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Cellular and Molecular
Immunology

TENTH EDITION

Abul K. Abbas, MBBS

Professor Emeritus, Department of Pathology, University of California
San Francisco, San Francisco, California

Andrew H. Lichtman, MD, PhD

Professor of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women’s
Hospital, Boston, Massachuse s

Shiv Pillai, MBBS, PhD

Professor of Medicine and Health Sciences and Technology, Harvard
Medical School, Massachuse s General Hospital, Boston, Massachuse s
Table of Contents

Instructions for online access

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Online Resources for Instructors and Students

Chapter 1. Properties and Overview of Immune Responses

Innate and Adaptive Immunity

Innate Immunity

Adaptive Immunity

Summary
Chapter 2. Cells and Tissues of the Immune System

Cells of the Immune System

Anatomy and Functions of Lymphoid Tissues

Summary

Chapter 3. Leukocyte Circulation and Migration Into Tissues

Overview of Leukocyte Migration

Adhesion Molecules on Leukocytes and Endothelial Cells

Involved in Leukocyte Recruitment

Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors

Leukocyte-Endothelial Interactions and Leukocyte Recruitment

into Tissues

Migration of Neutrophils and Monocytes to Sites of Infection or

Tissue Injury

Migration and Recirculation of T Lymphocytes

Migration of B Lymphocytes

Summary

Chapter 4. Innate Immunity

Overview of Innate Immunity

Recognition of Microbes and Damaged Tissue by the Innate

Immune System

Cellular Pattern Recognition Receptors

 Cellular Components of the Innate Immune System

Soluble Effector Molecules of Innate Immunity

The Inflammatory Response

The Antiviral Response

Stimulation of Adaptive Immunity

Mechanisms that Limit Innate Immune Responses

Summary

Chapter 5. Antibodies and Antigens

Antibody Structure

Synthesis, Assembly, and Expression of Immunoglobulin

Molecules

Antibody Binding of Antigens

Structure-Function Relationships in Antibody Molecules

Summary

Chapter 6. Antigen Presentation to T Lymphocytes and the

Function of Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules

Properties of Antigens Recognized by T Lymphocytes

Antigen Capture and the Functions of Antigen-Presenting Cells

The Major Histocompatibility Complex

Processing of Protein Antigens

 Presentation of Nonprotein Antigens to T Cells

Summary

Chapter 7. Immune Receptors and Signal Transduction

Overview of Signal Transduction

The Immune Receptor Family

The T Cell Receptor Complex and T Cell Signaling

The B Lymphocyte Antigen Receptor Complex

The Attenuation of Immune Receptor Signaling

Cytokine Receptors and Signaling

Summary

Chapter 8. Lymphocyte Development and Antigen Receptor Gene

Rearrangement

Overview of Lymphocyte Development

Rearrangement of Antigen Receptor Genes in B and T

Lymphocytes

B Lymphocyte Development

T Lymphocyte Development

Summary

Chapter 9. Activation of T Lymphocytes

 Overview of T Lymphocyte Activation

Signals for T Lymphocyte Activation

Functional Responses of T Lymphocytes

Decline of T Cell Responses

Summary

Chapter 10. Differentiation and Functions of CD4+ Effector T Cells

Overview of CD4+ T Cell–Mediated Immune Responses

Subsets of CD4+ Effector T Cells

The Th1 Subset

The Th2 Subset

The Th17 Subset

Functions of Other HELPER T Cell Subsets

Summary

Chapter 11. Differentiation and Functions of CD8+ Effector T Cells

Differentiation of CD8+ T Cells Into Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes

Effector Functions of CD8+ Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes

Cytokine Production by CD8+ Effector T Cells

Roles of CD8+ Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes in Host Defense

Summary
Chapter 12. B Cell Activation and Antibody Production

Overview of Humoral Immune Responses

Antigen Recognition and Antigen-Induced B Cell Activation

Helper T Cell–Dependent Antibody Responses to Protein

Antigens

Antibody Responses to T-Independent Antigens

Antibody Feedback: Regulation of Humoral Immune Responses

By Fc Receptors

Summary

Chapter 13. Effector Mechanisms of Humoral Immunity

Overview of Humoral Immunity

Neutralization of Microbes and Microbial Toxins

Antibody-Mediated Opsonization and Phagocytosis

The Complement System

Summary

Chapter 14. Specialized Immunity at Epithelial Barriers and in

Immune Privileged Tissues

General Features of Immunity at Epithelial Barriers

Immunity in the Gastrointestinal System

Immunity in Other Mucosal Tissues

 The Cutaneous Immune System

Immune-Privileged Tissues

Immunity in the Mammalian Fetus and Newborn

Summary

Chapter 15. Immunologic Tolerance and Autoimmunity

Overview of Immunologic Tolerance

T Lymphocyte Tolerance

B Lymphocyte Tolerance

Tolerance to Commensal Microbes and Other Foreign Antigens

Mechanisms of Autoimmunity

Summary

Chapter 16. Immunity to Microbes

Overview of Immune Responses to Microbes

Immunity to Extracellular Bacteria

Immunity to Intracellular Bacteria

Immunity to Fungi

Immunity to Viruses

Immunity to Parasites

Strategies for Vaccine Development

 Summary

Chapter 17. Transplantation Immunology

General Principles of Transplantation Immunology

Immune Responses to Allografts

Patterns and Mechanisms of Allograft Rejection

Prevention and Treatment of Allograft Rejection

Xenogeneic Transplantation

Blood Transfusion and the Abo and Rh Blood Group Antigens

Hematopoietic Stem Cell (HSC) Transplantation

Summary

Chapter 18. Tumor Immunology

Overview of Tumor Immunity

Tumor Antigens

Immune Responses To Tumors

Evasion of Immune Responses by Tumors

Immunotherapy For Tumors

Summary

Chapter 19. Hypersensitivity Disorders

 Causes of Hypersensitivity Diseases

Mechanisms and Classification of Hypersensitivity Reactions

Diseases Caused by Antibodies and Antigen-Antibody

Complexes

Diseases Caused by T Lymphocytes

Therapeutic Approaches for Immunologic Diseases

Selected Immunologic Diseases: Pathogenesis and Therapeutic

Strategies

Summary

Chapter 20. Allergy

Overview of IgE-Dependent Allergic Reactions

Production of IgE

Cells Involved in Allergic Reactions

Reactions Dependent on IgE and Mast Cells

Genetic Susceptibility to Allergic Disease

Allergic Diseases in Humans: Pathogenesis and Therapy

The Protective Roles of Immune Reactions Mediated by IgE and

Mast Cells

Summary

Chapter 21. Primary and Acquired Immunodeficiencies

 Overview of Immunodeficiency Diseases

Primary (Congenital) Immunodeficiencies

Secondary (Acquired) Immunodeficiencies

Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency

Syndrome

Summary

Glossary

Appendix I. Principal Features of Selected CD Molecules

Appendix II. Cytokines

Appendix III. Laboratory Techniques Commonly Used in

Immunology

Index
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TO HEIGHTEN THE COLOUR AND THE FLAVOUR OF GRAVIES.

This is best done by the directions given for making Espagnole. An

ounce or two of the lean of unboiled ham, cut into dice and coloured
slowly in a small stewpan, or smoothly-tinned iron saucepan, with
less than an ounce of butter, a blade of mace, two or three cloves, a
bay-leaf, a few small sprigs of savoury herbs, and an eschalot or
two, or about a teaspoonful of minced onion, and a little young
parsley root, when it can be had, will convert common shin of beef
stock, or even strong broth, into an excellent gravy, if it be gradually
added to them after they have stewed slowly for quite half an hour,
and then boiled with them for twenty minutes or more. The liquid
should not be mixed with the other ingredients until the side of the
stewpan is coloured of a reddish brown; and should any thickening
be required, a teaspoonful of flour should be stirred in well, and
simmered for three or four minutes before the stock is added; the
pan should be strongly shaken round afterwards, to detach the
browning from it, and this must be done often while the ham is
stewing.
Obs.—The cook who is not acquainted with this mode of preparing
or enriching gravies, will do well to make herself acquainted with it;
as it presents no difficulties, and is exceedingly convenient and
advantageous when they are wanted in small quantities, very highly
flavoured and well coloured. An unboiled ham, kept in cut, will be
found, as we have already said, a great economy for this, and other
purposes, saving much of the expense commonly incurred for gravy-
meats. As eschalots, when sparingly used, impart a much finer
savour than onions, though they are not commonly so much used in
England, we would recommend that a small store of them should
always be kept.
 BARON LIEBEG’s BEEF GRAVY.

(Most excellent for hashes, minces, and other dishes made of cold
meat.)
For particulars of this most useful receipt, for extracting all its
juices from fresh meat of every kind in the best manner, the cook is
referred to the first part of the chapter on soups. The preparation, for
which minute directions are given there, if poured on a few bits of
lean ham lightly browned, with the other ingredients indicated above,
will be converted into gravy of fine flavour and superior quality.
With no addition, beyond that of a little thickening and spice, it will
serve admirably for dressing cold meat, in all the usual forms of
hashes, minces, blanquettes, &c., &c., and convert it into dishes as
nourishing as those of meat freshly cooked, and it may be
economically made in small quantities with any trimmings of
undressed beef, mutton, or veal, mixed together, which are free from
fat, and not sinewy: flavour may be given to it at once by chopping
up with them the lean part only of a slice or two of ham, or of highly-
cured beef.
 SHIN OF BEEF STOCK FOR GRAVIES.

There is no better foundation for strong gravies than shin of beef

stewed down to a jelly (which it easily becomes), with the addition
only of some spice, a bunch of savoury herbs, and a moderate
proportion of salt; this, if kept in a cool larder, boiled softly for two or
three minutes every second or third day, and each time put into a
clean, well-scalded pan, will remain good for many days, and may
easily be converted into excellent soup or gravy. Let the bone be
broken in one or two places, take out the marrow, which, if not
wanted for immediate use, should be clarified, and stored for future
occasions; put a pint and a half of cold water to the pound of beef,
and stew it very gently indeed for six or seven hours, or even longer
should the meat not then be quite in fragments. The bones of calf’s
feet which have been boiled down for jelly, the liquor in which the
head has been cooked, and any remains of ham quite freed from the
smoky parts, from rust, and fat, will be serviceable additions to this
stock. A couple of pounds of the neck of beef may be added to six of
the shin with very good effect; but for white soup or sauces this is
better avoided.
Shin of beef, 6 lbs.; water, 9 pints; salt, 1 oz.; large bunch of
savoury herbs; peppercorns, 1 teaspoonful; mace, 2 blades.
 RICH PALE VEAL GRAVY, OR CONSOMMÉ.

The French, who have always at hand their stock-pot of good

bouillon (beef soup or broth), make great use of it in preparing their
gravies. It is added instead of water to the fresh meat, and when this,
in somewhat larger proportions, is boiled down in it, with the addition
only of a bunch of parsley, a few green onions, and a moderate
seasoning of salt, a strong and very pure-flavoured pale gravy is
produced. When the best joints of fowls, or of partridges have been
taken for fricassees or cutlets, the remainder may be stewed with a
pound or two of veal into a consommé, which then takes the name of
chicken or of game gravy. For a large dinner it is always desirable to
have in readiness such stock as can easily and quickly be converted
into white and other sauces. To make this, arrange a slice or two of
lean ham in a stewpan or saucepan with three pounds of the neck of
veal once or twice divided (unless the thick fleshy part of the knuckle
can be had), and pour to them three full pints of strong beef or veal
broth; or, if this cannot conveniently be done, increase the proportion
of meat or diminish that of the liquid, substituting water for the broth;
throw in some salt after the boiling has commenced, and the gravy
has been well skimmed, with one mild onion, a bunch of savoury
herbs, a little celery, a carrot, a blade of mace, and a half-
saltspoonful of peppercorns; stew those very gently for four hours;
then, should the meat be quite in fragments, strain off the gravy, and
let it become sufficiently cold to allow the fat to be entirely cleared
from it. A handful of nicely prepared mushroom-buttons will much
improve its flavour; and the bones of boiled calf’s feet, or the fresh
ones of fowls, will be found excellent additions to it. A better method
of making it, when time and trouble are not regarded, is to heat the
meat, which ought to be free of bones, quite through, with from a
quarter to half a pint of broth only, and when on probing it with the
point of a knife no blood issues from it, and it has been turned and
equally done, to moisten it with the remainder of the broth, which
should be boiling.
 Lean of ham, 6 to 8 oz.; neck or knuckle of veal, 3 lbs.; strong
broth, 3 pints (or veal, 4 lbs., and water, 3 pints); salt; bunch of
savoury herbs; mild onion, 1; carrot, 1 large or 2 small; celery 1/2
small head; mace, 1 large blade; peppercorns, 1/2 saltspoonful; 4
hours or more. Or: ham, 1/2 lb.; veal, 4 lbs.; broth, third of a pint;
nearly 1 hour. Additional broth, 3 pints: 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 hours.
 RICH DEEP-COLOURED VEAL GRAVY.

Lay into a large thick stewpan or saucepan, from half to three

quarters of a pound of undressed ham, freed entirely from fat, and
from the smoked edges, and sliced half an inch thick; on this place
about four pounds of lean veal, cut from the best part of the knuckle
or from the neck (part of the fillet, which in France is often used for it
instead, not being generally purchasable here, the butchers seldom
dividing the joint); pour to them about half a pint of good broth,[54]
and place the pan over a brisk fire until it is well reduced; then thrust
a knife into the meat, and continue the stewing more gently until a
glaze is formed as we have described at page 10. The latter part of
the process must be very slow; the stewpan must be frequently
shaken, and the gravy closely watched that it may not burn: when it
is of a fine deep amber colour, pour in sufficient boiling broth to cover
the meat, add a bunch of parsley, and a few mushrooms and green
onions. A blade or two of mace, a few white peppercorns, and a
head of celery, would, we think, be very admissible additions to this
gravy, but it is extremely good without. Half the quantity can be
made, but it will then be rather more troublesome to manage.
54. When there is no provision of this in the house, the quantity may be made
with a small proportion of beef, and the trimmings of the veal, by the
directions for Bouillon, Chapter I.

Undressed ham, 8 to 12 oz.; lean veal, 4 lbs.; broth, 1/2 pint; 1 to 2

hours. Broth, 3 to 4 pints: bunch of parsley and green onions, or 1
Portugal onion; mushrooms, 1/4 to 1/2 pint: 1-1/2 to 2 hours.
 GOOD BEEF OR VEAL GRAVY. (ENGLISH RECEIPT.)

Flour and fry lightly in a bit of good butter a couple of pounds of

either beef or veal; drain the meat well from the fat, and lay it into a
small thick stewpan or iron saucepan; pour to it a quart of boiling
water; add, after it has been well skimmed and salted, a large mild
onion sliced, very delicately fried, and laid on a sieve to drain, a
carrot also sliced, a small bunch of thyme and parsley, a blade of
mace, and a few peppercorns; stew these gently for three hours or
more, pass the gravy through a sieve into a clean pan, and when it is
quite cold clear it entirely from fat, heat as much as is wanted for
table, and if not sufficiently thick stir into it from half to a whole
teaspoonful of arrow-root mixed with a little mushroom catsup. Beef
or veal, 2 lbs.; water, 2 pints; fried onion, 1 large; carrot, 1; small
bunch of herbs; salt, 1 small teaspoonful or more; mace, 1 blade;
peppercorns, 20: 3 to 3-1/2 hours.
 A RICH ENGLISH BROWN GRAVY.

Brown lightly and carefully from four to six ounces of lean ham,
thickly sliced and cut into large dice; lift these out, and put them into
the pan in which the gravy is to be made; next, fry lightly also, a
couple of pounds of neck of beef dredged moderately with flour, and
slightly with pepper; put this, when it is done, over the ham; and then
brown gently and add to them two or three eschalots, or a Portugal
onion; should neither of these be at hand, one not large common
onion must be used instead. Pour over these ingredients a quart of
boiling water, or of weak but well-flavoured broth; bring the whole
slowly to a boil, clear off the scum with great care, throw in a
saltspoonful of salt, four cloves, a blade of mace, twenty corns of
pepper, a bunch of savoury herbs, a carrot, and a few slices of
celery: these last two may be fried or not as is most convenient. Boil
the gravy very softly until it is reduced to little more than a pint;
strain, and set it by until the fat can be taken from it. Heat it anew,
add more salt if needed and a little mushroom catsup, cayenne-
vinegar, or whatever flavouring it may require for the dish with which
it is to be served; it will seldom require any thickening. A dozen small
mushrooms prepared as for pickling, or two or three morels,
previously well washed and soaked, may be added to it at first with
advantage. Half this quantity of gravy will be sufficient for a single
tureen, and the economist can diminish a little the proportion of meat
when it is thought too much.
 PLAIN GRAVY FOR VENISON.

Trim away the fat from some cutlets, and lay them into a stewpan;
set them over a clear fire, and let them brown a little in their own
gravy; then add a pint of boiling water to each pound of meat. Take
off the scum, throw in a little salt, and boil the gravy until reduced
one half. Some cooks broil the cutlets lightly, boil the gravy one hour,
and reduce it after it is strained. For appropriate gravy to serve with
venison, see “Haunch of Venison,” Chapter XV.
 A RICH GRAVY FOR VENISON.

There are few eaters to whom this would be acceptable, the

generality of them preferring infinitely the flavour of the venison itself
to any which the richest gravy made of other meats can afford; but
when the flavour of a well-made Espagnole is likely to be relished,
prepare it by the receipt of the following page, substituting plain
strong mutton stock for the veal gravy.
 SWEET SAUCE, OR GRAVY FOR VENISON.

Add to a quarter-pint of common venison gravy a couple of

glasses of port wine or claret, and half an ounce of sugar in lumps.
Christopher North’s sauce, mixed with three times its measure of
gravy, would be an excellent substitute for this.
 ESPAGNOLE (SPANISH SAUCE).

A highly-flavoured Gravy.
Dissolve a couple of ounces of good butter in a thick stewpan or
saucepan, throw in from four to six sliced eschalots, four ounces of
the lean of an undressed ham, three ounces of carrot, cut in small
dice, one bay leaf, two or three branches of parsley, and one or two
of thyme, but these last must be small; three cloves, a blade of
mace, and a dozen corns of pepper; add part of a root of parsley, if it
be at hand, and keep the whole stirred or shaken over a moderate
fire for twenty minutes, then add by degrees one pint of very strong
veal stock or gravy, and stew the whole gently from thirty to forty
minutes; strain it, skim off the fat, and it will be ready to serve.
Butter, 2 oz.; eschalots, 4 to 6; lean of undressed ham, 4 oz.;
carrots, 3 oz.; bay leaf, 1; little thyme and parsley, in branches;
cloves, 3; mace, 1 blade; peppercorns, 12; little parsley root: fried
gently, 20 minutes. Strong veal stock, or gravy, 1 pint: stewed very
softly, 30 to 40 minutes.
 ESPAGNOLE, WITH WINE.

Take the same proportions of ingredients as for the preceding

Espagnole, with the addition, if they should be at hand, of a dozen
small mushrooms prepared as for stewing; when these have fried
gently in the stewpan until it appears of a reddish colour all round,
stir in a tablespoonful of flour, and when it is lightly browned, add in
small portions, letting each one boil up before the next is poured in,
and shaking the pan well round, three quarters of a pint of hot and
good veal gravy, and nearly half a pint of Madeira or sherry. When
the sauce has boiled gently for half an hour, add to it a small quantity
of cayenne and some salt, if this last be needed; then strain it, skim
off the fat entirely should any appear upon the surface, and serve it
very hot. A smaller proportion of wine added a few minutes before
the sauce is ready for table, would perhaps better suit with English
taste, as with longer boiling its flavour passes off almost entirely.
Either of these Espagnoles, poured over the well bruised remains of
pheasants, partridges, or moor fowl, and boiled with them for an
hour, will become most admirable game gravy, and would generally
be considered a superlative addition to other roast birds of their kind,
as well as to the hash or salmi, for which see Chapter XV.
Ingredients as in preceding receipt, with mushrooms 12 to 18;
Madeira, or good sherry, 1/4 to 1/2 pint.
 JUS DES ROGNONS, OR, KIDNEY GRAVY.

Strip the skin and take the fat from three fresh mutton kidneys,
slice and flour them; melt two ounces of butter in a deep saucepan,
and put in the kidneys, with an onion cut small, and a teaspoonful of
fine herbs stripped from the stalks. Keep these well shaken over a
clear fire until nearly all the moisture is dried up; then pour in a pint
of boiling water, add half a teaspoonful of salt, and a little cayenne or
common pepper, and let the gravy boil gently for an hour and a half,
or longer, if it be not thick and rich. Strain it through a fine sieve, and
take off the fat. Spice or catsup may be added at pleasure.
Mutton kidneys, 3; butter, 2 oz.; onion, 1; fine herbs, 1 teaspoonful:
1/2 hour. Water, 1 pint; salt, 1/2 teaspoonful; little cayenne, or black
pepper: 1-1/2 hour.
Obs.—This is an excellent cheap gravy for haricots, curries, or
hashes of mutton; it may be much improved by the addition of two or
three eschalots, and a small bit or two of lean meat.
 GRAVY IN HASTE.

Chop fine a few bits of lean meat, a small onion, a few slices of
carrot and turnip, and a little thyme and parsley; put these with half
an ounce of butter into a thick saucepan, and keep them stirred until
they are slightly browned; add a little spice, and water in the
proportion of a pint to a pound of meat; clear the gravy from scum,
let it boil half an hour, then strain it for use.
Meat, 1 lb.; 1 small onion; little carrot, turnip, thyme, and parsley;
butter, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 6; corns of pepper, 12; water, 1 pint: 1/2 hour.
 CHEAP GRAVY FOR A ROAST FOWL.

When there is neither broth nor gravy to be had, nor meat of which
either can be made, boil the neck of the fowl after having cut it small,
in half a pint of water, with any slight seasonings of spice or herbs, or
with a little salt and pepper only; it should stew very softly for an hour
or more, or the quantity will be too much reduced. When the bird is
just ready for table, take the gravy from the dripping-pan, and drain
off the fat from it as closely as possible; strain the liquor from the
neck to it, mixing them smoothly, pass the gravy again through the
strainer, heat it, add salt and pepper or cayenne, if needed, and
serve it extremely hot. When this is done, the fowl should be basted
with good butter only, and well floured when it is first laid to the fire.
Many cooks always mix the gravy from the pan when game is
roasted, with that which they send to table with it, as they think that it
enriches the flavour; but to many persons it is peculiarly distasteful.
Neck of fowl; water, 1/2 pint; pepper, salt (little vegetable and spice
at choice): stewed gently, 1 hour; strained, stirred to the gravy of the
roast, well cleared from fat.
 ANOTHER CHEAP GRAVY FOR A FOWL.

A little good broth added to half a dozen dice of lean ham, lightly
browned in a morsel of butter, with half a dozen corns of pepper and
a small branch or two of parsley, and stewed for half an hour, will
make excellent gravy of a common kind. When there is no broth, the
neck of the chicken must be stewed down to supply its place.
 GRAVY OR SAUCE FOR A GOOSE.

Mince, and brown in a small saucepan, with a slice of butter, two

ounces of mild onion,. When it begins to brown, stir to it a
teaspoonful of flour, and in five or six minutes afterwards, pour in by
degrees the third of a pint of good brown gravy; let this simmer
fifteen minutes; strain it, bring it again to the point of boiling, and add
to it a teaspoonful of made mustard mixed well with a glass of port
wine. Season it with cayenne and pepper and salt, if this last be
needed. Do not let the sauce boil after the wine is added, but serve it
very hot.
Onions, 2 oz.; butter, 1-1/2 oz.: 10 to 15 minutes. Flour, 1
teaspoonful: 5 to 6 minutes. Gravy, 1/3 pint: 15 minutes. Mustard, 1
teaspoonful; port wine, 1 glassful; cayenne pepper; salt. See also
Christopher North’s own sauce, page 119.
 ORANGE GRAVY FOR WILD FOWL.

Boil for about ten minutes, in half a pint of rich and highly-
flavoured brown gravy, or Espagnole, half the rind of a Seville
orange, pared as thin as possible, and a small strip of lemon-rind,
with a bit of sugar the size of a hazel-nut. Strain it off, add to it a
quarter pint of port or claret, the juice of half a lemon, and a
tablespoonful of Seville orange-juice: season it with cayenne, and
serve it as hot as possible.
Gravy, 1/2 pint; 1/2 the rind of a Seville orange; lemon-peel, 1
small strip; sugar, size of hazel-nut: 10 minutes. Juice of 1/2 a
lemon; Seville orange-juice, 1 tablespoonful; cayenne. See also
Christopher North’s own sauce, page 119.
 MEAT JELLIES FOR PIES AND SAUCES.

A very firm meat jelly is easily made by stewing slowly down equal
parts of shin of beef, and knuckle or neck of veal, with a pint of cold
water to each pound of meat; but to give it flavour, some thick slices
of lean unboiled ham should be added to it, two or three carrots,
some spice, a bunch of parsley, one mild onion, or more, and a
moderate quantity of salt; or part of the meat may be omitted, and a
calf’s head, or the scalp of one, very advantageously substituted for
it, though the flavouring must then be heightened, because, though
very gelatinous, these are in themselves exceedingly insipid to the
taste. If rapidly boiled, the jelly will not be clear, and it will be difficult
to render it so without clarifying it with the whites of eggs, which it
ought never to require; if very gently stewed, on the contrary, it will
only need to be passed through a fine sieve, or cloth. The fat must
be carefully removed, after it is quite cold. The shin of beef
recommended for this and other receipts, should be from the middle
of the leg of young heifer beef, not of that which is large and coarse.
Middle of small shin of beef, 3 lbs.; knuckle or neck of veal, 3 lbs.;
lean of ham, 1/2 lb.; water, 3 quarts; carrots, 2 large, or 3 small;
bunch of parsley; 1 mild onion, stuck with 8 cloves; 2 small bay-
leaves; 1 large blade of mace; small saltspoonful of peppercorns;
salt, 3/4 oz. (more if needed): 5 to 6 hours’ very gentle stewing.
Obs.—A finer jelly may be made by using a larger proportion of
veal than of beef, and by adding clear beef or veal broth to it instead
of water, in a small proportion at first, as directed in the receipt for
consommé, see page 98, and by pouring in the remainder when the
meat is heated through. The necks of poultry, any inferior joints of
them omitted from a fricassee or other dish, or an old fowl, will
further improve it much; an eschalot or two may at choice be boiled
down in it, instead of the onion, but the flavour should be scarcely
perceptible.
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