and adding or deleting constraints are
reviewed.
xvi Preface

Chapter 14 provides a review of several complementary methods in solving the equa-

tions of motion for static and static equilibrium analyses, correcting initial conditions prior
to a forward dynamic analysis, and a method to improve computational efficiency in prob-
lems that involve friction.
Chapter 15 provides several application examples of planar multibody systems. Some
of the simple examples have been used throughout the book as exercises, or as end-of-
chapter problems. Other more complex examples are provided as simulation projects.
An instructor, or a reader, may choose to cover the book in its entirety or to consider only
a selected number of chapters. Four possible options for covering the topics are suggested
in the following. In all these options, Chapters 1–6 and 12–15 must be considered—the
options only apply to the multibody formulation chapters:

• Option A: Chapters 7 and 8, and Chapter 11 as a secondary option

• Option B: Chapters 7–9
• Option C: Chapter 10
• Option D: All chapters

As an undergraduate course, consider Option A, B, or C. Option D is recommended for a

graduate-level course.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgments

Since my first book on the subject of multibody dynamics was published in 1988, I have
received many compliments and acknowledgments from colleagues and readers, many of
whom I have not had the privilege of ever meeting. I am humbled by their kind words, and
because of their encouraging remarks, I decided to write the first edition of this textbook,
and now the second edition.
Over the years, I have received many useful suggestions and ideas from students who
have taken my course. It is their appreciation that makes writing a textbook worthwhile.
I am grateful to all of them.
Finally, I extend my special gratitude to my colleague Dr. Mohammad A. Poursina for
his valuable suggestions, comments, and “cheerleading” during the course of this project.
Without his enthusiastic comments, some of the newly added topics would not have been
included in this edition.

Parviz E. Nikravesh
Tucson, Arizona

xvii
Author

Parviz E. Nikravesh has been a researcher and an educator for more than 40 years. He is
currently a professor in the department of aerospace and mechanical engineering at the
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. He is the author of a large number of journal pub-
lications in theoretical and computational dynamics. His first book, titled Computer-Aided
Analysis of Mechanical Systems, has been translated from English to several other languages
and is considered to be the first textbook on the subject of multibody dynamics.
Professor Nikravesh is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and
the Society of Automotive Engineers. He has served on the editorial board of the jour-
nal Multibody System Dynamics since its conception. He has received many awards for his
­contributions to the field of computational dynamics including an honorary doctorate
degree.

xix
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1
Introduction

The major goal of the engineering profession is to design and manufacture marketable
products of high quality. Today’s industries are utilizing computers in every phase of the
design and manufacture of their products. The process of design and manufacture, begin-
ning with an idea and ending with a final product, is a closed-loop process. The design
process requires a thorough understanding and ability to analyze the product. Computer-
aided analysis allows an engineer to simulate and predict the behavior of a product. Based
on the analysis results, the product design can be optimized prior to actual production.
To simulate the behavior of a product, we must know the individual components that
make up the product. A product may contain mechanical, electrical, or other components.
If the mechanical components are allowed to move relative to one another, the product is
called a multibody system. The interconnection between various components, or bodies,
can be through kinematic joints, springs, dampers, impact, or other elements. Bodies of
a mechanical system are generally deformable. But in most cases, they can be assumed
nondeformable (rigid) due to their negligible deformation. The behavior (e.g., the motion)
of a multibody system can be analyzed by using pencil and paper (classical methods) only
if the system is extremely simple and simplifying assumptions are made. Even for simple
systems, it may not be feasible to perform an analysis without a computer. This is definitely
true for realistically complex multibody systems. Therefore, it is the objective of this text-
book to present computational analysis techniques that can be applied systematically to
systems composed of nondeformable bodies undergoing large planar motion regardless
of their complexity.

1.1 Multibody Mechanical Systems

Multibody mechanical systems range from the very simple to the very complex. A pen-
dulum and a slider–crank mechanism are examples of simple systems, whereas the sus-
pension and steering systems of an automobile, a walking robotic devise, and an exercise
machine are examples of more complex systems. The bodies of some multibody systems can
only move in parallel planes. Such systems are called planar or two-dimensional. Systems
whose bodies do not move in parallel planes are called spatial or three-dimensional, such
as a robotic device that is capable of operating in all three directions. The motion of some
spatial systems, if projected onto a plane, could be approximated as being planar.
Most common components in multibody systems are bodies (also referred to as links),
kinematic joints, and compliance elements. Examples of kinematic joints are pins, slid-
ers, gears, and cam-followers. Typical compliance elements are springs and dampers.
Kinematic joints and compliance elements provide the connectivity between the bodies of
a system. A multibody system may contain nonmechanical components such as an elec-
tronic controller. Analyzing the dynamics of such a system must also include an analytical

1
2 Planar Multibody Dynamics

model of the controller. The bodies of most multibody systems can be considered as non-
deformable. However, in some applications, deformation of a link may not be negligible
and should be considered in the analysis.
Studying a multibody system involves two fundamental steps: modeling and analysis.
Modeling or formulation is the process of constructing the necessary equations that, if
solved, would reveal the behavior of a system. In this textbook, we will consider several
methods of formulation, each having its own advantages and disadvantages. Depending
on the application of a multibody system, different types of analyses could be considered.

1.2 Types of Analyses
There are two different aspects to the study of a mechanical system: analysis and design.
When a mechanical system is acted upon by a given excitation, for example, an external
force, the system exhibits a certain response. The process that allows an engineer to study
the response of an already existing system to a known excitation is called analysis. This
requires a complete knowledge of the physical characteristics of the mechanical system,
such as material composition, shape, and arrangement of parts. Conversely, the process
of determining the physical characteristics that are necessary for a mechanical system
to perform a prescribed task is called design or synthesis. The design process requires the
application of scientific techniques along with the engineering judgment. The scientific
techniques in the design process, such as analysis and optimization, are merely tools to be
used by the engineer. Although these methodologies can be applied in a systematic man-
ner, the overall design process hinges on the judgment of the designer. Because the scien-
tific aspect of the design process requires analysis techniques as tools, it is important to
learn about the methods of analysis prior to design.
The branch of analysis that studies motion, time, and force is called mechanics. It con-
sists of two parts—statics and dynamics. In statics, we analyze stationary systems—systems
in which time is not a factor. Dynamics, on the other hand, deals with systems that are
nonstationary—systems that change their positions with respect to time. Dynamics is
divided into two disciplines—kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics is the study of motion
regardless of forces that produce the motion. More explicitly, kinematics is the study of
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Kinetics, on the other hand, is the study of motion
and its relationship with the forces that produce that motion. It is, however, very common
to refer to kinetic analysis as dynamic analysis, because kinetic analysis must be based on
the knowledge of the kinematics of a system as well. Therefore, in this textbook, we will
use the term dynamic instead of kinetic. We will discuss several computational methods of
analyses—kinematic analysis, inverse dynamic analysis, forward dynamic analysis, static analysis,
and static equilibrium analysis.

1.3 Methods of Formulation
Classical methods of analysis in mechanics have relied upon graphical and often quite
complex techniques. These techniques are mostly based on geometrical interpretations
Introduction 3

of the system under consideration. Furthermore, these techniques have been developed
for hand derivation and solution of the equations. Some of these techniques can be imple-
mented in computer programs. However, more modern solution techniques can take full
advantage of the capabilities of computational methods. In this section, we provide an
overview of some of the formulation methods that are discussed in this textbook through
several simple examples. In this overview, we do not discuss the details of each method or
how a set of equations has been derived. Our objective is to realize that there is more than
one way to formulate a problem for a particular form of analysis.
As the first example, we consider the slider–crank mechanism shown in Figure 1.1. The
lengths of the crank and connecting rod are L1 = 0.2 m and L2 = 0.4 m, respectively. The
crank, link OA, rotates with a constant angular velocity of ω1 = 1.5 rad/s in the counter-
clockwise direction. Let us assume that our objective is to determine the position, velocity,
and acceleration of the connecting rod, link (2), and the slider at the configuration where
the crank makes a 30° angle with the horizontal axis.
For our analysis, we define the angles of links (1) and (2) with respect to the horizontal
axis as θ 1 and θ 2, respectively. The position of the slider with respect to point O is defined
as d. Since we are not interested in the forces that cause or are the result of this motion,
the process is purely a kinematic analysis. In the following discussion on different forms of
solution, we present each method in a general form without explaining the details of the
implementation.
The first method of kinematic analysis that we consider is the classical graphical tech-
nique. For position analysis, the triangle OAB, depicted in Figure 1.2a, is drawn as accu-
rately as possible since the lengths OA and AB and the angle of the crank are given. This
process reveals that there are two solutions for the given data—the constructed triangle
could be either OAB or OABʹ. Although both solutions are feasible, based on the original
diagram, we choose point B to represent the position of the slider. From the constructed
triangle, by measurements, we determine d = 0.53 m and θ 1 = 165°. This completes the
graphical position analysis for this mechanism in the specified configuration.
To perform a velocity analysis, for the given orientation of the slider–crank, a velocity
vector polygon is constructed as shown in Figure 1.2b. This polygon is constructed based
on the results from the position analysis (orientation of the links) and the given angular
velocity of the crank as ω1 = 1.5 rad/s counterclockwise. The polygon shows the velocity of
  
point A, v A; the velocity of the slider, v B; and the velocity of point A relative to point B, v A , B .
B
We measure the magnitude of v to be 0.21 m/s with a direction to the left. Based on the

measured magnitude of v A , B and the length of link AB, we determine the angular velocity
of the connecting rod to be ω 2 = 0.6 rad/s clockwise.
Similar to the velocity analysis, an acceleration polygon can be drawn for acceleration
analysis as shown in Figure 1.2c. This polygon is constructed based on the results of the
position and velocity analyses, and the given angular acceleration of the crank, α1 = 0

y A
(2)
L1 L2
(1) θ2
θ1 (3)
O B
x
d

FIGURE 1.1
A slider–crank mechanism.
4 Planar Multibody Dynamics

(a) (b) (c)

0.1 m/s
0.1 m
A
0.1 m/s 2
A v A,B vA
B’ 30° B B aB
O O
O B
vB a A,B
aA
A

FIGURE 1.2
Graphical methods for (a) position, (b) velocity, and (c) acceleration analyses.


(constant angular velocity). The polygon shows the acceleration of point A, a A; the accelera-
B  A, B
tion of the slider, a ; and the acceleration of point A relative to point B, a . Direct measure-

ments reveal the magnitude of a B to be 0.51 m/s2 with a direction to the left. Based on the

measured magnitude of the so-called tangential component of a A , B and the length of link
AB, we determine the angular acceleration of the connecting rod to be α 2 = 1.4 rad/s CCW.
The graphical process provides a visual understanding of the kinematics of a system.
However, the process is not accurate, and it could become impractical if we need to repeat
the process for many different configurations. The accuracy of the results from a position
analysis depends on how accurately we draw the lines and circles, and on the accuracy
of the measurements for the lengths and angles. Obviously, the measurement errors from
the position analysis will be included in the measurement errors from the corresponding
velocity polygon and will further be magnified in the results from the acceleration poly-
gon. Therefore, the overall results from a graphical analysis cannot be very accurate.
A classical analytical formulation for kinematics of planar mechanisms is known as the
vector-loop method. For the slider–crank mechanism of Figure 1.1, this method requires
constructing algebraic relationships between the defining variables θ 1, θ 2, and d. A vector
loop for the closed triangle OABO yields the following equations:

0.2 cos θ 1 − 0.4cosθ 2 − d = 0

(1.1)
0.2 sin θ 1 − 0.4sin θ 2 = 0

For the crank angle θ 1 = 30°, these two equations can be solved for the two unknown
variables, θ 2 and d. The method of solution for such nonlinear algebraic equations will be
discussed later in this textbook. At this point we are only interested in the concept and not
in the details. Such a solution provides θ 2 = 165.5247° and d = 5.6057 m.
For velocity analysis, the time derivative of Eq. (1.1) provides the velocity equations as
follows:

−0.2 sin θ 1ω1 + 0.4sin θ 2ω2 − d = 0

(1.2)
0.2 cos θ 1ω1 − 0.4cosθ 2ω 2 = 0

Knowing the values of θ 1, θ 2, and ω1 = 1.5, the velocity equations can be solved for ω 2 and
the linear velocity of the slider, d . The solution to these equations yields θ2 = −0.6708 rad/s
and d = −2.1707 m/s. The negative value of d indicates that the slider is moving to the left.
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