“Exploring the world

of wines and spirits”

WSET ADVANCED
CERTIFICATE LEVEL 3 –
INTERNATIONAL
in Wines and Spirits

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CHAPTER 1
GRAPE VARIETIES

The grape variety is what largely determines the style and quality of many wines, so it is common to name
wines by their variety. But what exactly is a grape variety? The grape is the fruit of the vine and belongs to
the Ampelidacea family. Winemakers are only interested in the Vitis gene belonging to this family, which is
divided into several species. Of these, only one, Vitis vinifera, is the most important, since 99% of wines
derive from this species. All well-known names such as Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot are
varieties of Vitis vinifera.

However, other members of the Vitis gene may play a small role in wine. Vitis Labrusca grapes are grown
in the eastern states of the USA. As will be seen later in this chapter, hybrids of V. riparia, V. berlandieri
and V. rupestris often provide rootstocks onto which stems of V. Vinifera. These species are of American
origin, having been imported to Europe initially in the 19th century. Wine derived from this fruit generally
has a distinctive flavor, described by many as “fox-like.”

WHAT IS A GRAPE VARIETY?

The reproductive organs of the grape are located in the flowers. The grape has evolved as a species
thanks to wind pollination and propagation by animals. So, although the flowers are small and insignificant,
the fruit has a strong, sweet and attractive color. The flowers of almost all commercial grape varieties are
hermaphrodite; they contain both male and female organs in the same flower. Sexual reproduction begins
when the anthers (equivalent to testicles) mature and secrete pollen (equivalent to sperm). The pollen is
carried by the wind and lands on the stigmas of other grape flowers. This is known as pollination. Pollen
transfers its genetic material through a tube to the ovary, where it combines with the genetic material
contained in the ovules during the fertilization process. The fertilized ovules will become seeds, and the
ovary will become the skin that surrounds the grape. As with human reproduction, the seed will contain a
selection of genetic material from both parents. Furthermore, as with humans, the traits present in the
offspring are not simply a combination of the traits present in the parents. They may resemble one parent
more than the other, while the offspring will possess some characteristics of their own that do not derive
from either parent. The characteristics that interest the winemaker are yields, hardness, disease
resistance, fruit character and levels of tannin, acidity and sugars in the grape. Sexual reproduction results
in a natural evolution of species and also creates the possibility of adaptation through natural selection.

Hybrids
A scientist or a nursery is able to produce artificial evolution by bringing together two different species in
order to obtain benefits from both (a bit like crossing a lion with a tiger to produce a feline with a mane and
stripes – which would never happen naturally, but has been done in zoos). In the world of wine, this
“union” takes place between two species of vine such as V. European vinifera, the V. American labrusca,
the V. riparia, V. rupestris or V. berlandieri, or the V. amutrensis asiatica. The result of this union is known
as a hybrid. Generally speaking, these plants are prohibited in the production of quality wine in the
European Union (EU). However, they are cultivated in a large number of countries because they can be
particularly resistant to strong frosts or excessive humidity. Its most important use in viticulture is as a
rootstock. Here the low vigor and tolerance to phylloxera of V. riparia with the deep roots and resistance to
phylloxera of V. rupestris. The resulting hybrid can then be fertilized with another hybrid that has gained
some tolerance to the alkaline soil of the phylloxera-resistant V. berlandieri.

Commercial rootstocks are usually the result of a series of elaborate hybrid fertilizations, followed by
experiments to determine whether the desired characteristics have been achieved. When the relationship
between genes and expressed characteristics becomes more fully understood, direct genetic modification
will lead to the development of appropriate material in a much simpler manner.

Crosses
Crossbreeding occurs when reproduction occurs naturally, when the parents are different varieties of the
same species. Just as two dark-haired humans can produce a red-haired child, there is no reason to
expect the cross to possess all the characteristics of the parents. Morio-Muskat, which produces very floral
wines, has as parents Sylvaner and Pinot Blanc, both with a very neutral character. Once created, the
cross results in a new variety and can only be propagated through grafting; like all other varieties, it cannot

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be duplicated. (Riesling has been crossed with Sylvaner on many occasions, always giving different
results.) Some crosses such as Pinotage (Pinot Noir and Cinsault) in South Africa and Muller-Thurgau in
Germany have long been established in the world's vineyards. Centers specializing in developing new
varieties in this way include the University of California, Davis Campus and the Geisenheim Research
Institute in Germany. The first of these focuses on creating high-yielding quality varieties, such as Ruby
Cabernet (Cabernet Sauvignon and Carignan), which are well suited to the high temperatures of
California's Central Valley. The second of these centres has created several aromatic varieties that
achieve high sugar levels in cold climates, such as Morio-Muskat.

Varieties and Asexual Propagation

While hybridization and crossing are sexual operations, cloning is an asexual process. Cuttings are taken
from individual vines that have some trait that is considered interesting. It should be noted that a seed
extracted, for example, from a Riesling grape will not develop into a Riesling vineyard, since the genetic
instructions present in the seed will be as different from those of the vineyard as a baby's genes are from
its mother. The only way to ensure that one vine has the same characteristics as another is to take a
cutting and let it grow into a new vine. The equivalent in humans would be to extract a tissue sample and
try to create a human clone of it. Although this is not yet possible with humans, plants have been cloned
for hundreds of years. Over the centuries, unsuitable vines have disappeared and grafts of better quality
vines have replaced them in the classic vineyards. Entire regions have been planted with grafts that
theoretically come from the same layer. This is how the classic varieties initially originated.

Clones
For a grafted plant to develop, the genetic instructions have to be copied each time a new cell is created.
Although information is copied very accurately, there are occasionally errors known as mutations. These
small changes can result in plants propagated through grafting having slight differences. Propagating a
species through grafting is a form of cloning. The small differences that appear in the different varieties
thanks to mutations during the cloning process are considered different clones of the same variety. Within
a variety, some of the clones may possess natural characteristics, such as a particular flavor, high yields,
or disease resistance. A viticulturist or nursery can select clones that contain the desired qualities for
future propagation. A clone that meets all the desired characteristics may take several generations to
develop. A good selection of clones is particularly important in older varieties such as Pinot Noir, whose
immediate family includes members with very distinct characteristics. Strictly speaking, Pinot Blanc and
Pinot Gris are not grape varieties; they are clones (mutations) of Pinot Noir.

Pg.3, photo: Part of a vineyard infected by phylloxera within a vineyard where the rest is healthy. Oregon,
USA.

Phylloxera and Grafting

The turning point in the development of modern viticulture was the massive destruction of European
vineyards by the phylloxera louse in the second half of the 19th century. The lice are easily transmitted,
and the few wine-producing regions that were not affected now have to maintain very strict quarantine
procedures. The phylloxera louse leaves wounds in the roots of the plant that facilitate the entry of bacteria
and fungi, leading to diseases and, eventually over the years, to the death of the wine vines. American
vines form protective layers beneath wounds, which prevents the damage from spreading. As the vine
louse killed off vinifera vines, farmers were forced to look for a solution. First they tried to treat the
vineyards, but it was not effective. They then planted American V. vines. labrusca, which were known to
tolerate phylloxera. However, the wine they produced was of unacceptable quality. The next step was to
try to reproduce the tolerance of American vines by crossing V. vinifera and American species, but this
only gave a partial result. It was eventually discovered that European varieties could resist phylloxera if
grafted onto American rootstocks. The task of creating rootstocks suitable for different types of soil and
grape varieties has not been easy and research in this area is still ongoing. For some varieties, such as
Folle Blanche (in Cognac), suitable rootstocks have not yet been found, which has resulted in these
varieties tending to disappear in their traditional regions.

There are many regions of the world where phylloxera is not a problem, such as Chile, South Australia,
and much of Argentina and Hungary. This may be largely due to the region's geographic isolation and very
strict quarantine processes. Sandy soils are known to greatly limit the life cycle of phylloxera. In these
areas, vines do not have to be grafted and can be grown on their own roots, which leads to lower planting

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costs. However, there are other reasons for using grafts, an increase in the use of drip irrigation has
resulted in increased problems caused by nematodes and, today, many winegrowers use rootstocks
resistant to them. Ungrafted vines are now more the exception than the rule.

A grafted vine consists of two parts: an American root and a European graft. In the same way that the
variety is selected, the rootstock is selected, which can offer different advantages, and it has to be suitable
for the soil where it is planted. Traditionally, grafting was a difficult task; today, it is usually done
automatically. Large wineries have their own nurseries; others buy from commercial nurseries. Grafting is
usually done on young vineyards, although grafting on adult vines must also be taken into account. This is
very common in New World vineyards. Wine consumption is becoming more and more fashionable. For
example, with the promotion of the Mediterranean diet and its benefits, the demand for red wine,
particularly young red wine, increased. As a vineyard usually takes a minimum of three years to come into
production, it can be very difficult to adjust to the rapid demands of the market. One solution is to use
grafting on adult vines. Using this system, a Merlot cutting is grafted onto the upper part of an existing
vineyard, for example a Sauvignon Blanc. This will produce the desired fruit in the next harvest.

Selecting the Grape Variety

It is almost impossible to estimate how many varieties of grapes are cultivated, but there are certainly
thousands. Some are only known locally while others are known globally, either because they are grown
around the world or because they are responsible for some of the world's great wines. The most important
varieties are listed below. In most wine-producing areas of Western Europe, planting grapes is part of
tradition and is protected by law. In the New World there is much more pragmatism and experimentation
and many different varieties can be found grown side by side.

Pg.4, photo: Cabernet Sauvignon grafted onto a lower-yielding Sauvignon Blanc stock. St. Helena, Napa
Co., California

MOST IMPORTANT VARIETALS

White Grapes
The Chardonnay grape's name comes from a village in the Mâconnais, but it has spread rapidly from its
Burgundian roots and has been planted around the world. This grape is capable of producing quality wines
in different climates, although styles vary considerably. In cool climates, such as Champagne and Chablis,
it produces light- to medium-bodied wines with high acidity and notes of apple or green plum. In more
favorable, slightly warmer regions, they produce more citrusy wines. In warmer regions, the fruit's
character tends to be more melon- and peach-like, and can contain exotic flavors such as banana, mango,
and fig. Chardonnay from very hot regions can be full-bodied, high in alcohol and low in acidity. The fruit
character of Chardonnay is rarely pronounced, it could even be described as aromaless. This means that
circumstances such as the character of the vineyard and production techniques can greatly influence the
taste of a Chardonnay wine. It is common to use malolactic fermentation, which softens the fruit and
acidity and gives buttery and hazelnut flavors. Chardonnay is also very compatible with oak and is often
fermented and/or aged in French or American oak barrels. This gives the wine some tannin and toasted,
nutty aromas. The stirring of the lees is also used to give complexity and body to Chardonnay wine.
Classic regions include Burgundy, Champagne, California, Australia and New Zealand, but high-quality
Chardonnay is produced in many other regions. In the vineyard it can suffer from midiú.

Pg. 5, photo: Bunch of ripening Chardonnay grapes

Sauvignon Blanc is widely planted in Bordeaux, the Loire Valley and the New World, particularly New
Zealand. If planted in cool regions with poor soil, it can have the classic herbaceous flavour, often
reminiscent of currants, green peppers, grass, passion fruit or elderflower. In warmer regions it may not
even develop much aromatic character and only have a slight peach aroma. Oak is sometimes used to
give the wine more body, particularly in the US, where barrel-aged wines are often labeled as Fumé Blanc.
Most Sauvignons are best consumed when young and fruity. As they age, those that just don't go flat can
develop vegetal aromas like asparagus and peas, which some people find pleasing. Classic regions
include Sancerre, Pouilly Fumé and Marlborough. Good examples can also be found elsewhere in the
Loire and New Zealand, as well as in South Africa, Chile, Bordeaux, the Midi and California.

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Riesling around the world. For many years it has seemed as if Riesling was going to be fashionable
again, but rather than a reality, it has been a wish on the part of lovers of this wine who do not understand
how the little appreciation it receives from the rest of the public can continue for much longer. Riesling is a
fruity and aromatic grape that retains its acidity. It ripens late but is very hardy, making it an excellent base
for late-ripening wines. It can produce great wines in a wide range of styles in different types of climate. In
cooler climates like the Mosel, it can have a very fresh grape and apple character, and the high acidity it
exhibits is usually balanced with some sugar. Late harvested grapes from these regions, and grapes
grown in warmer regions such as Alsace, Austria, and Clare Valley, result in a wine with more citrus and
peach notes. Some Australian Rieslings have a distinctive lime character. Like Chardonnay, Riesling
produces wines that vary with, and reflect, where they come from. Unlike Chardonnay, Riesling does not
benefit from barrel aging. It could even be said that this distinctive grape does not need added flavours.
Exceptions are the excellent dessert wines made from botrytis-affected Riesling grapes. Due to its high
acidity, even the most modest Riesling can age very well, developing notes of honey, smoke and
sometimes even something like petroleum. The classic regions are Mosel, Nahe, Rheingau and Pfalz in
Germany; Wachau in Austria; Alsace in France; the Clare and Eden Valleys in Australia; and Marlborough
and Nelson in New Zealand.

Because of its status, the name Riesling has been widely used, particularly in new vineyard areas, for
several unrelated varieties. True Riesling has sometimes been labeled Rhine Riesling, Johannisberg
Riesling, or Weisser Riesling in New World countries to distinguish it from Hunter Valley Riesling (Chenin
Blanc) or Cape Riesling (Crouchen Blanc). These latter names are not permitted on wines imported into
the EU, so within the EU any wine with the name Riesling will effectively be Riesling. The exception is
Welschriesling, which is a completely unrelated variety. To avoid any confusion, Welschriesling should
always appear under its full name or under one of the following synonyms:

Welsch Riesling in Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria.

Laski Rizling in Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia.
Olasz Rizling in Hungary.

Compared to Rhine Riesling, it is an easy vine to grow, producing a less delicate wine with less acidity. It
is a grape that suffers from overproduction, but when treated well it can give rise to fresh, dry white wines
as well as some sensational dessert wines affected by botrytis.

Pg. 6, photo: Bunch of Riesling grapes affected by botrytis. Geisenheim.

Pinot Gris produces its best wines in Alsace, although its style is copied in other regions including
Tasmania and parts of New Zealand and the Pacific Northwest of the USA. Even dry wines tend to be
fatty, with high levels of alcohol and low acidity. There may be a lot of fruit present, aromatic and exotic
such as melon, ripe banana and sometimes botrytis flavours may appear in dry wines. Dessert wines
affected by botrytis are also made. In northwestern Italy, a different approach is used when making Pinot
Grigio. Grapes are usually harvested early to preserve acidity and prevent too much fruit from developing.
The final result is usually a light wine with a much more neutral character, with a fresh acidity. This light,
fresh style is increasingly being copied in many regions of the New World. The variety is also grown in
Germany where it is called Rülander or Grauer Burgunder.

Viognier is becoming increasingly popular. It can be said that it is a variety that offers a soft texture with
the body of Chardonnay, but with more aromatic fruit character. The big problem with Viognier, aside from
its propensity for low yields, is that it has a tendency to rapidly produce high levels of sugar, sometimes
before its delicate peach, pear and violet aromas have a chance to develop. This can result in an
unbalanced wine with a high alcohol level. Once the flavors appear in the grapes, they must be handled
very carefully to retain them in the wine. Oak aging is sometimes used, but contact with air can destroy the
fruit. The finest Viogners come from the small regions of Condrieu and Château Grillet in the northern
Rhône. They contain all the delicate perfume, soft texture and mineral flavours produced by the grape.
There are many good examples of what is being done with this varietal in the south of France, Australia
and California. Generally these wines are to be drunk young although a small number of them can be
aged.

Muscat is not a single variety, but a prolific family that is present throughout the world. The wines, which
are often sparkling or fortified, have one thing in common: an intense grape flavor. The most aristocratic is

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the Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. It is often used for Asti, some Natural Sweet Wines, the sweet Muscats
of Samos, and a version of it is used for Rutherglen Muscats. It gives the most complex range of aromatic
notes. The unaged wines are full of grape, peach, rose and citrus aromas. Those with oxidative aging in
oak become very dark in color and develop aromas of raisins, fruitcake, toffee and coffee, however they
always tend to retain their characteristic Moscatel perfume. Muscat of Alexandria is the most commonly
used in other French Vins Doux Naturels, in Spanish Muscat and is part of some semi-dry wines from
California, Australia and South Africa. This is a variety with less aromatic complexity and the wines tend to
smell simply like grapes. A third type of Muscat, Muscat Ottonel, is used in dry, perfumed white wines in
Alsace and Central Europe. With the exception of barrel-aged fortified wines, none of these typically last
very long once bottled, and are best consumed when young, fruity and fresh.

Chenin Blanc is capable of producing a wide range of wines from extremely dry to the great sweet Loire
wines of Bonnezeaux and Quarts de Chaume. It is also widely grown in South Africa (where it is known as
Steen) and California. The big difficulty with Chenin Blanc is that it matures unevenly. If the grapes are not
harvested very selectively, perhaps in “tris” (passed through the vineyard), there is a danger that the
unripe part of the grapes will produce vegetal flavours in the wine. Wines made from Chenin Blanc tend to
be high in acidity and can have unusual fruit characteristics. In young dry Chenin Blancs there may be
vegetal notes, green apple aromas and citrus flavours. Sweeter versions of this grape that are harvested
later can have strong aromas of botrytis, and exotic fruit such as pineapple; their intense sweetness will be
balanced by high acidity. The best Chenin Blancs age extremely well, developing honeyed and toasty
flavors. Much of the wine made in South Africa and California is simple, fruity and often a little dry,
although there are some high quality wines coming from these regions. The classic Chenin Blanc region is
the Loire, particularly appellations such as Vouvray, Savennières and Côteaux de Layon.

Red Grapes
Cabernet Sauvignon is the grape that perhaps has the best reputation for the production of red wines. It
is the classic grape of Médoc in Bordeaux and is planted throughout the New World. It sprouts late,
reducing the possibility of suffering spring frosts. The bunches are loose and the grapes have thick skin,
with a high pulp to skin ratio, and are resistant to rot and insects. It produces small harvests of full-bodied
wines with high acidity and high tannins that age well. Classic flavours are blackcurrant. In cooler regions,
these flavors may be accompanied by green pepper and cedar wood, which become more pronounced as
the wine ages. Cabernet Sauvignon from warm climates tends to have more of a black cherry, even black
olive character. Many Australian Cabernet Sauvignons, especially those from Coonawarra, also have
slight notes of mint, eucalyptus or menthol. Classic regions include Médoc, Coonawarra, Hawkes Bay,
Napa and Colchagua.

Pg.7, photo: Cabernet Sauvignon vineyards trained using lyre-shaped vines. Oakville, California.

Merlot is the other great Bordeaux grape and is frequently blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It is
predominant in Saint Emilion and Pomerol. With the growing demand for red wine as a complement to the
Mediterranean diet, its demand has grown greatly, resulting in extensive plantings particularly in California,
Chile and the south of France. Unblended, it can produce smooth, easy-drinking wines with soft tannins.
The best quality Merlots tend to follow one of two production styles. The first style is made from grapes
that are harvested as late as possible to generate the greatest possible intensity of purple colour, fruit,
blackberries and plums, and soft velvety tannins, combined with an intense rounded body thanks to a high
level of alcohol and fruit concentration. All of this can be accompanied by the toasted flavors of new oak.
This is the “international style” and is made with great success in many New World countries, the south of
France and in some areas of Bordeaux. The other style is to harvest earlier and make a wine with a lighter
body and alcohol content, higher acidity and a stronger character of red fruits (raspberries, ripe
strawberries) and perhaps even some vegetal aromas. This second style of production rarely takes place
outside Bordeaux.

Syrah/Shiraz is considered one of the oldest varieties. It is responsible for the great red wines of the
northern Rhône, and plantings are being increased in the south of France to improve blends. It is the most
widely planted variety in Australia, where it is often blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It is also increasing
in importance in South America. The Syrah/Shiraz has a very intense color and has a blackberry flavor. In
cooler climates, acidity and tannin levels can be very high, and the blackberry flavor may be accompanied

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by notes of black pepper and sometimes mint. Syrah/Shiraz from warmer climates is fuller-bodied, with
soft tannins and earthy, leathery and spicy flavours that are very similar to liquorice and anise. Shiraz
wines can age extremely well.

Pg.8, photo: Shiraz grapes fermenting at McLaren Vale.

Granache/Garnacha is the most widely planted red grape in Spain, where it originally comes from. It is
the main grape of Navarra and is very important in Rioja, especially in Lower Rioja. In France it is
cultivated in the southern Rhône and the Midi. It is also found in California and South Australia, particularly
in the McLaren Valley. Grenache is responsible for many of the world's great rosés and is a vital
constituent in many great blended wines, such as Châteauneuf-du-Pape. It benefits from barrel aging.
These sweet, thin-skinned grapes result in a wine with high alcohol content and full body, but with light
color and light tannins. Wines can oxidize easily, developing brown edges, even when young. Classic
Garnacha has flavors of red fruits such as strawberry and raspberry, and small notes of white pepper, and
as it ages it develops flavors of leather, tar and toffee.

Pinot Noir was originally planted in Burgundy, where it has created the reputation of that region's red
wines. It matures early and adapts well to the climate of that area. It has small clusters that produce a very
sweet juice. Due to the density of its bunches, it tends to rot, although thanks to systematic treatments this
is no longer as serious a problem as it used to be. Young Pinot Noir usually has a fruity aroma of
raspberries, strawberries or red cherries and, because the skin of the grape is very thin, it has light tannins
and a light color. Pinot Noirs tend to age unevenly, leading some to claim that they remain at their best for
a very short period of time. This may be true if you like Pinot Noir in just one style; however, many Pinot
Noirs can be enjoyed at all stages of their life, without having to suffer through bitter tannins or harsh
acidity. Over time it tends to develop vegetal and farmhouse aromas. These may be unpleasant or
exciting, depending on the person's taste. Outside of Burgundy, classic Pinot Noir wines can be found in
Carneros and Sonoma (California), Walters Bay (South Africa), the Yarra Valley (Australia) and
Martinborough, Marlborough and Central Otago (New Zealand). It is also an important constituent of
Champagne, and many New World sparkling wines.

Sangiovese produces the best Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, as well
as many other non-DOC Tuscan wines. It can also be blended with other international varieties,
particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, to produce “Super-Tuscans”. Typical Sangiovese is not aromatic like
Cabernet, Syrah or Pinot Noir. Their wines have high acidity, with a tart red cherry flavour, sometimes with
astringent tannins and aromas of earth and dust reminiscent of tea leaves. It is widely cultivated in central
and southern Italy, but, with the exception of Argentina, it has only recently been cultivated in other
countries.

Tempranillo is planted abundantly throughout northern Spain and is considered the country's leading
quality red grape. It appears under different names: Ull de Llebre, Cencibel, and Tinta del País, as well
as Tinta Roriz and Aragonez in Portugal. It is the main component of the best Riojas, as well as the
wines of Ribera del Duero. It matures early and grows best in calcareous soil. It is light in tannins, so it
usually works best when blended with other varieties. It smells faintly of leather and may taste like ripe
strawberries. Outside the Iberian Peninsula, this grape is well established in Argentina, and producers in
other New World countries are beginning to experiment with it.

More information about these varieties can be found in the sections covering the regions where they are
grown.

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CHAPTER 2
CLIMATE AND WEATHER

To ripen optimally, grapes need a minimum of approximately 1,500 hours of sunshine during the ripening
period. Red grapes generally need more sunlight than white grapes. This is one of the reasons why more
white wine is produced in vineyard areas where the climate is predominantly cool than red. A vineyard
also needs around 700 mm of rain per year, although if the climate is cool it may need less. In many
regions, rainfall can be supplemented with irrigation, although until recently this was prohibited in
vineyards in the European Union.

Although wild vines grow abundantly throughout the world, commercial plantations of V. vinifera for wine
production are concentrated mainly in two broad bands in the northern and southern hemispheres,
approximately between 30º and 50º latitude. Here there is the ideal balance of heat and cold, sun and rain.
There are, however, plantations outside these latitudes, such as in Great Britain and in the subtropical
northwest of Argentina, and advances in viticulture techniques have made plantations possible in
countries as diverse as Cuba, Venezuela, India and Thailand.

CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION

Climate is known as an indication of the weather expected to occur during a typical year. The most
important climatic aspects for vineyards are temperature and rainfall, which depend on many factors such
as latitude, altitude, topography and proximity to water.

Because water heats and cools much more slowly than land, it has a moderating effect on temperature
fluctuations. The regions closest to bodies of water have a maritime climate characterized by warm
summers and mild winters. This type of climate where most of the rain falls in winter is known as a
Mediterranean climate. This climate, with dry summers, is particularly good for viticulture and is found in
California, Chile, South Africa and many areas of southern and southwestern Australia, as well as on the
shores of the Mediterranean. If a vineyard is located in the centre of a large landmass, as is the case in La
Mancha in central Spain, it will likely have a continental climate with extreme temperatures in both winter
and summer.

Cold water currents such as the Alaska Current (western USA), the Humboldt Current (Chile) and the
Benguela Current (South Africa) have a marked cooling effect on the climate of the region's vineyards. In
contrast, the Gulf Stream has a significant warming effect on the climates of northwestern Europe.
Vineyards located near rivers are less likely to suffer the effects of frost as the movement of the water
produces air currents. In areas where warm winds meet cold water masses (such as in Tokaji or
Sauternes), fogs are produced that can lead to noble rot, making the production of sweet wines possible.
Shallow lakes, such as Neusiedlersee in Austria, can have a similar effect.

Mountains can create several effects. They can produce a “rain shadow”: for example the Vosges
Mountains protect the vineyards of Alsace by causing rain to fall on the western slopes in Lorraine, making
Alsace one of the driest regions in France. They can also create cold winds, as is the case with the Mistral
in the Rhône Valley. As altitude increases, temperatures drop, so in regions where the heat would be too
extreme for viticulture, suitable areas can be found at high altitudes (Salta in Argentina; Orange in
Australia). High altitudes also create a greater temperature difference between day and night. Cool nights
can help some varieties ripen without losing acidity or fresh fruit aromas.

There are several ways to classify weather conditions. According to European wine laws, the regions are
divided into zones A, B, Cla, Clb, Cll, Cllla and Clllb. The legislation that allows fortifying or lowering acidity
varies according to the area where the vineyard is located. For example, in the coldest zone, A, the
alcohol percentage of a wine can, in the worst years, be increased by up to 4.5% through fortification and
its acidity can also be reduced. In warmer areas, tartaric acid may be added to wine, but both fortification
and reduction of acidity are prohibited. In California, climate is often classified using degree-days which
are based on average daily heat. The degrees exceeding the temperature by 10ºC are added for each day
of the growing season, resulting in a total measurement of useful heat in a year. In Australia, a similar
system is used that is based on using the average temperature of the hottest month of the year, with
adjustments to take into account other factors such as daylight hours, humidity, rainfall and evaporation,

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as well as “continentality” (difference between average summer and winter temperatures). No system is
perfect, as there are other factors that can affect the development of a wine.

A region may have a generic climate, but there may be climatic differences between some vineyards and
others, even if they are neighbours. These factors, in addition to the soil, are the basis for the classification
hierarchies of vineyards in Burgundy, Alsace and Germany. Particularly in regions where the climate is
more marginal, maximum exposure to the sun is essential. “Local climate” refers to the climate of an
individual vineyard, or part of a vineyard. It is sometimes called “micro-climate”, but experts prefer to use
this term for the climate within the leaf mass of the vineyard. An experienced grower can influence the
climate of an individual vineyard simply by how he or she treats the canopy. Increasing the shade of the
leaves on the plant can simulate the climate of a region a few degrees cooler. Conversely, thinning the
leaves of a vineyard will give the grapes more exposure to the sun, maximizing sunlight in cooler regions.

Pg.10, map; photo: The Elqui Valley, 528 kilometers north of Santiago de Chile, is classified as a desert,
but has a cool climate thanks to cold breezes from the Pacific.

The Weather
Some regions have a very stable climate that varies very little from one year to the next. In others, the
harvest is very important since the quality of the wine produced can vary greatly from year to year. The
latter occurs mainly in regions where the climate is marginally good for viticulture (e.g. Champagne and
Tasmania), regions where the risk of heavy rain during the grape harvest is high (Bordeaux) and regions
with a high risk of frost and hail (Burgundy).

Frost, whether in winter or spring, can cause problems. A severe frost during winter can damage grafts
and even kill the vine. The most common way to prevent this is with burial. In milder regions, late spring
frosts, particularly after prolonged mild weather, can cause extensive damage to emerging shoots. There
are three main ways to protect vines from frost. The first is with burners. These create a layer of smoke
that acts like a blanket to keep you warm. More sophisticated are wind machines, which are mainly used
in vineyards where frost is abundant. These machines draw in warm air from above to keep the
temperature in the vineyard just above freezing. Alternatively, many vineyards today use sprinkler systems
to protect against frost. Sprinklers are installed in the vineyards and, when frost is predicted, the vines are
sprayed with water so that a protective layer of ice protects the shoots.

Pg. 11, Photo: Oil burners in Oakville, Napa. These create air flow currents to prevent frost formation.
Photo: Nebbiolo vines damaged during the grape harvest by a hailstorm in 2002. La Mora, Barolo,
Piedmont, Italy.

Vines prefer dry climatic conditions and a certain level of water stress is considered beneficial for the
quality of the harvest, but water is necessary for photosynthesis to occur. In drought conditions, high
temperatures and insufficient rainfall can cause the leaves to close, resulting in no sugar production and
the grapes not ripening properly. Within the EU, irrigation has generally been prohibited except for young
and experimental vines. However, it seems that this is becoming more and more permitted. In the New
World irrigation is generally permitted, although it is not always necessary. Irrigation can be drip, sprinklers
or, as occurs in Chile and Argentina, flood irrigation. Many farmers have computer-controlled irrigation to
ensure that each vine receives no more than the optimum amount of water needed.

On the other hand, excessive rain on the eve of the harvest can dilute the sugars and flavours of the
grapes, as well as causing humidity, which in turn leads to rot. Hail during the summer can also be
destructive. In Argentina, it is estimated that hail destroys 5% of any grape harvest. Safety nets are used
there to prevent this problem. In other places, planes are used to send chemicals into the clouds so that
when it rains, it is water that falls instead of ice.

The vine is self-pollinating but requires a dry, breezy climate for the flowers to set and be properly
pollinated. The term used when a flower fails to set is coulure and millerandage is used to say that the
fruit has also failed to set, usually as a result of improper pollination. There are certain grape varieties that
are prone to this problem. It is often caused by cold, rainy weather during the crucial time.

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CHAPTER 3
SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

The importance of the soil in the final quality of a wine is a topic that is much discussed. Soil affects wine
physically, through its ability to absorb and drain excess water and its heat-retaining properties; and
through its chemical characteristics, such as its nutrient and mineral content.

SOILS
Just as good leaf management can lead to a better microclimate, sophisticated irrigation methods are
used in many regions to simulate the water retention characteristics of the best vineyards. Because of
concerns about excessive yields and loss of “authenticity”, irrigation is permitted in very few parts of the
EU. There is no doubt that critical water shortages have adverse effects on grape quality, and that in some
circumstances irrigation can improve quality. However, irrigation prevents the vines from developing deep
root systems and, for those who believe that wine should express the conditions in which the vines have
been planted, irrigation is considered to distort the terroir (see below). Soil can contribute in other ways.
For example, the galets (pebbles) that cover the vineyards of Châteaunneuf-du-Pape act by storing heat
and contribute to the high alcohol content that characterises this wine. The dark slate soil in some of the
vineyards in Germany and the gravel in Bordeaux act in a similar way.

Just like a lack of water, a soil with few nutrients can stress a vineyard. It is generally accepted that the
best grapes come from a slightly stressed vineyard, as stress causes the vine to focus its energies on
producing fruit, allowing the species to spread away from the site of stress. Many vineyards are planted in
soils that would not tolerate many other crops. Overly fertile soils, such as those found in Chile, can result
in vines with excessive leaf mass that produce poor quality yields and unripe fruit. If a vine's vigor is not
restricted, an overgrown plant with many leaves can provide too much shade and create ideal conditions
for rot.

In addition to food, vines need minerals to grow healthily. Excess of certain minerals can create problems.
Although very calcareous soils usually have good drainage properties, and the balance between minerals
can preserve the acids that contribute to grape ripening, these soils can make the vine susceptible to
chlorosis. This is a symptom of the vine that can have many causes (extreme heat, transpiration, lack of
water or lack of free iron in the soil), and causes leaves to turn yellow and yields to drop due to reduced
photosynthesis. The best solution is careful selection of the rootstock, but in an established vineyard the
soil can be treated with iron sulphate. Other mineral deficiencies in the soil can be counteracted by the
restricted use of specialized fertilizers. Sometimes a wine may seem to smell or taste mineral or like
stones such as slate and flint, as if minerals from the vineyard have penetrated the wine. The physiology
of wine is not sufficiently understood to understand how minerals are transported from the soil to the
grape, and whether this actually happens.

Pg.13, photo: The stones at Châteauneuf-du-Pape retain heat during the day and reflect it at night,
promoting the development of high sugar levels in the grapes.

TOPOGRAPHY: ASPECT AND SLOPES

These are important aspects that affect the quality of the wine and its style. Slopes are used to expose the
vines to the sun to achieve maximum ripening in marginal climates. East-facing vineyards benefit from the
gentle warmth of the early morning sun, sometimes covered by morning mists. West-facing vineyards
receive stronger heat during the afternoon. Those on a slope with an angle of 30º towards the equator can
receive twice as much solar radiation as a vineyard with an angle of 30º facing the poles. Vineyards on
hillsides are usually better drained and have better air circulation than vineyards on flat sites, although
those on steeper slopes are more difficult and expensive to work.

Pg.14, photo: Vineyards in Madeira affected by chlorosis.

TERROIR
This word refers to the set of natural influences that give a wine a sense of place. Strictly speaking, it
refers only to the effects of different soil structures within an area composed of a non-variable climate and
topography. In a broader sense, it can be considered as the combined effect that aspect, slopes and
climate have on the grapes. These effects are often subtle, but can sometimes be dramatic, and with
careful production can be transformed into recognizable flavors and other aspects (such as tannins or

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acids) in a wine. Many of the characteristics of a wine that might once have been attributed to the region
from which it originated are, strictly speaking, aspects of viticulture and winemaking. These include choice
of grape variety, use of oak, malolactic fermentation and lees removal (see chapter 5). Today, the limits of
how a wine style from one region can be copied in another through the use of viticulture and winemaking
techniques are still being explored. These techniques include canopy management, irrigation and must
adjustments (see chapters 4 and 5). It would be unreasonable to expect all wines to express their
geographical origins if, in doing so, some were of poor quality or unpleasant. However, there is a danger
that by sharing techniques and experiences around the world, international styles will become more similar
and diversity will be lost. On the contrary, many winemakers recognise that the sense of place forms a
unique aspect of a wine and this can be used to promote it in the market and obtain a higher price.
Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay can be made almost anywhere; Coonawarra Cabernet and Chablis
cannot.

Pg.14, photo: Amphitheaters, like this one at Sancerre, act as heat traps and promote ripening in marginal
climates.

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CHAPTER 4
VITICULTURE

Wine production has two parts: the cultivation of grapes, or viticulture, and the process of turning the
grapes into wine, or winemaking. Traditionally, it has been the winemaker who has taken credit for
producing the wine. However, lately we hear the expression “wine is made in the vineyard.” A great wine
requires very good grapes, which in turn require good soil, climate, time and expert viticulture. However, it
is also possible that a bad climate or poor agriculture can give rise to a bad grape in a place with great
potential, and it is also possible that a very good grape ends up becoming a bad wine.

ESTABLISH A VINEYARD
Planted

A vineyard can be planted for two reasons: to create a new vineyard or to replace another one. The life of
a vineyard can be long; there are vineyards in production all over the world that are over 100 years old.
Some old vines produce fruit of exceptional quality, although the older a vine is the less fruit it will produce.
There must be a balance between quality and benefits. Normally, a vineyard will be uprooted between 35
and 50 years of age. A vineyard owner will generally have a replanting cycle in which he will ensure that
the minimum part of his vineyard is out of production for a certain period of time. Typically, a vineyard is
left fallow for three years or more after grubbing up to give it time to recover. This is something that also
needs to be taken into account.

Before the young vines are planted, the soil should, where possible, be well prepared. Young vines can be
protected from weeds by covering the soil around the vine with black plastic, or protected from animals by
using an individual plastic sleeve. The first harvest usually takes place three years after planting and in the
European Union the first fruit cannot be used in the production of quality wine.

How a vineyard is planted depends on a number of factors, which may or may not include legislation, the
desired yield and the degree of mechanisation to be used, not only during the growing season, but also
during the harvest. The planting density can be anything from 3,000 to 15,000 vines per hectare. The
denser the planting, the more stress is placed on the vine and the better the fruit is expected to be.

Once established, the shape that the vine will take will depend on the way in which the farmer prunes and
trains it. Each vineyard has the following parts:

Roots
Trunk
Thumbs/Twigs
Vine shoots
Flowers/fruit
Leaves

As mentioned in Chapter 1, most vines consist of American rootstocks onto which V. vinifera. It is the latter
that will form the trunk of the vineyard. The graft can usually be seen a little above ground level. The
shoots with their tendrils, as well as the leaves, grow from the stem. During the following winter, these
shoots will mature and turn a brown color. From this moment on they are called vine shoots. Where the
leaves were on the vine the previous season, buds will form, and new shoots will grow from them. A shoot
will have between 8 and 15 buds. The flowers of the vine, and later the fruit, develop on shoots that form
in the spring of that same year. If a shoot is pruned short, leaving only two or three buds, it is known as a
thumb shoot. By the end of the following year the shoots and shoots will have become old wood and will
be removed during pruning, at the same time as a new set of shoots and shoots will be allowed to grow.

Pg.15, photo: Irrigation used to establish vines in a new vineyard in Sonoma, California.

Pruning

In traditional vineyard areas of the European Union, the pruning method used and the way in which the
vines are managed are controlled by legislation. The objective of the main winter pruning is twofold: to
select the buds that will form shoots for the formation of fruit for the next harvest and to prepare the

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vineyard to bear fruit in future harvests. Pruning is also done to control the number of buds - the
determining factor that will affect the yield of the vineyard and the quality of the fruit.

Summer pruning can be done for:

• Restrict vegetation to concentrate the vine's vigor on fruit production;
• To control leaf mass so that the grape clusters have maximum exposure to the sun, or shade, as
well as being well ventilated to reduce fungal infections;
• Keep the vineyard sufficiently maintained to facilitate work during the growing season and the
harvest.

Basically, there are two types of pruning: thumb pruning, in which shoots containing two to three buds are
left on the vines, and cane pruning, where one or two long shoots containing eight to fifteen buds each are
left (see illustration).

Pg.16: illustration. Thumb pruning.

Pruning the vine where indicated, leaves enough shoots with 1-3 buds to maintain the same number of
fruit-producing shoots.

Driving

Once the vine has been pruned, the remaining shoots will be trained. The goal is to leave the leaf mass
and the fruit visible. The training system will depend on the type of pruning used. In some areas, the vines
will be left in bush form, and in others they will be trained using trellises or pergolas. Vineyard
management will also vary depending on weather factors, the vineyard and the yield required. Vines can
be trained low, to benefit from reflected heat or to protect against wind damage; or high, to minimize heat
reflection or maximize exposure to wind and sun.

There are four main systems used to manage vines:

1. In a glass or Gobelet. This thumb pruning system is used in the warmer vineyard regions such as
Beaujolais, the Rhône Valley, Rioja and in the oldest vineyards in Australia. The vines are self-
supporting and are usually left four to five inches tall near the head of the trunk. In Beaujolais
these thumbs are tied together at the tips. As air circulation is very poor, this is not recommended
in humid areas where rot may occur. As the vines are left close to the ground, they should not be
trained in this way if there is a risk of frost during spring.

2. Pruning system with replacement shoots, which includes the Guyot, like those used in Burgundy
and Bordeaux. Here the shoots are guided along lateral wires, with new production shoots used
each year, one in the case of single Guyot and two in double Guyot.

3. The thumb on cord system. The trunk of the vine develops horizontally, leaving a number of
thumbs along it. This can be low, as in the Cordon de Royat system used in Champagne, or high
as in the Geneva Double Curtain.

4. The trellis or pergola. Here the vines are trained in the form of trellises or pergolas, with the
bunches at the height of the head, which provides sufficient leaf cover in hot climates.

Pg.17, 2 photos: Guyot pruning, before and after, where you can see the amount of pruned wood.

Pg.17: illustration. Sequence of the driving in Guyot

A vineyard in double Guyot before pruning. 2 shoots are left. Prune according to the marks, leaving 2
shoots with one-year-old wood and a thumb for next year's shoots. The same vineyard after pruning and
trained using double Guyot. Thumb left in pruning to produce next year's shoots. The shoots that have
been left after pruning are guided by tying them to the lower wires. From each bud a fruit-producing shoot
will grow.

PERFORMANCE CONTROL

Excessive yields can result in grapes not ripening properly as the sugar produced in the leaves has to be
shared between too many berries. Too much rain or irrigation can result in a large production of swollen,

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aroma-less grapes, which will produce a wine without personality.

Under the European Wine Quality system, yields are normally controlled in an effort to ensure quality.
However, there may be considerable variations. For example, a Pinot Noir winegrower in Alsace will be
allowed yields double those allowed to a winegrower of a Burgundy Grand Cru such as Romanée-Conti.

In the New World these legal controls may not exist, however a person seeking to produce a high quality
wine will restrict his yields, as this is an important factor in the price he will ultimately ask for his wine.
Yields can be expressed in weight, such as tons of grapes per acre or hectare, or volume, such as
hectoliters per hectare. Below are some of the factors that influence final performance:

• Number of vines per hectare, determined at the time of planting.

• Number of buds per vine, determined at the time of pruning.

• Number of shoots, which depends on flowering, soil and climatic conditions, especially frost, and the
number of buds per vine.

• Number of bunches per shoot. This is the concentration of fruit that was determined the previous
spring when the vine shoot was formed.

• Number of berries per cluster, which is determined by flowering, which depends on the weather
conditions at the time of flowering. This is the most variable and crop size cannot be accurately
predicted until flowering has occurred.

• Weight of berries. This depends on the variety of grape, the number of grapes, the amount of
rainwater or irrigation the vineyard has received during the growing season and the amount of
nutrients received.

• Green pruning. This is being used more and more frequently to increase yields. The winegrower will
remove excess leaves from the vines before the grapes ripen.

PARASITES OF THE VINEYARD

In addition to the dangers arising from bad weather or unsuitable soils, the growth of vineyards can also
be affected by a number of parasites and diseases.

Phylloxera
This was discussed in the grafting section.

Grape Moth (Cochylis, Pyralis and Eudemis)

The buds are attacked by caterpillars during the spring, and the grapes during other times of the year. The
treatment consists of fumigating the vines with insecticides.

Red Spider and Yellow Spider

These predominate in warm and dry temperatures. They are becoming more common as insecticides
have killed their natural predators. They infect the leaves, thus affecting the growth of vegetation.
Specialized sprays have been developed to treat them. Natural predators are used in organic vineyards.

Nematodes
These are microscopic worms that attack the roots of the vine. The treatment is very complicated, so
prevention is the best cure. This requires complete disinfection of the soil before planting and the use of
resistant rootstocks. The increasing use of drip irrigation in Argentina and Chile has also increased the
number of nematodes in that area. Now, many vineyards are being planted with grafted vines, not to
protect them from phylloxera, but against nematodes.

Birds and Animals

In many wine-growing regions birds consume large quantities of ripe grapes. They have learned to ignore
the scarecrows. The most effective solution is probably the use of networks, but it is an expensive
solution. Many animals such as deer, wild boar and others also consume ripe grapes. Young vines are an

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attraction for them. Protective fences will be installed if necessary.

DISEASES
To minimize diseases in the vineyards, a protective spray treatment will be carried out during the growing
season. This is usually done with a tractor, although in an emergency and in areas with difficult access,
helicopters or small planes are used. In vineyard areas with extreme temperatures, where it rains during
the growing season, eight to twelve spraying sessions will be needed each year. In warmer climates, no
more than four will be needed.

Mildew
There are two types of this fungal disease. Oidium or Powdery Mildew develops on all the green parts of
the vineyard as a white powder. If buds or berries are attacked, they will not grow properly and will
eventually break. This mildew does not necessarily require humidity but rather a warm, shaded
environment. The solution is to fumigate or sprinkle with sulfur. Downy Mildew or Peronospera was the
third major disease that came to Europe from America in the 19th century after Oidium and Phylloxera.
Like Oidium, it attacks the green parts of the vine, leaving a colony of fungi. In severe cases of this
disease, leaves will fall off, thus preventing photosynthesis and preventing sugar from being generated in
the plants. Prefers humid conditions. Originally, the only treatment used was Bordeaux mixture (a solution
of copper sulphate and lime). Systemic fungicides have now been developed and the disease is better
controlled.

Rot
Depending on the circumstances, Botrytis Cinerea (Gray Rot or Noble Rot) is either welcomed or hated by
the grower. This fungal disease thrives in humid conditions and is a bigger problem for red grapes than for
white ones, as it causes a loss of colour in the wine and because maceration on rotten skins can lead to
off-flavours. Like gray rot, it tends to affect mostly unripe berries. Early spraying is recommended,
although treatment should be completed before the grapes begin to ripen. It can seriously affect yields and
quality. Under the right conditions - damp mornings and dry afternoons - this is the noble rot that makes
the great sweet wines of Bordeaux, Germany and elsewhere. In its benign form, botrytis will affect ripe
grapes by drawing water from the fruit through microscopic filaments that penetrate the pores of the skin.
This causes the sugar to concentrate, reducing the grape into a raisin and adding its own unique flavors.
The fact that its development is not uniform means that several harvests are necessary to complete the
vintage. Black rot is another common fungus that appears with heavy rains and affects both leaves and
grapes. It is treated using the Bordeaux mixture.

Long-term illnesses
While rot and mildew will affect the quality and quantity of grapes in a harvest, there are other diseases
that attack the vine itself, with long-lasting effects.

Long-term fungal diseases include Eutypiosis or Dead Arm. It has been present in the vineyards of the
New World for a long time, and has been spreading to Europe since 1980. It attacks the wood of the vines
through pruning cuts, causing part of the vine to rot and die, reducing yields, although it does not affect
quality. An effective treatment has not yet been discovered.

The most serious bacterial disease is Pierce's disease, which is spread by small insects. It was first
recognized in 1892, but to this day no effective cure has been found. An infected vineyard will die within
five years. The most effective prevention seems to be to surround the vineyards with a sanitary cordon.
Recently this disease has caused severe damage to vineyards in Mexico and Southern California.

Numerous viruses can infect vines. Most do not kill the vine, but they reduce yield and quality. They are
highly contagious and persistent, and are usually spread through wounds or by nematodes. Once
established, they cannot be eradicated except by uprooting the vines and treating the soil for health
reasons. Ideally, this soil should not be replanted with vines. The only way to prevent viruses is to grow in
virus- and nematode-free soil with virus-uninfected plants.

THE VINEYARD CALENDAR

Each farmer will have his own calendar, which may change as new techniques and machinery become
available. As an example, below is the typical annual calendar of a Burgundy winegrower in a vineyard
planted with the simple Guyot system. It should be noted that some of the activities mentioned may take

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place a month earlier or a month later in other regions, depending on the variety and the climate. In a
normal year in the Midi, for example, the winegrower will start the year at the end of August and in Alsace
he will finish in November. In the southern hemisphere, harvesting can begin in January and end in April
or even May. Wherever you are, the year for the winegrower will begin immediately after the harvest.

October

After the grape harvest, apart from the work in the winery, the main priority is to clean the land where the
vines are to be planted. Any plants that are not productive should be pulled out and the ground prepared
for their replacement. The leaves begin to change color and will fall with the first frost.

November
Autumn plowing helps to break up the soil. Autumn pruning: The current year's productive branches are
cut, as well as the non-productive shoots. The base of the plant is covered with soil to protect the graft
from winter frosts. Any soil that has been removed by rain during the previous season must be replaced.
The sap decreases and disappears and the plant enters a dormant period. The shoots become lignified to
form shoots with embryonic buds at those points where the leaves and tendrils grew.

December
The work started in November continues.

January
The most important pruning begins, although tradition dictates that this should not begin until the feast day
of the patron saint of winegrowers, Saint Vincent, on January 22. Pruning is the most specialized job in the
vineyard and cannot be done mechanically. Each plant must be treated individually and the person doing
the pruning must consider its particular needs.

February
Continuation of pruning.

March
Pruning is complete, fertilizers are spread, the vine sap begins to rise and the first signs of growth can be
seen. Grafting of new vines takes place in March.

April
The soil is removed from the base of the vines by stirring it so that the soil is looser around the plants. The
next year's production shoot should be tied to the lower wire. Herbicides are spread. The buds of the new
season grow and then develop to form shoots. These buds are very sensitive to frost damage and should
therefore be protected from frost in spring.

In April, new vines from nurseries that were grafted the previous year will also be planted. These will be
new or replacement plantations.

May
The first spraying of insecticides and fungicides is carried out. The suckers should be removed and the
shoots should be placed on the horizontal wires. This allows sunlight to reach the emerging clusters and
facilitates the movement of tractors through the aisles. There is a clear growth of shoots. The first leaves
form and the shoots mature to form old wood.

The planting of new, recently grafted vines takes place in May in the nurseries.

June
The positioning of the shoots continues and the branches are tied to the horizontal wires. The first crucial
stage in the grape cycle is flowering. This should happen at the beginning of summer and traditionally, in
France, the harvest will take place approximately 100 days later, however in Chile, it can take up to 130
days. After the vine flowers, the fruit sets on the shoots. Under ideal conditions this can happen quickly,
within a week, but in bad weather it can take up to three weeks, with a proportional delay in the harvest
date. Fruit set is the first moment at which an estimate of the potential size of the crop can be made. The

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spraying continues.

July
The tying of the branches continues. The tips of the shoots are trimmed to ensure that the maximum
amount of nutrients is diverted to the grapes. Excess bunches are removed to limit yield (green pruning).
Vigorous vegetation growth occurs, although the berries are still small. Continue spraying.

August
This is the quietest month in the vineyard and spraying should stop at least a month before the harvest. A
minimum of pruning is carried out, but the main task is the preparation of the harvest: cleaning the
pressing room and all the equipment. At the beginning of the month the grapes begin to change color in a
process called veraison. The berries swell as they reach maturity.

September
Final preparations for the grape harvest continue, with cleaning and maintenance of the winery equipment.
Grapes are regularly evaluated for sugar and acidity; they may also be tasted to follow flavor development
and acid and tannin characteristics. Harvesting will take place when the grapes have reached maximum
ripeness, not only in terms of sugar content, but also in terms of the phenolic ripeness of the seeds.
Ideally, this should happen at approximately the same time.

The Harvest
The harvest ideally begins when the winegrower perceives that there is a perfect balance between sugar
and acidity in the grapes. This may differ from variety to variety and also from one terrain to another.
Sometimes, threatening weather may force the winegrower to bring forward the grape harvest to save his
crop.

Harvesting can be done by hand or by machine. In an ideal world, a good team of grape pickers cannot be
improved, but there are a number of factors that must be taken into account. These may include how the
vineyard is planted, the availability and cost of labor, the topography of the vineyard, climatic conditions
and varietals.

The main advantage of mechanical harvesting is speed. This can be an essential point if the harvest is
threatened by bad weather, or with some varietals such as Sauvignon Blanc that evolve from ripeness to
over-ripeness very quickly. They can also work at night, which allows the grapes to be brought to the
winery cold. This saves money and energy that would be spent on reducing the temperature of the grapes
before fermentation, which delays the dispersion of aromas that occurs while they wait to be fermented.
Grape harvesting machines work by shaking the vines and collecting the ripe berries as they fall, leaving
the stems behind. They are not selective, so they remove all the grapes from the plant whether they are in
good condition or not, as well as other matter apart from grapes (pieces of leaves, insects, other
contaminants). They can only be used on flat, dry or slightly sloping terrain.

Manual harvesting is slower and much more laborious. It does, however, allow for the selection of grapes;
rotten or underripe grapes can be left on the plant. For botrytized grapes, manual harvesting and the
selection that it entails are essential. When whole bunches are harvested, the grapes suffer much less
damage and the stems, or at least some of them, can be left to add tannins to red wines. With damaged or
broken grapes, oxidation is a constant problem and in the case of white wines made from red grapes,
such as Champagne, manual harvesting is essential to minimise the colouring of the must. Manual
harvesting can be carried out in all types of terrain and climates. In regions with vineyards on very steep
slopes, such as the Moselle, the Douro and the Rhône, there is no other alternative.

From here the work moves from the vineyard to the winery.

Pg. 20-22, various photos.

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CHAPTER 5
VINIFICATION

Once the work in the vineyards is finished and the grapes are harvested, it is the winemaker's
responsibility to transform the grapes into wine. This process is known as vinification. Viticulture and
winemaking are complementary, one is not more important than the other. The two need each other as
both can dramatically affect the nature of the wine. It is the obligation of the farmer, or winegrower, to
produce the best grapes in his vineyard, and the obligation of the winemaker to make the best wine with
those grapes. In both cases, a number of external factors must be taken into consideration, some natural,
such as the climate; others not, such as financial pressures and profits. In some cases both jobs can be
done by the same person, but good grapes are always needed. A good wine cannot be achieved if it does
not come from a good grape, but a bad wine can be the result of a good grape.

The time of the harvest is not determined solely by the farmer; he must agree with the winemaker to know
his needs and both will examine the grapes regularly to establish the necessary level of ripeness. Next,
they must plan the order in which the grapes will be collected and taken to the winery. When a property
consists of several vineyards, there may be a list of dates for the harvest, this can stretch over three
months or more. Large wineries that buy grapes, or cooperative wineries with partners, will have to plan
the delivery of grapes in detail to be able to space out the work and allow the winery to operate in the most
efficient way.

PARTS OF THE GRAPE

The grape is made up of different parts. The winemaker's job is to transform these parts into wine. Grapes
consist mostly of water, which in turn makes up the majority of wine. It is the sugar in grapes that gives
rise to alcohol and what distinguishes it from regular grape juice. Grape juice also contains acids, flavors
and small amounts of natural components such as pectins. The skins, seeds and sometimes the stems
also play an important role in the final style of the wine. While there are some red grapes with colored
flesh, in most cases the flesh is colorless. All the colour is concentrated in the skin, which also contains
flavour components and tannins.

There are two factors that are considered when evaluating the ripeness of a vintage. One of these factors
is phenolic ripening, which includes the seeds and skins; the other factor is sugar ripening. Generally both
maturations occur at approximately the same time, but in marginal climates climatic pressures can cause
the harvest to take place before the maturation has reached its optimum state. In areas where the climate
is milder during the harvest season, the grapes are left for longer before harvest to allow for phenolic
ripening.

The sugar ripeness of the harvest is judged depending on the amount of sugar present in the grapes. As
they mature, the density of the juice increases, so the alcohol content of the wine is approximately
determined by measuring the density of the juice, or weight of the must. Different densitometers have
been created, of which the most common are the Baumé (commonly used in France) and the Oechsle and
KMW (in Germany and Austria).

Pg. 23, Photo: The ripeness of grapes is determined by measuring the density of the juice: here a
refractometer is being used in the vineyard.

A third method of measuring sugar content is used in California and Australia. It is called Brix, or Balling.
There are other constituents in a grape, apart from sugar, that form part of the weight of the must; this
means that the final alcohol level of the wine does not have to be the same as that indicated by the weight
of the must. There are certain processes involved in wine production that affect the final alcohol content.
For example, when red wine is fermented at high temperatures, some alcohol may be lost. The yeasts
used can be more or less efficient in converting sugar into alcohol (approximately 16.5 g/l of sugar is
needed to generate 1% vol.). A white wine with the same alcohol content as a red wine requires less sugar
in the grape. Because of these factors, and because different hydrometers measure sugar levels using
different methods (density, percentage of solids, etc.), the results are not equivalent to each other. Still, a
rough comparison can be made.

Pg. 24, Table.

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The wax that forms on the outside of the grape skin contains wild yeasts, which lead to the fermentation
process, as well as bacteria. The most important bacteria present is the acetic bacteria or acetobacter,
which in the presence of oxygen transforms wine into vinegar. If left unchecked, the abundant wild yeasts
will begin fermentation but will die at 4% vol., when the Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast starts working,
converting the remaining sugar into alcohol. The winemaker may use these wild yeasts as part of the
fermentation process, but most use cultured yeasts because the results are more predictable.

Crushing, pressing and adjustment of the must

When the grapes arrive at the winery, they are all examined to determine the possible alcohol level. For
better quality wines, they will pass through a conveyor belt, known as a “selection table.” This is where
unripe and diseased grapes will be discarded, along with any other unusable material.

Pg. 24, Photo: Chardonnay grapes arriving at the winery. From the reception area they will be taken to the
press.

Crushing breaks the skins of the grapes and allows the juice to escape. The stems are separated from
the grapes before they are pressed, often with a crushing and destemming machine. In certain regions,
some farmers leave a certain proportion of stems to add tannins to their red wines. Removing the stems
can damage the structure of the grape, so when making white wine from red grapes, the clusters are left
intact.

Later, the solid components of the grape are separated from the liquid components. This is achieved by
pressing, although a small number of wines are made exclusively from free-run juice, which is obtained
during a gentler crushing process. In the case of white wines, pressing occurs before the start of
fermentation, while in red and rosé wines it will take place after a period of contact between the juice and
the skins.

Traditionally, all wine presses were vertical, with the grape pressure coming from the top through a screw.
Basket pressing is still used in many wineries to produce quality red wines. It is used extensively in
Champagne. More recently there has been a movement in favour of horizontal pressing. In some models
the pressure comes from the ends, which are applied by means of a screw, but the degree of pressure can
be controlled more precisely than with a vertical press. The most recent models consist of a stainless steel
cylinder that is perforated and inside which there is a rubber tube that is inflated. Here the pressure
produced is gentle and gradual. The amount of juice that can be extracted from grapes varies according to
the variety and depends on the pressure applied during pressing. To give a rough idea, 1 kg. grapes give
enough juice to fill a 75 cl bottle. The seeds have a high concentration of bitter tannins that can impart an
unpleasant taste to wine when broken. Modern techniques make gentle pressing possible, avoiding this.

The winemaker can make a number of adjustments before and during fermentation, either to improve the
must or to control the winemaking process to produce a better quality wine.

Pg. 25, Pneumatic Press Box: Pneumatic presses use compressed air to promote gentle pressing of the
grapes.
Photo: Old presses were vertical but most regions now use horizontal presses.

Enrichment
In cold climates there may be a natural deficiency of sugar in the grapes which gives the wine an
unsatisfactory level of alcohol. Under these circumstances, the must is enriched (generally known as
chaptalization, in honour of Comte Chaptal, the Napoleonic minister who proposed its use to help the
beet industry). This involves adding sugar to the must, either before or during fermentation, with the aim of
increasing the final alcohol content to the desired level. This process is prohibited in many parts of the
world and is strictly controlled in areas where it is permitted. If done carefully, chaptalization can result in a
better wine, but overdoing the process can create a wine that is strong but light in flavor, as there is not
enough fruit to balance the artificial elevation of alcohol.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is almost indispensable in the winery. It acts as an antioxidant and antiseptic. It is
common practice to kill wild yeasts and bacteria present on grape skins with sulfur dioxide before
fermentation with cultured yeasts begins. This minimizes the risk of off-flavors. Traditionally, winery

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workers disinfect their empty barrels by burning a sulfur candle inside them. This produces an antiseptic
sulfur dioxide gas as it burns. Sulfur dioxide can be used in the production of inexpensive sweet wines. It
can be added to wine to kill yeast before it consumes all the sugar.

Sulfur dioxide can also be used after fermentation. Almost all wines have sulfur dioxide added to prevent
oxidation. It will also kill any remaining yeast or bacteria that could affect the quality of the wine. Care must
be taken not to use too much, as this can cause the wine to have an unpleasant smell and bad taste. For
this reason, European legislation restricts the amount of sulphur dioxide that can be added to wine.

Other Settings
Given the different types of climates in which wine is produced, it is not surprising that there are a variety
of excesses and deficiencies that need to be addressed. What is allowed will vary by region. Some
treatments may include adding acid to a wine where the level is low, and decreasing it where it is
excessive. Acidification is usually carried out by the addition of tartaric acid in powder form. In Europe,
this treatment is permitted only in the warmest regions, but it is common in the New World. De-
acidification is more common in colder climate regions. This process neutralizes excess acid by adding
potassium bicarbonate. If the tannin level is insufficient, it can also be increased by adding powders or
adding scrapings to the container. It can also be carried out by maturing in oak barrels. Whenever any
substance is added to wine, there will be legal controls.

FERMENTATION
Yeasts are present on the skins of grapes and in the cellars, so once they are crushed, fermentation
occurs naturally. In New World wineries, however, fermentation is almost always done, and in the Old
World it is increasingly done, with cultured yeasts. The winemaker chooses those that best adapt to the
wine to be made. Cultured yeasts, usually added in powder form, reduce the need for added sulfur dioxide
and can be used to give a particular character to the wine. Certain special cultured yeasts are essential in
the production of certain wines. For example, the secondary fermentation of Champagne requires a yeast
capable of operating under extreme pressure. The yeast mainly responsible for alcohol fermentation is
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which can act in the presence of oxygen (aerobic) or without it (anaerobic).
However, other yeasts can also contribute either positively (adding complexity) or negatively (adding off-
flavors). When the yeasts die at the end of fermentation they sink down into the fermentation tank and
form a sediment called lees. White wine is sometimes left to rest on its lees while aging as this can add
more body and character to the wine.

Fermentation is the conversion of sugar into alcohol by the action of yeast and produces carbon dioxide
and heat. In theory, the higher the sugar content in the grape, the higher the alcohol level in the wine.
However, yeasts generally die when the alcohol content in the wine reaches 15%, even if unfermented
sugar is still present. High levels of sugar and alcohol are harmful to yeast, as are some of the
components present in rotten grapes, particularly those infected with botrytis. This is why in sweet wines
fermentation stops at low alcohol levels. A winemaker may stop fermentation before the sugar has fully
converted to produce a semi-sweet or sweet wine. This is achieved by filtration or by adding sulfur dioxide.
Fermentation can also stop if the temperature rises or falls too much, or if the yeast runs out of essential
nutrients. The unfermented sugar remaining in the wine is known as residual sugar. Even dry wines may
have a small amount of unfermented sugar, although it may not be noticeable on the palate. When we talk
about the amount of alcohol in a wine, the level of ethanol present is measured by volume and is known as
“real alcohol.” The residual sugar is called “potential alcohol” and the sum of both is called “total alcohol”.

Heat is also generated during fermentation and must be controlled, especially in the case of white wines.
During fermentation, the temperature of the must in each barrel will be studied and recorded on a graph.
Modern winemaking techniques support the idea that white wine is fermented at a lower temperature to
encourage more fruit flavor. In contrast, red wines must be fermented at higher temperatures to extract the
maximum amount of color from the skins. Modern fermentation vats have jackets through which hot or
cold water can circulate to control the temperature of the wort. Alternatively, the wine can also be passed
through a heat exchanger, or simply pumped over. Sophisticated temperature control during fermentation
is probably the most important advance ever made in modern wine production. In warmer climates,
particularly where grape harvesting machines are plentiful, harvesting takes place at night so that the
grapes arrive at the press as fresh (cold) as possible. In marginal climates, such as in Burgundy, it is
sometimes necessary to heat the grapes, or the must, to activate the yeasts.

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Red, white and rosé wines are vinified in different ways, using similar methods, but in different sequences.

Vinification of Red Wine

Red wines are generally made from black grapes, although in some regions it is common to vinify red
grapes with a small amount of white grapes, as in the case of the Viognier grape, which is blended with
Syrah in Côte-Rôtie. This practice is also increasing in other regions. It is very important that the black
grapes are picked in perfect condition and are not affected by rot, as this could affect the colour and
flavour of the wine. The classic treatment consists of destemming the grapes and crushing them. The
result, which includes skins and seeds, is transferred to a vat to allow it to ferment. Some winemakers,
however, prefer to let the grapes macerate for a while at a low temperature before beginning fermentation.
In the case of red wines, fermentation should begin at a temperature of 20 ºC, but will stop if the
temperature rises to 35 ºC. This is why the fermentation temperature must be controlled. The ideal
temperature varies depending on the grape variety and region. Sometimes grapes are heated before
fermentation. This helps the skins release their colour, resulting in an intensely coloured wine. The
potential danger of this type of winemaking is that if not properly controlled it can give the wine a soupy
taste.

Pg.27, winemaking process chart.

Pg.28, reassembly chart.

If left, the red wine fermentation vat will soon have a mass of pulp and skins covering the surface and the
juice will have only gained some color. The goal is to extract as much color as possible, and this is
achieved in different ways. Most red wine today is produced by pumping over (remontage). This consists
of pumping the wine from bottom to top, thus breaking the cap. This is usually done twice a day. Some
wines are produced by breaking up and pushing the mass of pulp and skins to the bottom of the vat
(foulage and pigeage). Traditionally, this was done by reaching into the vat and pressing the hat down.
This posed some danger as there was always the possibility of someone inhaling the carbon monoxide
that occurs during the fermentation process. Today the same result can be achieved using mechanical
paddles, which resemble large, sophisticated drills. Rotating fermentation vats are more modern vats
where red wines are fermented horizontally. These vats rotate, causing the juice to come into contact with
the skins. The presence of the skins makes fermentation in oak barrels impractical for red wine. The types
of containers used are of a wide variety; they can range from stainless steel to smaller, wooden,
uncovered fermentation vats.

To concentrate the color and tannins in a wine, it is possible to remove some of the fermented juice, thus
increasing the proportion of solids in the juice inside the vat. This also leaves the winemaker with a
quantity of rosé wine. Ideas regarding the amount of time wine should remain in the vat have changed. It
used to be believed that the longer the wine and skins were in contact (maceration), the more color and
tannins could be extracted. Color extraction occurs most rapidly at the beginning of the mash and
decreases as fermentation continues. Initially, the tannin comes out more slowly, so a longer maceration is
needed for those wines that will be left to age for a while in the bottle. Today, it is believed that nothing is
gained by leaving the wine in contact with the skins once the sugar has fermented. Typical maceration
time is six days for a wine with good color and moderate tannins and twelve days or more for a highly
tannic wine intended for bottle aging. If the maceration time is limited to one or two days and the juice is
removed to ferment without the skins, the result will be a low-tannin rosé wine.
The time required to complete fermentation will vary depending on the region and the winemaker. It can
last between one and three weeks. The ultimate goal of most red wines is to convert sugar into alcohol.

Apart from the traditional way of fermenting red wines, there are many other techniques. Among these,
one of the most practiced is carbonic maceration. It consists of whole bunches of grapes, uncrushed and
undestemmed, being placed in a vat under a blanket of carbon dioxide. Fermentation begins with the
grapes using their own enzymes as they lack yeast. Finally, they explode and normal fermentation begins.
This method of fermentation extracts color, but not tannins, resulting in smooth, fruity wines with notes of
kirsch, banana, bubblegum and cinnamon. Generally these wines do not age well. This is the method used
to make Beaujolais Nouveau and many other wines from the region. There are wineries that use a mix of
traditional maceration methods and carbonic maceration methods. Wines made both ways are often
blended before bottling.

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Pg.28 photo: Dipping the cap of Pinot Noir grapes fermenting in oak vats in Beaune, Côte d'Or, France.

Vinification of Rosé Wines

There are three methods of making rosé wines. The first consists of pressing the black grapes directly and
fermenting the juice, just as happens with white wines. This produces a vin gris. The most traditional
rosés produced in the EU are made using an abbreviated vinification of red wine, which involves
macerating crushed grapes for one to three days before the pale-coloured juice is squeezed out to
continue fermentation without the skins. The third method, known as saignée, requires the grapes to be
destemmed, but not crushed, and placed in a barrel for 12 to 24 hours; the less contact, the paler the
colour. The juice is extracted and fermented without contact with the skins. Sometimes only a portion of
the juice is extracted, using the remainder to make a highly concentrated red wine. Rosés are usually
fermented in tanks rather than vats and are bottled young. In the EU, with the exception of Champagne, it
is prohibited to make quality rosés by mixing red and white wine.

Pg. 29, photo: Pumping over of wine is a method that helps to extract color and tannins in red wines.

Vinification of White Wines

White wines require more care than red wines, as the danger of grape oxidation is greater. The grapes are
pressed as soon as they arrive at the winery, since color and tannins are not necessary. However, there
may be two or three hours of contact with the skins at a low temperature to give more flavor and fruit. The
juice is extracted from the pressing and placed in vats or containers, where it is allowed to ferment.
Fermentation typically occurs at low temperatures (between 15ºC and 20ºC, sometimes as low as 9ºC)
and for longer than for red wine. This is done to enhance the fruit flavors of the wine and not lose
freshness. Since fermentation produces heat, the wort may sometimes need to be cooled. In a modern
winery, this process happens automatically, as each barrel has its own heat/cold system. If fermentation
occurs at too low a temperature, this can lead to pear aromas and the inability to extract varietal fruits from
the grape skins. Fermentation at higher temperatures can contribute to the formation of more complex
aromas, but there is a risk that the characteristics of the varietal fruits will dissipate.

If the wine is barrel fermented, the lees will be stirred regularly to give the wine more flavor and richness.
Many winemakers produce white wine fermented in new oak. Once fermentation is complete, the wine will
be transferred to clean containers to prevent spoilage due to prolonged contact with the lees.

Vinification of Sweet Wines

Sweet wines can be made in different ways. The best sweets come from grapes with a high sugar content
due to the concentration of botrytis; or from grapes that are in the process of drying (passito); or from
grapes that have been frozen on the vines and from which the water has been extracted. Fermentation
stops naturally once the yeasts have converted as much sugar as possible into alcohol. This is the case
for wines such as Sauternes and Tokaji Aszu, which have an alcohol content of between 13-14% vol., and
for wines such as German Trockenbeerenausleses and Eisweins which can be 7% vol. If the fermented
must is filtered using a membrane so fine that it is able to remove all the yeast before all the sugar has
been consumed, the result will be a sweet wine. Since not all the sugar has been transformed, it will be
light in alcohol. This method is used for Asti and Moscato d'Asti. For lower quality wines, sulfur dioxide can
be used to kill the yeasts before they complete their work.

In some countries, particularly Germany, semi-sweet wines may be created by adding unfermented grape
juice, or süssreserve. This product consists of a sterile must that is filtered with a membrane before
fermentation begins, or dosed with sulfur dioxide. Süssreserve is added to dry wines after fermentation.
This gives them sweetness and balances the acidity. Another cheaper method, which also takes place
after fermentation is complete, consists of adding a concentrated must. This process is not used for the
best quality wines as it can give the wine a rancid taste.

Yeasts can also be killed by adding alcohol, as is the case in the production of Port and the Vins Doux
Naturels of France. This is covered in more detail in chapters 33-36 on fortified wines.

MALOLACTIC FERMENTATION
During malolactic fermentation (secondary fermentation), lactic acid bacteria convert malic acids (such
as in apples) into milder lactic acids (such as in milk). In red wines this fermentation is considered
necessary and is carried out by raising the temperature of the wine and not by adding sulfur dioxide. With

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white wines, you have to make a choice. Malolactic fermentation mellows and reduces acidity, and can
result in flavors such as butter and hazelnut. On the other hand, some of the fruit aromas may be lost and
a rich, rounded, smoother white wine will be less refreshing to drink. Malolactic fermentation can be
avoided with scrupulous hygiene, storing the wine at cool temperatures and by using sulfur dioxide.

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CHAPTER 6
MATURATION AND BOTTLING

Most of the wine produced around the world is produced with the idea of being consumed quickly and
almost immediately. However, many good wines will benefit from further aging in barrel and/or bottle. This
is particularly true for red wines, which can initially have strong flavours and tannins that need time to
mellow out. Some quality wines require a minimum ageing period, which is established by the laws that
control their production.

MATURATION
To survive medium to long aging, wines need a high level of tannins, acidity and alcohol, but even more
importantly, they need fruit that is capable of developing interesting flavors to make aging worthwhile. The
changes that a wine undergoes during the maturation period can be divided into three categories. First,
the container in which the maturation takes place can add components to the wine, for example the
tannins and toasty flavors that are present in new oak barrels. Second, some chemical reactions require
the presence of oxygen; these include those that promote the caramel, coffee, and dried fruit flavors in
muscatel liqueurs and tawny ports. These flavors will also contribute to the complexity of wines such as
barrel-aged Chardonnays and Bordeaux reds. Whether or not to age the wine in barrels is the decision of
the winemaker. Generally, the better the wine, the greater the need for the use of barrels, especially new
barrels. The third category covers the development of flavours that can only take place in an inert, oxygen-
free environment such as a glass bottle. The first two forms of ageing will be studied below; bottle ageing
will be studied at the end of the chapter.

Containers Used for Maturation

When selecting barrels, several factors must be taken into account, such as where the oak comes from;
how it has been dried; whether or not it has been toasted; and, if so, to what extent. Many of the barrels
are made of French or American oak. French barrels are considerably more expensive than American
ones, as the production process, which includes separating the trunk from the tree, is much more
laborious and uses more wood than in the case of American barrels. While American oak produces sweet,
vanilla and coconut flavors and low tannins, French oak produces a broader array of flavors and tannins
that help a wine age well once bottled.

Small barrels have a much more marked effect on the wine than large barrels due to the proportion of
wood surface to wine. A standard barrel can fill 225 liters, the equivalent of 300 bottles, or 25 cases of 12
bottles. This barrel is the one used in wineries in most parts of the world. New wood gives the wine an
oaky aroma and flavour, and this is usually present with a vanilla flavour or a smoky character, as well as
wood tannins. This effect diminishes as the barrel ages, so a one-year-old barrel will give less flavor than a
new one. By the time a barrel reaches its fourth year, it will impart little flavor and tannin to the wine. Below
is a descending scale of the contribution of the barrels as they age:

Small new oak barrels;

Second-hand oak barrels (one or two years old);
Old large barrels and tanks;
Neutral tanks: stainless steel, epoxy, glass coated.

Typically a barrel-aged red wine will remain in the barrel for a maximum of 18 months to two years before
bottling, although there are some, such as Barolo, that will remain in the barrel for longer. During this
period the barrels will be refilled and sorted regularly every six months. Finally, the wine will be filtered to
remove any unstable proteins.

While most white wines are fermented in vats, some will be aged in wood for a short period of time. This
will make the wine a little more complex.

Shortcuts
Barrels are not the only method by which oak flavors can be added to wine. Oak chips are often added to
the grapes as a cheap alternative to barrels. Recently, a slat treatment has been started, whereby a
vertical slatted framework is placed inside the fermentation tank. Using this method, the oak and the wine
come into contact in an effective way and at a much lower cost than in a container.

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Pg. 32, photo: Lamas.

CLARIFIED, STABILIZED AND FILTERED

To understand the different processes that take place before bottling, including the differences between
fining and filtering, you need to understand what things are not acceptable in a bottled wine, how these
things can happen, and how to prevent them.

Clarified
If we want a bottled wine to have clarity and luminosity (many winemakers pride themselves on bottling
wines without filtering them), we must remove any particles that could cause cloudiness. This is achieved
by filtration. Some particles are too small at the time of bottling, but their molecules can, due to chemical
reactions that occur after bottling, give rise to new, larger particles that in turn cause turbidity in the wine. It
is almost impossible to remove these particles through filtration, as they are so small that if we tried to
remove them, we would deprive the wine of other vital components for its development.

Clarification is a method that encourages these small, problematic molecules to coagulate and form balls
that sink to the bottom or can be removed by filtration. Substances used for this include egg white
(albumen), bentonite (diatomaceous herat) or micas, among others. The process can be repeated more
than once. Casse is the term used to describe a number of chemical failures that result in lack of clarity or
deposits, as well as spoiled odors and tastes. It may be due to the existence of unstable proteins in the
wine. If this is the case, there will be cloudiness but no off-flavor. Clarification with bentonite should
prevent and may cure this defect. Fining can also be used to change the personality of a wine: many
Bordeaux Cru Classés use egg whites to remove astringent tannins from the wine without affecting the
flavour components. In short, particles that are too small to be seen are known as colloids. If these
particles change and become visible then they become known as unstable colloids. The difference
between clarification and filtration is that clarification eliminates unstable colloids, while filtration removes
solid particles, some of which have formed during the clarification process.

Chemical stabilization
Wine tends to precipitate certain deposits. In white wines these deposits may be tartrates, and in red
wines the tartrates may be bound to other color components. Deposits do not harm, but they can affect the
clarity and flavor of a wine, which is one of the reasons why some wines are decanted before being
served. To prevent deposits of any kind from forming, the wine must be stabilized. The most common
chemical instability favors the formation of calcium or potassium tartrate crystals. These have the
appearance of sugar or small crystalline particles. White wines are more prone to this instability due to low
temperatures. However, as certain markets, particularly the US and Japan, insist on crystal-clear wines,
many wines are chilled in bulk when young so that tartrate precipitation can occur before bottling.
Clarification is also used to remove tannins from high volume red wines and to prevent deposit formation.
Oxidation occurs when a wine comes into contact with oxygen. White wines change to a darker color,
rosés change to an orange color, and red wines become orange or brown in color. This effect can be
remedied by the correct use of sulfur dioxide before bottling and by preventing the wine from coming into
contact with air. Other times they are the result of high levels of metal, especially iron and copper, which
may have been the result of the wine coming into contact with outdated equipment in the winery. This
doesn't usually happen nowadays. Iron produces a grayish deposit accompanied by a rotten egg smell;
copper gives an orange-brown color and a musty smell. The most common cure for iron and copper
scabies is the use of potassium ferrocysanide, which is a poisonous substance and should therefore only
be performed by a chemist.

Microbiological stabilization
Microorganisms such as yeasts and bacteria, in addition to playing an important role in the creation of
wine, can be the cause of different problems. One of them is the possibility that, once the wine is bottled,
fermentation will occur again. Another is vinegary, caused by aerobic acetobacter, which converts the
ethanol present in wine into acetic acid. This can spread from one barrel to another, so it must be
prevented by using doses of sulfur dioxide, which combined with oxygen neutralizes the acetobacter. To
prevent potential problems, microorganisms are killed by the use of sulfur dioxide or heat. Pasteurization,
normally used for red wines, is an example of this. This is achieved by a system that raises the
temperature of the wine to 95 ºC for one second (flash system). This system is widely used by many
winemakers in areas such as Beaujolais, where large volumes of wine with a stable consistency are

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required. Another gentler method of removing microorganisms, and one with less chance of damaging the
wine, is to remove them through filtration, usually at the time of bottling. This can be done at room
temperature.

Filtered
Before bottling the wine, the winemaker will ensure that it has perfect clarity. Modern technology helps
winemakers remove even the finest, most invisible substances from wine. However, there is a risk that, as
these filters are not selective, some characteristics of the wine are also eliminated at the same time as
these particles. The better the wine, the gentler the filtration should be, as long as stability can be
guaranteed. Many winemakers boast that their wines have not been filtered. This is often the case with
reds, where a deposit in a bottle of good wine is more acceptable. In the case of a non-dry wine, it will be
much less stable and will have to undergo some type of treatment before being bottled, either by heat or
filtration. The most common filter is a sheet filter that removes unwanted particles; however, wines with
low alcohol content, or that contain sugar residues, should be filtered using a membrane. This will remove
yeast and bacteria. Because they are so thin, the membranes can easily become clogged, so the wine
should have been passed through a foil beforehand to remove larger particles. Sterilized membrane filters
leave the wine completely free of microorganisms, which is why it is important to prevent contamination
with bottles and corks later on.

Pg.33, Photo: Kieselguhr machine; Photo: Remains after use of the Kieselguhr machine; Graphic: Reed
filter.

BOTTLING
White wines are usually bottled much earlier than red wines. These wines are produced with the aim of
being consumed young. Until bottling, the wine will have spent the entire time in stainless steel tanks at a
controlled temperature. Wines with a low alcohol level, or with sugar residues, tend to be unstable and
should therefore be bottled at low temperatures and in sterile conditions. This involves complete
sterilization, not only of the wine but also of all equipment, bottles and corks. A low temperature refers to
the normal temperature of a cellar. On the other hand, some lower quality wines can be bottled at a high
temperature; this is a cheaper but more abrupt pasteurization.

There are several arguments as to which is the most effective stopper for a bottle of wine. Cork has
always been the preferred choice, but it is also recognised that 5% of cork-stoppered bottles suffer from
some type of failure due to variations in the properties of a natural product. Cork producers have invested
large sums in implementing treatments to prevent these problems. Artificial corks, made of plastic, have
been developed to replace and give an acceptable result in wines that do not need aging. For longer aging
periods, artificial cork does not offer sufficient protection against oxygen, although studies are underway to
remedy this problem. The third alternative, which initially received a lot of support for white wines from
Australia and New Zealand, and is now being used increasingly around the world, even for red wines, is
the screw cap. In this case there will be a protective layer of inert gas between the wine and the cork.

Pg. 34, Photo: Cork freshly removed from the tree.

Bottle Aging
For a time after bottling, wine may suffer from what is known as “bottle sickness,” meaning the wine
neither smells nor tastes as it should. Most wines are bottled for immediate consumption. Aging can result
in the loss of fresh fruit flavors. There are, however, many wines that improve after having aged in bottles
for several months or even years. Examples of this include vintage Port, fine German Rieslings, Bordeaux
Cru Classé, as well as the finest red and white Burgundy wines, which do not reach their peak until they
have spent at least 20 years or more in bottle. The laws of some countries, such as Italy and Spain, insist
that certain wines not be put on the market until they have aged a minimum number of years in the bottle.
It is vital that the ageing time takes place in a dark, dry and cool place, without disturbance and at a
constant temperature, ideally between 12-13 ºC. There must also be constant humidity. Bottles should be
stored horizontally so that the corks remain moist and retain their sponginess to seal the bottle optimally.

Alternative to Bottles
Glass bottles are inert, impermeable, portable, cheap to produce and quite strong (although they
sometimes tend to break). One of their disadvantages is that they are heavy and rigid. Weight adds to
shipping costs, and its rigidity means it is not possible to make the most of space when packing it. Adding

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to the disadvantages is the fact that once a glass bottle is opened, the half-empty part leaves room for air
to enter, which in turn will attack the wine if it is not sucked out or replaced by an inert gas such as
nitrogen.

Plastic bottles and bags are much lighter and are pressed once the wine has been consumed, thus
eliminating air penetration. Unfortunately, the plastic used is not inert like glass, and since it is permeable,
the wine decays in a few months. In most cases this is not a problem as many wines are produced with
immediate consumption in mind. However, glass is the best option when you want to age and store wine.

CHAPTER 7
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRICE OF WINE

The costs that contribute to the market price of a bottle of wine are a combination of the cost of producing
the liquid and the costs involved in packaging and distribution. At each level, the individual or organization
must earn enough to make the work done worthwhile. Finally, it should be noted that, whether production
and distribution costs are cheap or expensive, a wine can only be sold at a price that the market allows.

PRODUCTION COSTS
These are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 on Viticulture and Chapter 5 on Wine Production and
Specific Regions. It is important to point out the factors that contribute to price differences once the wine is
finished.

Costs that can affect the price of grapes include:

• The demands of work in the vineyard. Remote, sloping, small, hand-cultivated lands are very
difficult to work, much less flat lands where machinery is used.
• The cost and availability of workers and/or equipment.
• The economy.
• The degree of selection of the grapes. This has a labor cost, and unused material will result in less
wine being produced.
• Yields. High yields allow other fixed costs to be spread over a larger quantity of grapes. Lower
yields result in higher quality, and higher prices can be demanded.
• Supply and demand. Certain varieties and regions may command a higher price, regardless of
production costs, simply because there is particular demand and limited supplies. Likewise, when
there is overproduction, there is a risk that the price paid for the grapes will not cover the costs of
production.

Where the cost of land is high (as is the case in Champagne, and other regions where there is competition
for other land uses, as is the case in Adelaide's suburban expansion), the cost of grapes has to be high
enough to make the investment in land worthwhile. On the other hand, where high prices are demanded
for grapes, the price of land increases.

Factors affecting wine production costs include:

• The equipment (pressing machines, fermentation tanks, etc.) These costs are considerably high,
and often this equipment remains unused for a large part of the year. The more that can be used
during the harvest season, the more the costs can be spread.
• Barrels, where these are used. The cost will depend on the type of oak, how it has been treated,
and whether it is new or second-hand. There are also some costs involved in refilling the barrels.
• Aging (whether in barrel, vat or bottle) requires specific conditions that cost money.

The equipment is usually shared. A cooperative is an institution that belongs to a number of owners. It
allows for the sharing of wine production facilities and, sometimes, marketing costs. The wine produced
may be the result of a blend of the product of several partners and is released onto the market under the
name of the cooperative, or on the other hand, the wine of an individual winegrower is returned to him to
be bottled and sold under his own name. Cooperatives exist almost everywhere where wine is made. A
trader (négociant) buys grapes and/or the finished product from farmers and/or cooperatives. In this way,
the farmer does not need to invest as much in wine production, aging, bottling and marketing. Wine
merchants benefit from the market economy because they are able to distribute and supply larger

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quantities of a particular wine than any individual winery. High-volume brands from the New World follow
this model. Because expenses are shared, cooperatives often have lower prices than individual wineries in
the same region. However, individual wineries, having a lower level of production, can afford more
intensive care at each level of wine production, with the corresponding labor costs. In most regions,
individual wineries make the best wines, but because production is more expensive and quantities are
smaller, prices will be higher. It is the consumer who must decide whether paying a higher price is worth it
or not. Good cooperatives produce high quality wines and can also sell them at a high price. Individual
wineries have fewer options to blend and fix potential deficiencies, and the quality of their production
depends on the experience and work of farmers and winemakers. This is why the quality of wines from
small wineries can be less reliable and the style less predictable than wines from cooperatives.

PACKAGING, DISTRIBUTION AND SALES

The price at the winery includes not only the cost of the liquid, but also the cost of packaging, bottling,
cork, label and cardboard. Before the bottle reaches the consumer, it must be transported to a distribution
point in the country of sale. This can be done by an agent or a dealer. It will then be transported to the final
destination where the sale will take place. Factors affecting packaging and distribution costs include:
• The price of packaging. Specially designed and heavier bottles cost more.
• Transport. Transporting in bulk and bottling in the country where the wine will be consumed can
save costs, although some wines, by law, must be bottled in the region where production took
place. Distance affects cost, although sea freight over long distances can be cheaper than road
freight over shorter distances.
• Labor costs. An individual seller will have to cover higher costs per bottle than a large department
store. Since the consumer can go to any of these to buy the product, the small seller has to find
ways to compete (by providing good service, advising the customer, offering convenience, a wider
range to choose from or a good selection of wines).
• Wine storage. Most wine is purchased with the hope that it will sell immediately. However, in order
to offer a wide range and a good selection, the seller must keep the shelves full. This freezes
capital and increases storage costs, especially if the wine needs to be kept at low, humid and
constant temperatures in order to store the bottles for a long time. These costs will be linked to the
final selling price of older wines, although a high price may also be related to the availability and
reputation of the wine.
• Points of Sale. Generally, a wine will cost more in a restaurant than in a store, mainly because a
higher profit is expected from it, but also because the price includes the occasion, the ___location and
the service.

TAXES AND FISCAL CHARGES

In many countries there will be a customs tax at the same time as one or more value-added or sales taxes.
In some cases customs tax is applied based on volume and in others based on value. Often the level of
tax will also vary depending on the style of wine – still or sparkling, still or fortified, imported or domestic.

We can include under this category the contributions, both voluntary and mandatory, that producers make
to finance regulatory or promotional organizations.

THE MARKET
Regardless of the cost of production, the ultimate price at which a wine will be sold will be what the market
can bear. In a completely free market, if someone is able to make a large profit, other producers will enter
the market and, by offering greater availability and cutting prices in a competitive manner, will force prices
down, which will more closely reflect the costs of production. Wine does not fit this model because nature
and legislation limit the extent to which production can be increased to match demand.

There may be many classic regions yet to be discovered. However, the style of wine that can be produced
will depend on the soils, topography and climate. This means that if a certain style is to be produced, the
most suitable region may be so small that it cannot meet global demand, which will push prices up. For
many wines, production is legally limited by the size of a defined production area and by the maximum
yields permitted within that area. If, for example, demand for Champagne continues to increase, it cannot
be matched by increased production, thus creating upward pressure on prices unless consumers can be
persuaded that other sparkling wines can offer a suitable substitute.

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This brings us to the question of “branding.” The first wine brands were literally symbols engraved on
barrels to indicate their origin. In the Middle Ages, as today, certain regions had a reputation for their
wines, which allowed them to sell them at higher prices. The marks on the barrels helped to identify these
wines and acted as a prevention against fraud.

The most subtle way to understand a brand is to think of it as something that gives the consumer a certain
guarantee of quality and/or style. This treatment would encompass the major producers of the New World,
as well as some merchants and cooperatives and even some famous properties such as Domaine de la
Romanée Conti and Château Haut-Brion (the latter was perhaps the first wine to be promoted as a brand,
in 17th century London). This would also allow us to include many appellations such as Chablis or Chianti.
I would also include certain countries that have established a good reputation for reliability such as
Australia, Chile or New Zealand. Some varietals, such as Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Cabernet
Sauvignon, are undoubtedly perceived as brands by the consumer, allowing them to choose a wine they
have not been able to taste, with an idea of what to expect. The consumer may be prepared to pay a little
more as a certain “insurance” to obtain this guarantee. First of all, for a brand to be sure of its existence,
the consumer must be familiar with it and the expectations it creates. This can be achieved through a
combination of media promotion and inviting the consumer to try samples of the product (either through
tastings or price promotions). These promotions may be funded by trade organisations, production
companies or distributors and points of sale.

In this book there are reference tables that provide an indication of the selling price of wines. The actual
price will vary with the market, but relative prices will be roughly the same (although in wine producing
countries far from the EU, local wines may be relatively cheaper compared to imported EU wines).

CHAPTER 8
EVALUATION AND TASTING

Wine is meant to be consumed, but the pleasure derived from it is greater if we take the time to taste it
while we drink it. Tasting plays a very important role not only within the wine industry but also for the
consumer. A producer will taste the wine regularly during the winemaking process to monitor how it is
developing, during blending, and as part of final quality checks before release to the market. The buyer will
later taste a range of similar wines before making his choice. Journalists and consultants need to be able
to recognize the quality of a wine and be able to describe it in order to make recommendations. Finally, as
wine is increasingly sold in large retail outlets, such as supermarkets where detailed advice may not be
available, it becomes increasingly important that the consumer is able to make an informed choice.
Knowledge and experience can improve our experience with wine and many other aspects of life. Learning
to understand something allows us not only to appreciate it but also to enjoy it. It is through regular and
frequent tasting that an individual can build up a memory bank of wines that will enable him to make
qualitative judgements in the future. Experience is the main factor in wine tasting skills, but a systematic
approach serves as support.

PREPARATION FOR TASTING

In wine tasting, three of the senses play a primary role: sight (to evaluate the appearance of the wine),
smell (to evaluate the aromas of the wine on the nose) and taste (to evaluate the sweetness, acidity and
bitterness of the wine on the palate). The sense of touch plays a secondary role when evaluating the
texture of a wine, especially sparkling wines.

It is important that these main senses are given free rein to function at their maximum capacity; therefore,
the environment in which the tasting takes place should be as neutral as possible. The ___location should not
be influenced by external odors and the lighting should be as natural as possible. If the tasting cannot be
done in daylight, the best alternative is fluorescent white light. There should be a white background against
which the wines can be studied. This can be the surface of the tasting table or a simple sheet of white
paper.

The taster should come to the tasting with a clean palate, not affected by food or cigarettes. For example,
chewing a piece of bread or drinking water can help cleanse the palate. Problems such as colds or
allergies (hay fever) affect the ability to smell and taste properly.

It is imperative that there are no external odors that could confuse the potential of the sense of smell.

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Tobacco, perfume and shaving lotion should be avoided. There should be no smells of food, kitchens or
restaurants nearby. Tasting glasses may also have residual odors from the cardboard box they were
stored in, the detergent they were washed with, or the cloth they were dried with. All of these factors can
invalidate a tasting. Smell the cup before using it and make sure it is shiny.

Equipment
What is the ideal glass for tasting? It should be of a sufficient size to allow us to shake an adequate
amount of wine. The sides of the glass should be tilted inwards in a tulip shape so that the wines can
move freely to release their aromas and can concentrate at the top to be smelled. There should also be a
foot so that the glass can be picked up without affecting the temperature of the wine, while at the same
time being able to evaluate the color. All these characteristics are met in the standard or ISO (International
Standard Organisation) cup.

For a serious tasting, one glass should be used for each wine to be tasted. This makes it easier to make
comparisons and gives us the opportunity to taste a wine again to see how it develops in the glass when it
comes into contact with air.

The taster should also have a tasting book where he can write down his evaluations of each wine. Tasting
is a very personal thing, but a systematic approach will make it easier to make fair comparisons over time,
both within the development of the same wine and with similar wines. Although memory plays a very
important role in tasting, detailed notes offer essential support.

Preparation of Wines
This is of great importance. To be fairly evaluated, each wine has its ideal temperature. White wines
should be served cool but not cold. Red wines should be served at room temperature, assuming the
tasting room is not too hot. Wines can be decanted before tasting. There may be a number of reasons for
this: to separate the wine from possible deposits in the bottle, to allow it to breathe, or, in some cases, to
prevent premeditated judgements based on the label or shape of the bottle. The order in which the wines
are tasted is also important, so that the palate is not influenced by what has been tasted previously. For
white wines, dry ones will come before sweet ones. With reds it is a little more difficult. There are those
who think that older wines should be tasted before younger ones because they tend to be more delicate.
There are others who will always start with the youngest wines and work their way back in age. White
wines are generally tasted before red wines. The best order is the one the taster feels most comfortable
with.

It is also worth remembering, within the context of serious analytical tasting, that most wines are made to
be consumed with food. As an example of this, many Spanish and Italian red wines consumed individually
are aggressive, but when paired with local cuisine, which is highly dependent on olive oil, they become
more appealing.

THE PHASES OF TASTING

Appearance
There is a logical order in which the senses should come into play when tasting a wine. Naturally, sight is
the first sense to play a role and for many people it is easier to express what a wine looks like. Clarity is of
vital importance in a wine. Cloudiness is the first indication that there may be a problem. There are two
main reasons for this. Particularly in the case of an older red wine, this may have occurred because the
wine was not properly decanted and the sediment removed. Of more concern should be cloudiness
caused by re-fermentation in the bottle or bacterial problems. This should be subsequently confirmed on
the nose and palate.

Color, both in terms of intensity and tone, can suggest a lot about a wine. To appreciate the true color of a
wine in the glass, hold it at a 45º angle against a white background. This should reveal two different colors,
one at the rim of the wine and one in the body or center of the wine.

Red wines become paler with age, and the first sign of this aging is found in the rim, which can change
from purple, to ruby, to ochre and then, with extreme age, to brown. Most wines are made to be consumed
young, so they may never reach the second phase of this process. It should also be understood that each
varietal has its own depth and tone of color, with some grapes grown specifically to add color. The degree
of color extraction during vinification affects the appearance of the final wine. A pale red wine with an

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ochre rim could be a mature wine, from a wide range of varietals, or it could be a young wine made with
Pinot Noir or Nebbiolo, for example. An opaque, purple wine could be a Shiraz, or it could be a light wine
made from a variety that produces color easily, such as Dornfelder. In both cases the smell and taste will
be more revealing.

White wines have a watery, broad rim and may have greenish notes when young. Its colour will become
deeper with age, reaching a golden yellow, with a wider colour gradation towards the edge. Barrel aging
will also alter the color of a white wine; even fairly young wines can take on a golden color if they have
been in contact with new wood.

A word as simple as red or yellow implies little. These should be rated as highly as possible. Red, for
example, can range from ochre, through garnet and brick, to ruby and purple. Yellow can be lemon or
gold. When describing the color of a wine, it is essential to have a precise vocabulary.

There may be other observations to note. “Tears” or “legs” are the marks left on the walls of the glass after
shaking the wine. These usually suggest high alcohol content or a lot of residual sugar. Similarly, very
sweet white wines may appear “oily” in the glass. Occasionally in white wines there may be a deposit of
crystals that look like sugar. These are tartrates that have been deposited in cold climates; they do not
affect the quality of the wine. In fact, one German producer calls them “wine diamonds” – something highly
valued in wine as it shows that it is natural. Sometimes bubbles may appear in a wine that is supposed to
be still and not sparkling. In some white wines designed to be drunk young a slight CO2 may remain in the
wine to help preserve its freshness. In fact, in Portuguese Vinho Verde, it can be artificially introduced at
the time of bottling. On the other hand, it may indicate that a second fermentation has begun in the bottle.
This would be a defect and should be confirmed in the nose and mouth.

Bubbles are an aspect of the quality of sparkling wines. Generally speaking, a long, slow fermentation in
the bottle produces the smallest, finest bubbles. However, when we examine the bubbles in the glass,
much can depend on how the glass has been washed. Even tiny amounts of detergent or grease can
prevent bubbles from forming, and variations in glass texture can lead to large differences in bubble size,
speed and regularity. A definitive assessment of the quality of the bubble can only be made in the mouth.

Nose
Since appearance is influenced by the grapes and the winemaking process as well as by age, it is difficult
to reach a definitive conclusion about a wine based on appearance alone. While one may reject a wine at
this stage, one is unlikely to accept it without further confirmation from the other senses. There are many
tasters who consider the sense of smell when making a judgment. To release all the aromas of a wine, it
must be swirled inside the glass. To release these odors effectively, it may be necessary to warm the cup
by placing it between the palms of your hand.

The first point to consider when smelling a wine is its condition. Is it clean or not-clean? Experienced
tasters will often appreciate a wine with caution, sniffing it lightly. Then, if all is well, they will swirl the wine
around the glass and take a deeper sniff. The most common defect that can be detected at this stage is
the cork smell. It has been estimated that 5% of all wines are affected by this. However, what is often
defined as corky may be the result of a dirty barrel. Obvious signs are traces of moisture, or sometimes
the smell of damp rags. Even if the smell in the nose is elusive, it is generally more pronounced in the
mouth. It has nothing to do with the cork particles that may be found in your glass. These can be removed
with your fingers or by simply pushing the cup away. Excess SO2 is perhaps the most aggressive of odors
and is most often found in inexpensive white wines. It is used as a preservative and to destroy yeast in
wines with residual sugar. When used in excess, it can give the wine a pungent smell like burnt matches.
Those who suffer from asthma and other respiratory diseases may find this smell very aggressive. A wine
affected by oxidation is often described as “maderized,” with a burnt smell like that of Madeira wines, or
caramel. It can generally be recognized visually as the wines have a brownish, unnatural color and a dull
appearance. Volatile acidity generates aromas like nail polish and vinegar, caused by the presence of
acetic bacteria and oxygen together. A wine with this smell should be rejected immediately.

The next step is to decide the intensity of the aroma, which can give us clues about the quality of the wine.
A weak nose may indicate a tasteless wine; fine wines usually have a more intense nose although they
may appear “closed” when young. A healthy and expressive nose is always a good sign. Wines change
over time and their state of development (evolution) can be evaluated by nose. A young wine smells of the

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primary aromas of the grapes used in its production. With age they soften and become more harmonious.
Therefore, a wine that is subtle and complex on the nose is likely to be of greater quality and maturity.
There is a big difference between age and maturity. A five-year-old Bordeaux Cru Classé may be in its
infancy, while a five-year-old Beaujolais is most likely past its prime. So while some wines may seem tired
on the nose at just three years old, others may still be youthful at thirty. In the technical vocabulary of
tasting, the aromas generally used to describe young wines are derived from the fruit itself, while the term
bouquet applies to an assortment of aromas that come from the aging of the wine, particularly in the bottle.

The final stage is to describe the character of the aromas. Few things are more personal than the
perception of each of the smells and aromas. Each person has a limited number of tastes and smells in
memory and their range will depend on individual experiences. These aromas and flavors can be
classified in different ways. At the end of this chapter we include the WSET systematic approach to wine
tasting, which includes suggestions as to the words we can use to describe aromas, and how these can be
classified. With practice we can learn to associate certain aroma combinations with very specific grape
varieties, regions and even, sometimes, individual vineyards. It should be noted that although many sweet
wines have a distinctive nose, sugar is not volatile, and therefore cannot be detected by the sense of
smell. There are some wines, such as many trocken wines from Germany, that may appear sweet on the
nose, but are actually dry.

Mouth: Taste, Texture and Smell (again)

The last of the main senses to be used throughout the process is that of taste. For the experienced taster,
this usually does nothing more than confirm impressions that have already been detected. To release all
the aromas of a wine in the mouth, the taster will have to inhale air while holding the wine in the mouth. It
is amazing how a wine opens up in this way as its volatile components are released. There are a large
number of elements in wine that are detected through the physiological reactions of the wine on the taste
buds in the mouth. Different aspects of a wine's taste can be appreciated by the reactions of different parts
of the mouth, tongue and gums. This is another reason why you should swish the wine around your entire
mouth when tasting.

Sweetness is often the first sensation you get when tasting wine in your mouth; this is because sweetness
is recognized with the tip of the tongue. Acidity is recognized on the sides of the tongue and towards the
back, so it is usually the second sensation after sweetness that tends to dominate. (All great sweet wines
have high acidity to balance the sweetness.) High acidity in a wine makes your mouth salivate. Wines
without acidity will be flat and unappetizing.

Tannin is an important component of red wines that are going to age. It has a drying effect on the gums
and teeth, in contrast to the salivating effect of acidity. It is more pronounced in young red wines. It should
not be confused with a similar sensation sometimes given by red wines that are already old. Bitterness can
be the result of excessive tannin due to over-extraction. It can be recognized in the middle of the tongue
and towards the back. Body is sometimes referred to as palate; it is the impression left by the passage of
wine in the mouth. Some wines give the impression of being light; these are known as light-bodied wines.
Others, which feel heavy, are described as full-bodied wines. Alcohol, tannin, fruit concentration, sugar
and glycerol contribute to the body or “mouthfeel” of a wine.

Alcohol is often difficult to detect on the palate, but is generally part of the “body” of a wine. When a wine
is high in alcohol, it can give a warm sensation in the back of the mouth. (In the UK “low alcohol” is a
specific legal definition of a type of wine, so it is better to say that the wine is “light alcohol.”) Alcohol is an
essential ingredient of a wine, generally representing about 12% of the total volume. The taste of a wine
comes from the grapes that have been used and the way they have been treated. Alcohol is what brings
all these aromas and flavors together and rounds them out. It is part of the body of the wine but it is not the
body itself. The alcohol level of a wine must be in balance with its flavours; therefore a full-bodied wine
such as a California Zinfandel will need a higher alcohol level than a delicate Moselle Riesling.

Generally, the flavour characteristics found in the mouth will confirm those of the aromas found in the
nose, although this is not always the case. They will, however, be more complex, since there are three
different phases in the tasting of a good wine and each of these can vary not only in its aromas, but also in
its intensity. The first phase is what can be called immediate impression; this can last for a short period of
time. This is followed by the mid-palate when the full aroma of the wine is felt in the mouth. Finally, we

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have the aftertaste or finish, which is the time during which the flavors of the wine linger on the palate after
it has been swallowed or spit out. The complexity and persistence of all these phases must be taken into
consideration when evaluating quality.

For sparkling wines, bubbles must also be taken into account. Elegant bubbles are an indication of age
and great quality. In the best wines the bubbles will be very persistent. Aggressive bubbles that dissipate
quickly in the glass indicate an inferior wine.

Conclusions
The most important conclusion is the assessment of the quality of the wine. A wine can be evaluated
against another group of wines, perhaps from the same varietal or region, perhaps at the same price level.
To decide whether a wine is poor, mediocre, good or a great example of a Macôn, for example, we first
need to have an idea of what a Macôn wine should be. The same applies when we want to decide whether
a wine offers a good relationship between price and quality: we must develop a clear idea of what we have
the right to expect within a certain price range. This is where a wealth of experience tasting a wide range
of wines is of great importance.

One of the dangers of judging wines is the difficulty of evaluating non-typical wines. Returning to the
Macôn example, if we are presented with two samples, both are very fresh with clean citrus aromas but
one has greater intensity of flavours, more persistence and more character, it is therefore easy to say
which is better. But let's suppose that one year a producer decides to make a sweet wine. What would we
compare it to? Is there an absolute set of criteria for judging quality in wines? How do we compare the
qualities of a mid-range red Burgundy and a mid-range Australian Shiraz, or Chardonnay, or a premium-
priced Vintage Madeira? The characteristics of these wines may seem so different that comparisons
become meaningless. Still, consumers make decisions based on these types of comparisons when
purchasing a bottle of wine. Although there is little consensus on what constitutes quality in a wine, other
than that it must be free of defects, a certain number of criteria are repeated when critics justify their
evaluations. These include the balance of components; the persistence of the finish; the intensity of
aromas and flavors (in the sense that a diluted wine is a poor wine, but a super-concentrated wine is not
necessarily a good one); the complexity of aromas and flavors; how expressive it is of its region of origin or
its varietal; how well it will age and improve in the bottle; and how long it can last. It is important not to
forget that a great wine should be a pleasure to drink!

Another aspect that we must note when drawing conclusions is the state of evolution of the wine. If it's not
past prime, or ready to drink, how long can I store it? A wine that is past its prime will appear dull. Both
reds and whites develop a brownish hue as they spoil. Their flavors tend to disappear or they may develop
unpleasant “sherry” aromas. Assessing whether a wine has a future is a bit more difficult. High levels of
tannin or acidity can make the wine difficult to enjoy. If there is sufficient concentration of fruit, the wine will
be able to soften and gain in complexity over time, allowing it to be enjoyable in the future. We would say it
is not ready to drink. As we gain experience in following the evolution of wines, it will become possible to
calculate how many months or years are left before the wine can be enjoyed, and therefore before it can
reach the desired degree of development in the bottle. Tannins, alcohol and sugar help preserve a wine as
its components evolve and integrate. The combination of tannin, acidity, alcohol, sugar and fruit extract is
said to constitute the structure of a wine. Wines that have high acidity or tannin but lack fruit do not
improve with age: they simply dry out and disappear. We would conclude that these wines are unbalanced
and will not improve. Similarly, if an aroma or flavor, usually unpleasant, dominates the wine, we will say
that it is unbalanced. The balance between the constituent elements (tannin, acidity, alcohol, sugar and
aromatic compounds) is an important aspect to take into account when evaluating the quality of a wine.

In addition to evaluating the quality and state of evolution of a wine, we must also consider how it will be
used. Who can buy it? What kind of occasions will it be used for? What kind of meals will it accompany?

TASTING NOTES
To assist students with tastings and note-taking, WSET has developed progressive tasting guides for each
level of the course. A copy of the Advanced Certificate's Systematic Approach to Wine Tasting is shown.
The left column shows a list of aspects that should be considered for each wine being tasted. The column
on the right offers a number of terms that can be used, but it is not an exclusive list.

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THE FRENCH WINE LAWS
Today, wine production is strictly controlled by two organizations. One of them, the Institute National des
Appellations d'Origine (INAO), replaced the Comité National des Appellations d'Origine after the Second
World War. It controls the hierarchy of high-quality French wines. The other organisation is the Service de
Repression des Fraudes, which is responsible for enforcing the complicated laws governing wine
production. From the moment the grapes are harvested, they must have some form of documentation
until, in France, the wine is purchased by the final consumer. On the domestic market in France, each
bottle carries a capsule with the French government seal proving that taxes have been paid. In addition to
this organisation, there is also the Office National Interprofessionel des Vins de Table (ONIVINS), which
controls all French table wines. In 1963, French laws were incorporated and served as an example in the
European Community regime.

QUALITY WINE
France has two levels of Quality Wines Produced in a Specific Region.

Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AC or AOC)

This is the highest level a wine can achieve. Although the requirements for this level may vary from region
to region, they will always be based on the following points:

1. Production areas- Refers to boundaries based on soil components. Some ACs may include
different soils in the same area.
2. Permitted grape varieties: They must be part of a “local, loyal and established” custom.
3. Viticultural practices - including planting distances and pruning methods
4. The maximum yield limits allowed per hectare.
5. Winemaking methods, including aging.
6. The maximum permitted alcohol level, which must be achieved without chaptalization.

Within most regions there is an established hierarchy of appeals, which are usually based geographically.
The more specific the geographic description, the higher the appeal and the stricter the laws. There is the
possibility of downgrading a wine to a lower appellation. In some areas, an individual vineyard may receive
several ACs with different quality levels.

Some regional and district courts are entitled to a supérieur qualification, for example Mâcon Supérieur,
Bourdeaux Supérieur. These wines have half a degree or a whole degree more alcohol than a basic
appellation.

Vins Délimités de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS)

This classification was established in 1949 as a basis for AC status. Many wines that were VDQS have
now moved up to AC. Examples of this are Minervois and Corbières. On the other hand, there are others,
such as Vins du Bugey, which do not seem to have any aspirations for promotion. The laws are based on
the same as for AC wines, but are usually less strict with the quantities and varieties of grapes. However,
there was initially one area where the VDQS laws were stricter. The right to acquire a VDQS label was
granted once the wine had been tasted. This requirement has now been incorporated into AC wines. In
general, VDQS is now a lower quality, representing less than 1% of French wine production.

TABLE WINE
France has two kinds of table wine.

Country wine
This classification was confirmed by a decree in 1979 and was the result of an initiative by the wine
industry to give greater value to Vins de Table. At the same time, the aim was to increase the quality of
Midi wine. Today, there are at least 150 varieties of Vins de Pays, which are spread throughout France
from the Belgian and Spanish borders to those of Italy. They represent approximately 20% of France's
total production. The Vin de Pays is made up of three levels.

First, there are four large multi-departmental Vins de Pays. These are: Vin de Pay´s d'Oc, undoubtedly
the most important, and which covers all of Languedoc and Roussillon; Vin de Pays des Comtés
Rhodaniens, which includes vineyards in the Rhône Valley and the Alps; Vin de Pays du Jardin de la
France, which are basically vineyards in the Loire Valley; and Vin de Pays du Comté Tolosan, which

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covers the vineyards of southeastern France, excluding the Bordeaux region.

Second, there are 54 departmental Vins de Pays, such as the Vin de Pays des Pyrenées-Orientales. The
regions of Alsace, Champagne, Côte d'Or, Beaujolais and Bordeaux are excluded from this level (although
this may change later).

And third, there are a myriad of regional Vins de Pays of different sizes. A wine needs four things to
qualify for this category:
1. Production area. As we have seen, this can vary considerably, and the same vineyard can access
three different definitions of Vins de Pays.
2. Grape varieties. For each Vin de Pays there is a list that recommends the varieties that can be
planted. Generally the list will be more extensive than for local AC or VDQS wines, allowing the
winemaker to plant classic varieties from other regions. This has resulted in interesting
experiments.
3. Yields. These are usually 90 hl/ha, although in some Vins de Pays this has been reduced to 80
hl/ha.
4. Limits of analytics. Among other things, this includes a minimum alcohol volume of 9% in the north
and 10% in the south, as well as maximum tolerance levels for sulphur and volatile acidity.

Pg.45, Photos: Labels. Two Sauvignons Blancs from France. The one on the left is a Vin de Pays from the
south, the one on the right is an Appellation Contrôlée wine from a region where Sauvignon Blanc is an
established traditional variety.

Table Wines
Thirty percent of the wine produced in France falls under this category. Vins de Table can be produced
anywhere in the country without any restrictions on the variety of grape used. Chaptalization is prohibited.
There is no stipulated maximum yield, but a proportion of the distribution exceeding 100 hl/ha must be
distilled and the higher the overproduction, the lower the price per litre of wine distillation. This method
was introduced to encourage growers to reduce yields and plant finer grape varieties in order to increase
quality. This seems to have been positive. No region, grape variety or vintage can be mentioned. Wines
cannot be chaptalized and pricing is usually based on alcohol level.

CHAPTER 9
BORDEAUX AND SOUTH-EAST OF FRANCE

Bordeaux was an important city under the Romans and during the Middle Ages it was, along with Libourne
in the Dordogne, a centre of trade for the wines of the “high land” along the river. Many of these wines
from this area, such as Bergerac, Cahors and Madiran, are regaining the reputation they had in the Middle
Ages. It was not until the 18th century that Bordeaux wines as we know them today were exported to
England via Ireland, Scotland and the Channel Islands, often as contraband. These wines were then
known as “new French clarets”. Even at that time there were certain Chateaux that were beginning to have
a certain reputation: Samuel Pepys kept Haut-Brion in his cellar. From this point on, a hierarchy began to
emerge between the vineyards, particularly those belonging to the Médoc districts.

Bordeaux is currently in a crisis situation, as there is polarization in the market. Châteaux that have built a
reputation for their wines can sell them year after year without difficulty, although the price they achieve
may vary from year to year. However, these Châteaux account for only a small proportion of the total
market, leaving large quantities of wine waiting to be sold. Many retailers believe that the future lies in
brands, but few of them have the facilities to create them and compete in global markets. Added to this is
the fact that Bordeaux wines generally need to age to enhance their quality, as when young they do not
possess those rich fruit aromas and flavours like New World wines. Few consumers have the patience or
time to store a wine for years before being able to consume it. Unfortunately, many wine producers and
sellers do not want to go through the trouble of storing wines correctly or cannot wait until the time of
buying and selling to recover their money.

THE CONCEPT OF THE CHATEAU

Many vineyards in Bordeaux are not known by the name of the land from which they originate, as is the
case in Burgundy, but are known by the name of the estates from which they come. These usually belong
to a single owner and are known as Châteaux. Over the years, a farm can vary in size depending on

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whether they buy or sell land for cultivation. For example, Château Petrus in Pomerol has increased in
size by around 50% since 1969. The name of a château is more of a brand than a specific designation.
There are more than 3,000 individual châteaux in Bordeaux vineyards, although until recently only a small
proportion appeared on labels. Those that did appear tended to be the most prestigious and established;
the rest were blended by Bordeaux merchants and then released onto the market under their own labels.

Pg.46, Photo: autumn in Bordeaux.

CLIMATE
Bordeaux is located at 45º latitude, which makes it quite far north in terms of wine production. The season
in which the fruit ripens features long hours of sunlight, but these are moderated by a maritime climate.
For this reason, frost is not usually a problem, although it has occasionally caused severe damage, as in
April 1991. Humidity is high, not only because of the proximity of the sea, but also because of the rivers
that pass through this region. This promotes noble rot and grey rot, a major problem for red wines. The
strong winds coming from the Atlantic are cushioned by pine forests and mountain dunes. Because they
are located in a temperamental climate zone, Bordeaux vintages can vary considerably from year to year.
A thorough knowledge of the differences between individual vintages is very important, although for the
finest wines, strict selection of grapes and barrels as well as the use of secondary wines considerably
reduces the differences in style and quality between vintages.

SOIL AND TOPOGRAPHY

On the banks of the rivers there is an area of fertile alluvial soil. Only low-appellation wines can be
produced here. The highest quality vineyards are found on well-drained gravel, where quartz and pebbles
cover a subsoil of pressed clay. This is particularly the case in the villages of Haut-Médoc, north of
Bordeaux and north of Graves. In parts of Saint-Emilion, the gravel lies on a base of calcareous soil. It is
rare to find vineyards on the slopes of the Bordeaux mountains, but where they exist they tend to have
calcareous and clay soil.

Pg.47, photo: Bordeaux, gravel floor.

GRAPE VARIETIES
All red wines and almost all bourbons from Bordeaux are made from a blend of grape varieties. This is
because variations in climate and annual temperature fluctuations make growing in Bordeaux
unpredictable.

Different grape varieties respond differently to the climate. Grapes with thick skin are much better
protected from rot, they ripen or flower earlier, others resist frost and humidity better than the rest, etc. By
mixing the varieties planted, farmers can cover their backs, allowing for the production of wine of
reasonable quality even when the weather conditions have been unfavourable. This practice has been
perfected in Bordeaux over the years.

Under AC laws, 14 varieties of grapes are permitted, but in practice no more than five varieties of black
grapes and three varieties of white grapes are used.

Pg.47: Map; Chart: Bordeaux and surrounding regions.

Cabernet Sauvignon
Recognized as the classic red grape variety of Bordeaux, although today there are more plantings of
Merlot. It makes up at least three-quarters of the blends in the best wines of the Médoc, where it is found
predominantly. In the entire region it covers only 29 percent of red grape plantations. It gives moderate
yields and produces quality, tannic wines with a characteristic blackberry aroma when fully ripe, although it
is true that it is difficult to mature and can produce strong, vegetal wines that can only be used if mixed
with Merlot.

Cabernet Franc
It grows mainly in Saint-Emilion and in smaller quantities in the Médoc and Graves. It gives higher yields
than Cabernet Sauvignon, but the wine has less body and finesse. Its flavors can be herbaceous or
stemmy, and the wine matures more quickly.

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Both Cabernets prefer a well-drained, warm, gravelly soil.

Merlot
It produces a medium-yielding, full-bodied wine with moderate tannins, and also matures earlier than
Cabernet Sauvignon. When paired with the austere Cabernet Sauvignon, it adds richness and body. This
grape is of great importance in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, where it benefits from calcareous soils. On its
own, this grape lacks character, unless yields are very low. Even where top-class Merlot is produced, a
proportion of Cabernet Franc or Cabernet Sauvignon is added to add aromatic fruit, colour and tannin.

Malbec
This grape is mainly used for quick-drinking red wines such as Bourg and Blaye. He particularly suffers
from coulure. The importance of this grape is not very great and is in decline.

Petit Verdot
It reaches full maturity only in warm years, producing a wine with an intense, tannic colour and slow
ageing. It plays only a small role in blends, where it is commonly used to add tannin, color and some spice
notes to great wines.

Semillon
It is the most widely planted white grape variety in Bordeaux and due to its thin skin and tendency to
attract noble rot, it is widely used in sweet wines. Sémillon gives the wine a golden, full-bodied color.

Sauvignon Blanc
This grape produces wines with vegetal, grassy and elderflower aromas. In Bordeaux it is increasingly
used for single-variety white wines, the only exception to the generalization that all Bordeaux wines are
blends. When this grape is blended, its high acidity acts as a balance against the lack of personality of
Sémillon. This is particularly true in the case of sweet wines.

Muscadelle
It has a strong Muscat flavour and is used in small quantities as a constituent in sweet wines.

Pg.48, photo: harvesting grapes by hand in Bordeaux.

VITICULTURE
Bordeaux vineyards are generally planted with vines that are trained along wires at a short distance from
the ground so that they benefit from the reflection of heat. The best châteaux maintain a high average age
of their vineyards, carefully planning replanting cycles. Mechanized harvesting is practiced in almost all
Médoc plantations. It helps keep costs down and gives more flexibility during the harvest, especially if
there is a threat of bad weather. Hand picking is still necessary for high-quality sweet wines, as pickers
have to select the bunches individually each time they pass through the vineyard, which they do on
different occasions.

VINIFICATION
The vinification of Bordeaux red wine is considered classic, as it is the system on which many other
regions are based. However, there is a wide variation in the prices and quality of Bordeaux wines,
reflecting the different ways in which winemakers do their work. Good clarets are among the most
expensive wines in the world, so large producers can afford to spend more than humble winemakers when
making their wines. They are also found in better yielding sites with better fruit.

Selection of Grapes
When selecting the grapes, the first thing to consider is the proportions of the different grape varieties that
will be introduced into the blend. If the aim is to make a wine that matures quickly, sells and consumes
quickly, a greater proportion of Merlot will be used; if the intention is to produce a wine that matures more
quickly, then the blend will have a greater volume of Cabernet. The next step is the selection of the
grapes. Ideally, there should be a selection at each step. The first step may be a green harvest (vendange
verte) to reduce yields and ensure that the sugar produced by the leaves is concentrated in fewer grapes;
then, during the harvest, only the healthiest and ripest bunches will be selected; and finally, when it is time
for pressing, the grapes will be placed on one or two sorting tables where the grapes will be individually
chosen or rejected. All of these steps add up to the final costs.

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Fermentation
If the wine is to be kept, at the time of pressing a proportion of the stems will be introduced into the
fermentation tank to increase the tannins. This may depend on the nature of the harvest and occurs less
frequently today. Most winemakers destem all their grapes. Traditional fermentation vats in Bordeaux are
made of oak. This is largely being replaced by stainless steel containers, or concrete containers coated
with epoxy resin. Individual grape varieties are vinified separately.

Aging and Blending

High-quality Bordeaux is aged in small oak barrels (barriques or pièces) of 225 litres. Traditionally,
production quantities have been estimated in tons (tonneaux- 1 tonneau=4 pièces=900 liters). In the more
upmarket châteaux, all the wine will be put into new barrels. Each barrel costs around 700 Euros, which
represents a high investment. Wineries in a lower category will use a smaller proportion of new barrels;
some may even age the wine in second-hand barrels. In the case of some wines, no barrel aging will be
used. The length of time that wine remains in a barrel varies from winery to winery. For the best wines
these can remain for a total of up to 24 months. In the first part of the year following the harvest, the
contents of the barrels will be blended to create the desired style and quality of wine. Some better-known
châteaux now have second and even third wines, produced from wines that were not accepted at this
stage, including wines from new vines. Some of this wine can even be sold wholesale under the
communal or regional name.

Pg. 49, Photo: Sorting table at Château Preuillac. Ensures that only healthy, ripe grapes are used.

White Wines
The vinification of white wines has improved considerably thanks to the use of stainless steel vats and the
ability to control the fermentation temperature. The large Graves wineries continue to age their wines
almost always in new oak barrels. This is also happening in the case of lower quality wines. For sweet
white wines, the main problem is often the ability to ferment as much sugar as possible that the yeasts can
absorb. To speed up this process, which is usually quite slow, great AC wines such as Sauternes and
Basac are aged in oak.

Pg. 50, photo: Vineyards of the Médoc with the Gironde River in the background.

MAIN AREAS OF BORDEAUX

The Dordogne and Garonne rivers join to form the Gironde Estuary and divide the Bordeaux vineyards
into three broad zones. To the west and south of the Gironde/Garonne are the districts of Médoc, Graves
and Sauternes. Most of the area between the Dordogne and the Garonne is covered by Entre-Deux-Mers
AC, which literally means “between two seas”. Finally, the main districts to the north and east of the
Gironde and the Dordogne are Saint-Emilion and Pomerol. The AC hierarchy in Bordeaux consists of
three levels: generic, district, and communal.

Generic Appellations are names applied to AC wines produced anywhere in Gironde, such as Bordeaux
and Bordeaux Supérieur.

District appellations may be the highest appellation that can be acquired in a locality, as is the case of
Entre-Deux-Mers; or they may incorporate a number of higher communal appellations as is the case of
Haut-Médoc.

Communal Appellations are the highest appellations in Bordeaux, except in the particular case of Saint-
Emilion Grand Cru AC.

The names of the châteaux are not part of any AC. For example, Château Latour has the Pauillac AC and
Château Climens has the Barsac AC. Given the high number of châteaux, quality classification scoring
systems grew over the years, and in some cases, before the establishment of the Appellation Controlée.
Unfortunately, these classifications vary considerably within the different regions of Bordeaux. They are
described at the end of the chapter.

Generic Appeals
In terms of Appellation Controlée wine, Bordeaux has by far the largest production of any region in France,
almost a quarter of the total, with some 5 million litres of red and 1 million of white each year. The largest

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appellation, with almost 2 million hectolitres, is Bordeaux AC. The average quality of these core Bordeaux
wines has improved considerably as producers have reacted to criticism, as well as the benefit of a few
good to excellent vintages. At their best, these medium-bodied dry reds offer some of the blackberry and
cedar notes of more prestigious wines. Many, unfortunately, lack body and have the astringent tannins
and green flavors of overexploited vines. Bordeaux whites are dry and can be quite straightforward, but
some have the herbaceous freshness of Sauvignon or the toasty notes of some barrel aging. Varietal
wines made from Merlot or Sauvignon Blanc are becoming more common, and the latter can be very fresh
and have aromas of elderflower.

The Left Bank: West and South of the Gironde and the Garonne
The vineyards between the Gironde and the sea are divided into two. To the north of the town of Saint-
Estèphe is the AC of Médoc. The soil here is predominantly clay, but there are significant deposits of
gravel. The 1855 Classification (see section at the end of the chapter) did not include properties in this
area. From Saint-Estèphe towards the south are the highest quality AC vineyards of Haut-Médoc. All but
one of the red wines in the 1855 classification come from this region. Maximum permitted yields are
slightly lower than those of the Médoc and there are a number of communal appellations around where
most of the higher-class vineyards can be found. From north to south, the four with the highest reputation
are Saint-Estèphe AC, Pauillac AC, Saint-Julián AC and Margaux AC. These communal ACs generally
have lower maximum yields and each is recognized by its style that distinguishes it from the others. Here,
Cabernet Sauvignon will dominate the blend, and most of the wines will be produced for ageing.

Both red and white wines are produced in the Graves AC, with the red generally coming from gravelly
soils in the north and the whites from sandier soils in the south. Cabernet Sauvignon dominates in red
wines. These are generally lighter in body and more fragrant in style than the reds from the Haut-Médoc.
They tend to mature faster, although not as quickly as the Merlot-dominated wines from Saint-Emilion or
Pomerol. White wines are usually dry, although some sweet ones are produced. In 1987, the AC of
Pessac-Léognan was created for the finest vineyards in northern Graves, where all the Cru Classé
châteaux are located. Red and white wines are made, but both must be dry. Wines from the best châteaux
are made with the same care as any Bordeaux wine, and at similar prices.

AC de Sauternes is located on the western slope of the Garonne, upstream from Graves. The appellation
is only given for sweet wines; if the wine is dry it is not entitled to an appellation greater than that of
Bordeaux. Wines from the village of AC Barsac have the right to be named after their village or that of
Sauternes. In this area, Sémillon dominates due to its thin skin and susceptibility to botrytis. Sauvignon
Blanc contributes refreshing acidity and fruit aromas, and Muscadelle, when used, adds exotic perfumes.
In some years, the cool streams in the surrounding area create ideal autumn conditions for the
development of botrytis in very ripe grapes. The harvest can take place over several weeks, as the
harvesters will only pick those grapes or bunches that are wrinkled, and they will have to repeat this
several times. Yields are necessarily low and production costs are high. The most expensive wines are
made from grapes that have been carefully selected and fermented and aged in new oak barrels. They are
high in alcohol content, very sweet, but at the same time balanced by a fresh acidity, and have that unique
botrytis aroma along with notes of apricot, honey and vanilla. The wines that are not used by the great
châteaux are sold and blended to make wines that, although they do not possess the characteristics of the
great Sauternes, are still sold at high prices.

Pg.51, Chart: West and South Gironde and Garonne

Between the Garonne and the Dordogne

The biggest appeal here is that of Entre-Deux-Mers. This is a white wine, historically made from Sémillon.
Today, it is more likely to be a blend of Sémillon and Sauvignon, or most often a Sauvignon Blanc. Red
wine is also made in this part of Bordeaux, but it must carry the AC Bordeaux label.

Sainte- Croix- du- Mont AC is a sweet wine made in the Sauternes style. The vineyards are situated on
the Garonne front and have similar misty autumns, but as they generally have lower levels of botrytis, the
wines tend to have less concentration and complexity. Prices are lower than those of Sauternes and rarely
compensate for the effort and expense involved in ensuring that each grape is picked at the optimum time
of botrytis influence.

Premières Côtes de Bordeaux is typically a dry red similar in style to AC Bordeaux, although semi-sweet

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wines are also made.

The Right Bank; North and East of the Gironde and the Dordogne
In this area, red wine predominates, with Merlot and Cabernet Franc playing a greater role than Cabernet
Sauvignon.

The largest appellation is Saint-Emilion AC, which covers nine communes, with three distinctive groups
of vineyards on different soils. First there are the vineyards on a plateau to the north and west of the
village of Saint-Emilion. Here, the warm, well-drained gravel and calcareous soils allow for the inclusion of
Cabernet Franc and, occasionally (which is unusual in Saint-Emilion), some Cabernet Sauvignon. Next
are vineyards on steep limestone slopes located to the south and east. The most prestigious wines of
Saint-Emilion including the Grand Cru Classé and most of the wines that earn the Saint-Emilion Grand
Cru AC appellation come from these two regions. These wines are made with great care, from low-yield
vineyards and are usually aged in expensive French oak barrels. The wines are rich in tannins and
possess complex aromas of red fruits, developing notes of tobacco and cedar as they open. Finally, there
are many vineyards on sandy soils at the edge of the slopes. The wine styles from this area are much
lighter and at lower (though still high) prices.

The satellite villages of Saint-Emilion, which are Luzca, Montagne, Puissegin and Saint-George, can
include their name before that of Saint-Emilion, thus gaining status at lower prices.

The reputation of the nearby AC of Pomerol is as high as that of Saint-Emilion, and prices are higher as
most of the estates are small, so the wines gain in value due to their rarity. The wines tend to be more full-
bodied, with a stronger spice and blackberry character. The vineyards with the highest reputation are
those of Petrus and Le Pin, whose prices are usually among the highest in Bordeaux. There is no formal
classification of vineyards in Pomerol.

The ACs of Fronsac and Canon-Fronsac are two places where you can find excellent quality Bordeaux
red wines. Here, the hillside vineyards are mostly planted with Merlot, and produce full-bodied, surprisingly
tannic wines. For those looking for a slightly softer wine, Bourg and Blaye, which lie on the opposite side
of the Gironde river from the Haut-Médoc, make early-drinking red and white wines, often sold under
châteaux names. The best appeals in this area are AC Côtes de Bourg or AC Premières Côtes de Blaye.

Pg.53, photo: Along the Dordogne River, Bordeaux vineyards at Fronsac.

THE TRADE OF BORDEAUX

In recent years there has been a major change in the nature of the wine trade in France, especially in
Bordeaux. When the city was a port, merchants, or négociants, had warehouses along the quays
overlooking the river. Here they bottled large quantities of wine under a generic name or under the name
of a town.

The role of the merchant has become much less important as individual châteaux owners have gained
strength and insist on selling their own bottled wines. (To make things easier for small owners, mobile
bottling plants are now common.) In addition, outside France, Bordeaux is no longer considered the world
centre of wine, whose wines must be purchased. Competition, especially from the New World, has been
very strong in export markets and Bordeaux has been slow to react. While sales of generic wines were
declining, those of petits châteaux were increasing. They are now in decline. Is branded wine the answer?

Many of the traditional traders have disappeared or have been absorbed. Those that remain have moved
their cellars outside the city and now mainly stock bottled wine, perhaps from petits châteaux with whom
they have an exclusive agreement. Some are little more than brokers, counting on stocks held in châteaux
or bought en primeur by speculators. Many others sell wines from other regions, particularly from
Languedoc.

Prime Sales
Prestigious Bordeaux properties require considerable capital. Managing monetary liquidity is a big
problem, since there is usually a lot of capital invested in the product. To limit their risk, many producers
release some quantities of their products to the market a year after the harvest, usually once the quality of

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individual wines has been rated by critics. The price will include all costs, to which the bottling price will
also be added. This is what is known as a premium sale. The wines are released to the market in a limited
number of tranches or sections. The first tranche is very limited, this is done to test the market. Generally,
but not always, the price increases with each tranche. Since many quality Bordeaux wines are bought on
speculation, buying en primeur can be a bit of a gamble.

Wine purchased in this way will be stored at the château to mature until it is time to be bottled. The wine
will be removed after approximately two years. To be successful, this system depends on the availability of
surplus money, so it works best in boom times. For the private individual, it is advisable to seek the
opinion of a professional before investing in young Bordeaux wines.

BORDEAUX CLASSIFICATIONS
The Médoc and Sauternes
In 1855, on the occasion of the Universal Exhibition in Paris, the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce had to
produce an official list of its best wines. The list classified the red wines of Médoc and the white wines of
Sauternes. The list was based on unofficial classifications and the prices at which the wines were sold on
the market. This is known as the 1855 Classification. Since then, the number of properties, size and
ownership of the property, as well as the quality of the wines, have undergone many changes. However,
the 1855 Classification remains almost intact. There are 61 Crus Classés in the Médoc, divided into five
levels.

The Premier Crus are:

Château Haut-Brion
Château Latour
Château Lafite
Château Mouton-Rothschild
Château Margaux

Château Haut-Brion was the only wine from outside the Médoc to be included in the 1855 Classification.
Château Mouton-Rothschild was not considered Cru Classé until 1973. This is the only time that a
Château has been reclassified.

Below these are:

14 château classified as Deuxièmes Crus or Seconds Crus

14 châteaus classified as Troisièmes Crus

10 châteaus classified as Quatrièmes Crus

18 châteaus classified as Cinquièmes Crus

The 1855 Classification included only a small number of Médoc properties. In 1932 another classification
was introduced, Cru Bourgeois, which was updated in 1978 and then again in 2003, with the idea that it
would be reviewed every ten years from then on. It includes more than 200 properties and is divided into
three levels:

Grand Cru Bourgeois Exceptionnel

Grand Cru Bourgeois
Cru Bourgeois

In 1855, sweet Sauternes wines were also classified. Château d'Yquem was the only one to be classified
as Premier Grand Cru Classé followed by:

11 châteaux classified as Premiers Crus

14 châteaux classified as Deuxième Crus or Seconds Crus

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Graves (includes Pessac-Léognan)
Graves wines classified red and white wines in 1959 with parallel but separate lists. There is no ranking;
all wines on the list can be given the name Cru Classé. Château Haut-Brion is included, although it retains
its 1855 Classification claim.

Saint-Emilion
The appellation classifications in Saint-Emilion are integrated into the AC system and operate in a different
and unique way in Bordeaux. There is one AC, Saint-Emilion Grand Cru, which is divided into two: Saint
Emilion Grand Cru Classé and Saint Emilion Premier Grand Cru Classé (which in turn is divided into
Grand Cru Classé A and Grand Cru Classé B). The original classification took place in 1955 and every ten
years there is the possibility of raising or lowering the classification. Individual châteaux that are not
classified as Cru Classé may each year submit their wines for consideration for the Saint-Emilion Grand
Cru appellation, within this relatively democratic system.

Garage Wines
A recent movement, particularly associated with the Right Bank Appellations, is the emergence of wines
made in small quantities, from small plots and with no expense spared in either the vineyard or the winery.
As these are new initiatives, they are not part of any classification. Vineyards may be fairly common, or
sites with great potential that have gone unnoticed, or are located outside the boundaries of the Cru
Classés areas. The grapes are selected very carefully. They are usually very ripe and come from low-yield
vines (usually Merlot) and produce full-bodied, concentrated wines, generally with a high alcohol content,
moderate acidity and tannins with a soft, velvety texture. These wines are then aged in new French oak
barrels which add meaty and toasty flavours to the wine, as well as complexity from the rich black fruits
and spices. With proper marketing, these wines can gain a great reputation. Because the wine is produced
in small quantities, they can command high prices, even exceeding the prices of the highest Cru Classé.

SOUTHWEST FRANCE
These wines can be divided into two groups. The first group are those grapes from regions adjacent to
Bordeaux and which have more or less the same grape varieties. For our convenience we will call this
group “Bordeaux Clones”. The second group refers to a number of regions that make individual wines
from varietals never seen in Bordeaux, and with considerably different styles; we will call these “wines of
the South West”.

Pg.55, map: South-west France

Bordeaux clones
To the east of the Entre-Deux-Mers vineyards are the Dordogne vineyards. The climate here is similar to
that of Bordeaux, although with less maritime influence. The largest AC is that of Bergerac, which can be
used in reds and whites made from the same varietals as in Bordeaux. However, there are many other
small ACs in the region, some of which enjoy a worldwide reputation, and others which struggle to make
themselves known in their own country. From Monbazillac AC (as well as Saussignac AC and Haut-
Montravel AC) come high-quality botrytized sweet wines; the best white wines come from Bergerac AC
(and Montravel AC and Rosette AC). Pécharmant AC has its own red wine appellation.

In the southern Bergerac region, adjacent to the Bordeaux vineyards, are Côtes de Duras and Côtes du
Marmandais AC. Lighter Bordeaux-style wines are produced here. Local varietals sometimes appear: in
Duras white wines may include Mauzac and Ondenec and, in the Marmandais area, red wines may
include the lesser-known Abouriou grape.

Further up the Garonne valley are the Buzet AC vineyards, the wines are predominantly red, although
some whites and rosés are also made. The most important producer here is the cooperative winery.

Wines of the Southwest

From the upper Lot Valley, a tributary of the Garonne, come Cahors AC wines. In the past, these wines
were known as “black”; they were very tannic and long-lasting. A wide range of styles are now produced
and these vary depending on whether the vineyards come from the lower part of the fertile valley, or the
less fertile soils of the slopes, or from the upper part of the plateau. The most important varietal is Malbec
(known here as Auxerrois), which makes up at least 70% of any blend. The other varietals are Merlot and
Tannat. The wines are aged in oak and are high in tannins, intense in color, with strong black fruit notes,

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and mature slowly revealing notes of cedar and earth.

Further south, there is a group of vineyards that overlap others that produce base wines for the distillation
of Armagnac. Madiran AC is produced here, a full-bodied, blackberry-fruited red wine made from the
Tannat grape. There is also a high local production of Vin de Pays des Côtes de Gascogne and Vin de
Pays du Gers. These wines are usually white, aromatic, fresh and light made from Armagnac varietals,
with aromas and flavors of green apple.

Pg.56, graphics: Bordeaux clones; Wines of the Southwest

Photo: Thinning the leaves to give the Tannat grapes maximum sun exposure in Madiran.

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CHAPTER 10
BURGUNDY

With so many appellations and vineyards divided between several owners with different skills and
experience, Burgundy can be complicated and exasperating for both the student and the consumer. In the
past, the only way to find a good Burgundy was to know who the most reliable and skilled producers were.
Fortunately, many cooperatives now produce high-quality, highly expressive wines in large quantities and
with wide distribution, making it easier to choose a good Burgundy if you have a minimum of knowledge.
Many who claim that Burgundy is home to the world's most invigorating wines (red and white) would
struggle to explain the different styles among individual villages or vineyards. However, for those with an
interest in soil effects and topography, Burgundy offers an opportunity to explore it that very few regions
can match.

The historical popularity of the region's wines has led to the area's names being used indiscriminately
around the world. It is only recently that names like Burgundy and Chablis are beginning to be accepted as
specific to the area. It has been a long and hard battle, but victory is near.

CLIMATE AND SOILS

Burgundy enjoys a continental Nordic climate, with winters that can be very severe (even more so than
those of Bordeaux, where the ocean moderates climatic conditions), and hot summers. For the same
reasons, these are also hotter than those in Bordeaux. Autumns are cool and rainfall is frequent during the
grape harvest season. In Dijon, around 650 mm of rain can fall and in Bordeaux, 890 mm. Among the
climatic hazards to which farmers are exposed are spring frosts, especially in the Chablis region, where
they can appear as late as May, summer rains which promote grey rot, and hail storms at the same time.
However, the most important vineyards are located east of the Massif Central, which acts as a protective
barrier.

Burgundy, and in particular the Côte d'Or, provide a good example of how varietals are planted according
to soil composition. Where calcareous soils predominate, Chardonnay is planted; where there is more marl
and clay, Pinot Noir is planted. As an extreme example, consider the Beaune Premier Cru vineyard of Clos
des Mouches. Beaune produces mostly red wines, but part of its vineyard, where the soil is calcium
carbonate, is used to grow Chardonnay, while the rest of the same vineyard is planted with Pinot Noir.

Over many centuries of tasting, enjoying and evaluating, certain vineyards have become known as the
home of high-quality wines of recognized character. Burgundy is a region where, depending on the
inclination or direction of the slopes, as well as the depth, drainage, heat retention and mineral content of
the soils, there can be dramatic variations within the same area. Although it is only recently that we are
beginning to know and understand all these details and how they affect the quality of a wine, both Pinot
Noir and Chardonnay are very sensitive to the most subtle variations in terroir. Knowledge and
interpretation of the different styles of wine that come from different and individual regions can enhance
the appreciation and enjoyment of a wine.

Pg.57, photo: During the summer, pruning Pinot Noir vines with low training, and grown on marl soil in
Charmes Chambertin.

GRAPE VARIETIES AND VITICULTURE

Most Burgundy wines are made from one of four varieties. It should be noted that Burgundy wines are
almost exclusively single-varietal. These are, for reds, Pinot Noir and Gamay, and for whites Chardonnay
and Aligoté.

Pinot Noir is the classic red grape variety of Burgundy and grows better here than anywhere else in the
world. It is planted throughout the region (with the exception of Beaujolais). Pinot Noir is a very old variety
that mutates very easily, and as a result different versions of it, called clones, have been developed over
the centuries. These clones may have different yields, different maturation times, different flavors and
different quality potentials. Selecting the right clone is very important and is believed to be the reason for
the differences between the wines from the many vineyards in Burgundy. The classic red Pinot Noir from
Burgundy has red fruits (cherry, raspberry, strawberry) when young, and as the wine matures, it develops
vegetal, savory and gamey notes. Tannin and acidity levels vary by vineyard, producer and vintage, but
tannins are never too astringent and wines are usually quite full-bodied due to natural ripeness and

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chaptalization.

Historically, Gamay was grown throughout Burgundy as it grows very easily and gives high yields of early-
ripening wines. It now thrives in the Beaujolais region, especially in regions with granite soils where it gives
its best: young, fruity wines with light tannins. Elsewhere in Burgundy, the Gamay grape contributes to the
humble wines of Bourgogne Grand Ordinaire and Bourgougne Pessetoutgrains AC.

Chardonnay is present in all the great white wines of Burgundy. The bunches are roughly the same size
as those of Pinot Noir, but longer, less compact and therefore less prone to rot. Chardonnay has creamy,
ripe, unctuous fruit and is widely planted around the world. It produces wines that benefit from treatment
and aging in barrels, in contact with the lees. The character of Chardonnay varies greatly as we move from
the lean, steely, high-acid wines of Chablis, through the complex and expressive wines of Côte d'Or, to the
south with the fuller-bodied, ripe-fruit wines of Mâcon.

Aligoté is cultivated for the production of Bourgogne Aligoté and sparkling wines. In the past it used to
produce wines without much body and high acidity. Quality has recently improved and some good wines
are now made, although even a good Aligoté tends to have no more than a two-dimensional flavour.

The vineyards in Burgundy are among the most densely planted in the world. They can have up to 12,000
plants per hectare. Most are trained low along wires following the Guyot system; the exceptions are some
vines trained high in Hautes-Côtes and Gamay and those trained in the Gobelet style in Beaujolais.

Pg. 58, map: Districts of Burgundy

VINIFICATION
The climate is an important factor for the Burgundian winegrower. Due to the cool autumns and cold
winters, fermentation can stop if the musts are not heated. On the surface, this may seem like a threat only
to red musts, but, especially in Chablis, the temperature can drop so low that it causes problems even for
cold-fermented white wines. For this reason, and if necessary, wineries use heating.

Winemaking techniques for red wines vary as we go further south. In the Côte d'Or, the tradition has been
to soak the musts at a cold temperature before beginning fermentation. In the Côte d'Or and Côte
Chalonnaise, traditional fermentation in open barrels and pumping over is common, and in some wineries,
punching down. The grapes are usually destemmed, although some winemakers keep a small portion
which they use in fermentation to add tannins and facilitate the drainage of the juice through the drain.
Carbonic maceration in red wines is rarely used in Mâconnais, but widely practised in Beaujolais.

For high-quality reds and whites, barrel aging is common; 16-18 months for reds and 6-9 months for
whites. Generally speaking, higher quality wines are usually aged in only a proportion of new oak,
although this varies by winery. Burgundy is conveniently located near the oak forests of Vosges, Nevers
and Allier, and its barrels are exported all over the world.

Due to Napoleonic inheritance laws, Burgundy vineyards are highly fragmented, which has important
repercussions on AC laws and trade. Normally it is the same grower who makes the wines in addition to
planting the grapes. In certain regions, particularly Chablis, Mâcon and Beaujolais, cooperative wineries
play a very important role, vinifying a large proportion of the total crop. In some cases, the grower will sell
the grapes to the merchant who will then vinify the wine. If the grower has made the wine, he will have two
options. You can bottle the wine and sell it under your own label: such wines are known as bottled wines in
the ___domain, and they make up 40% of the total production. Another option is for the grower to sell the
wine in bulk to a négociant or a cooperative. When considering ___domain bottling percentages, it must be
taken into account that merchants own the majority of the top domains. The Burgundian merchant has to
produce enough wine to satisfy the demands of his consumers around the world. Assuming they have
sales of 10,000 cases of Beaune each year, there will be few individual growers producing that much of
that wine, so the négociant buys smaller quantities from several growers and then blends the different
wines together, getting just enough product from that one vintage. To help them with this work, they have
a number of courtiers, or agents. They are in direct contact with the growers in the different specific areas,
always knowing what is available and at what price. With one exception, all Côte d'Or traders work with
agents.

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Recently, Burgundian merchants have been going through a difficult time, and this has led to a
consolidation of holdings. The increase in on-site bottling has resulted in less availability of bulk wine; this
in turn has increased prices and demand. For this reason, many traders without shares in vineyards have
found it difficult to get by and have had to close down or allow themselves to be taken over. Despite this
situation, the number of traders has not decreased as many reputable farmers are experiencing an
increase in demand for their product. Buying and vinifying grapes from your neighbour is much easier than
buying vineyards in Burgundy, as land is very expensive. The small number of specialized négociants is
continuously increasing. It is also becoming increasingly common for merchants to buy grapes from
farmers rather than wine. This helps them have better control over the final product.

THE HIERARCHY OF THE APPELLATIONS OF BURGUNDY

At the base of the hierarchy are the regional and district appeals. They make up almost two-thirds of the
region's production.

Regional ACs will always bear the name Bourgogne on the property label (for example Bourgogne
Aligoté). Many will come from vineyards that are not entitled to a higher appellation. This declassification
may be the result of excessive yields or because a quality-minded producer wants to preserve the prestige
of the superior appellation; this is done by not including lower quality wines, especially wines from young
vines. Most can be produced anywhere in Burgundy, and in certain areas of Beaujolais, but there is an
increase in the number of localised names intended to be of equivalent status (e.g. Bourgogne Hautes-
Côtes de Nuits).

For those wines that can come from any area of Burgundy, there is a hierarchy in ascending order:

Bourgogne Grand Ordinaire AC, is mostly red wine made from the Gamay grape. If the wine is white it is
likely made from Melon de Bourgogne (Muscadet), blended with Aligoté.

Bourgogne Aligoté AC, is high in acidity and comparatively low in alcohol. It is widely produced in the
Chablis region, in certain villages in the Côte d'Or (such as Pernand-Vergelesses and Puligny-Montrachet)
and in the Côte Chalonnaise. In this last region, the village of Bouzeron has its own appellation for its
Aligoté.

Bourgogne Passetoutgrains AC, literally means “bringing all the grapes together”. In practice, it is a red
wine made from a blend of Pinot Noir and Gamay grapes, with Pinot Noir making up 30% of the blend.

Bourgogne Rouge AC, Bourgogne Blanc AC, these wines must be made with the best grape varieties
from the region where they are grown. Generally it is Pinot Noir for reds and Chardonnay for whites. They
must also have a higher alcohol level than other wines from the region.

There are also a limited number of regional appeals. These include:

• Côte d'Or- Bourgogne-Hautes-Côtes de Nuits, Hautes-Côtes de Beaune..
• Saône et Loire- Bourgogne Côte Chalonnaise.

AC Districts
District appellations are one level above the hierarchy and do not include the word Bourgogne (for
example Mâcon).

AC Communes
The next level in the hierarchy is that of commune or village appellations, such as Givry or Gevrey-
Chambertin. These account for almost a quarter of total production. Normally only the name of the
commune appears on the label. Occasionally, if the wine comes entirely from a vineyard that is not
recognised as a Premier Cru, the name of the vineyard may appear, but it must be in smaller letters than
those of the town. The following would appear:

BEAUNE Lulune
Appellation Beaune Contrôlée

AC Single Vineyards: Premier and Grand Crus

There are fundamental differences between the AC structures of Bordeaux and Burgundy. In Bordeaux,

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the name of a château is mostly a registered trademark. The owner can increase the size of the property
by purchasing vineyards anywhere in the same appellation and still sell the wine under the château name.
With the exception of Saint-Emilion, Grand Cru (and Premier Cru etc.) designations are not part of the AC
system, so a Premier Grand Cru Classé like Château Lafite is simply Pauillac AC. On the other hand, in
Burgundy, the name of the vineyard is attached to the name of the land, which is registered in each town
hall. The size rarely changes. Each Premier Cru and Grand Cru vineyard has its own AC. Because of this,
while Bordeaux has approximately 60 names protected under the CA system, Burgundy has more than 10
times that number, yet its vineyard area and total production are less than half that of its notorious rival.
Also in Bordeaux, the same group of workers will tend the vines of a specific château, and a group of
winemakers at a winery will make the wine. Although this group of workers may produce more than one
quality of wine from the same vineyard, they will always maintain a consistent style. In Burgundy, on the
other hand, the single-owner vineyard (monopole) is an exception; most have several owners, each with
an individual plot of vines, and make wines in their own individual style. This sounds very complicated, but
the key is that, generally, Premier Cru areas have a greater potential to produce better wines than normal
areas, and Grand Cru areas have the best potential to produce long-lasting, expressive and complex
wines, although they match this with high prices.

In total, there are more than 560 Premiers Crus divided between Chablis, Côte d'Or and Côte
Châlonnaise. Together, they account for 11% of Burgundy's production. Premier Cru wines usually specify
their status on the label, but sometimes the status is indicated by the name of the village and the vineyard,
both of which share the same letter size:

BEAUNE GRÈVES - Appellation Beaune Grèves Contrôlée or

BEAUNE GRÈVES - Appellation Beaune Premier Cru Contrôlée

It is also possible that the wines are blends from several Premier Cru vineyards in a village and are sold
as:

BEAUNE 1er Cru - Appellation Beaune Premier Cru Contrôlée

At the top of the pyramid are the Grand Cru vineyards, which make up no more than 1% of total
production. There are 30 of these in the Côte d'Or and they can be recognised by the fact that the name of
the vineyard is only on the label and is not accompanied by the name of the commune. The reputation of
these wines is so established that it is not considered necessary to mention the name of the town where
they come from.

MONTRACHET - Appellation Montrachet Contrôlée

It is important not to confuse the name of the vineyard and the name of the commune (for example
Chambertin and Gevrey-Chambertin). At the beginning of the 20th century, the mayors of certain Côte
d'Or villages thought they could increase sales of their simpler wines by adding the name of their finest
vineyard to the label along with the name of the village. Thus Aloxe added Corton and became Aloxe-
Corton; Nuits added Saint-Georges and became Nuits-Saint-Georges, and so on. This explains the large
number of compound names in the Côtes.

In Chablis, the Grand Cru status is similar, except in the case of a Grand Cru zone which extends across
seven contiguous parcels (climats), so the following appears on the label:

CHABLIS LES CLOS - Appellation Chablis Grand Cru Contrôlée

Pg.59, chart: Burgundy Appeals (Regional AC).

APPELLATIONS OF BURGUNDY (DISTRICTS, COMMUNES AND VINEYARDS) Chablis

The vineyard area is centred around the town of Chablis, which lies in the valley of the Serein River,
surrounded by hills. Here the soil has an important influence on the wine. In the best areas, it is a
calcareous soil covered by a layer of Kimmeridgian mud, which is very rich in marine fossils. Originally, for
a vineyard to be classified as Chablis, it had to come from this soil. Now, the appeal has been extended to
vineyards that are located on similar Portland clay soil. Some of these lower vineyards may still carry the

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Petits Chablis AC appellation. Vineyards are usually planted following the contours of the slopes. The
most important climatic problem in the region is frost. Many of the top quality vineyards have sprinkler
systems installed as a protective measure, although the use of heaters and helicopters to circulate the air
and melt the ice layers also give good results.

Basic Chablis AC can be very austere, with bitter green plum and high acidity. Some of a slightly higher
quality carry a trace of the smoky minerality that is more characteristic of Premier Cru and Grand Cru
wines. Forty vineyards have the right to use the name Chablis Premier Cru AC. Among the best-known
names are Montée de Tonnerre, Vaillons and Fourchaume. These are usually found on the well-exposed
slopes extending from the Grand Cru areas. Compared to classic Chablis, Chablis Premier Cru typically
displays riper fruit (very citrusy lemons, rather than apple), more body and perhaps a smoother, creamier
texture, as well as more intense concentration, more mineral aromas and higher acidity. At the highest
level are seven Chablis Grand Cru AC vineyards together. They are all located on the slopes across the
river from the town of Chablis. These are Les Clos, Vaudésir, Valmur, Les Preuses, Bourgros, Blanchot
and Grenouilles. The name La Moutonne also carries Grand Cru status. A Chablis Grand Cru can be
prone to some oak flavours, although these usually integrate into the wine as it ages. Chablis Grand Cru
and the best Premiers Cru need bottle ageing to reach their peak state. They can develop extraordinarily
smoky aromas with a refreshing aftertaste due to their high acidity. Although some producers ferment or
age a proportion of their best wines in oak, oak is not usually a major flavor component.

Pg.61, chart: Chablis; photo: View over the Serein River of the Chablis Grand Cru vineyards.

Côte d'Or
The Côte d'Or vineyards form the heart of Burgundy, as this is where the best wines are made. They are
located on narrow slopes facing predominantly east or south-east, so they take full advantage of the
morning sun while also being protected from the Morvan hills behind them. They get their name from the
colour of the vineyards after the harvest, as the leaves turn a golden colour.

The soil is primarily calcareous mixed with pressed clay. Chardonnay is grown where calcareous soil
predominates; Pinot Noir is grown on other soils. The pruning method is predominantly Guyot.

In terms of viticulture, the Côte is divided in two. The northern part is known as Côte de Nuits and it is here
that the most full-bodied and long-lasting red wines are made. The southern part is Côte de Beaune; here
they make slightly lighter reds, but also, and very importantly, what some consider to be the best dry
whites in the world. All but one red Grand Cru (Corton) are produced in the Côte de Nuits, while all but the
exceptional Musigny Blanc white Grand Cru are produced in the Côte de Beaune. This happens mainly on
the ground.

From north to south, the most important towns of the Côte de Nuits are (with their most important Grand
Cru areas) Gevrey Chambertin AC (Chambertin AC, Chambertin Clos de Bèze AC), Vosne-Romanée
AC (Romanée-Conti AC, La Tâche AC and la Romanée AC), and Nuits-Saint-Georges AC.

Côte de Nuits Villages AC wine can be red or white and comes from vineyards located in the Côte, but it
does not have the right to use the appellations of any of the villages mentioned above.

In the hills behind the Côte vineyards, there are 18 villages that produce wine that can be labeled with the
regional appellation Bourgogne Hautes- Côtes de Nuits AC. Here, the grape harvest typically takes
place a week later than on the main Côte, and many of the wines are made at a cooperative winery in
Beaune. The wines are red and white. They tend to be lighter bodied and less concentrated than the wines
from the main Côte de Nuits villages.

In the Côte de Beaune, important towns (and their Grand Crus) are Aloxe-Corton AC (Corton AC,
Corton-Charlemagne AC), Beaune AC, Pommard AC, Volnay AC, Meursault AC, Pouligny-
Montrachet AC (Le Montrachet AC ) and Chassagne-Montrachet AC (Le Montrachet AC). All, with the
exception of Volnay, produce reds and whites. The three villages with the greatest reputation for their
white wines are Meursault, Puligny-Montrachet and Chassagne-Montrachet. The last two towns share the
exceptional Grand Cru of Le Montrachet. The Aloxe-Corton vineyard, Corton Charlemagne, also produces
white wines of Grand Cru status. The wines from these villages are the best, and most expensive, made
anywhere from the Chardonnay grape. Low yields and perfect soil conditions, drainage and exposure,

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result in a very intense tasting wine. Fermentation and aging in French oak adds more body, tannins and
toasty flavors; less stirring can add viscosity and complex flavors. These wines may take a decade to
reach their peak, but when they do they are without a doubt the most complex dry whites in the world.

Pg. 62, chart: Côte d'Or; Map: Burgundy, Côte d'Or and Côte Chalonnaise.

Côte de Beaune Villages AC is an important wine for merchants as it can be blended in large quantities.
It must be red and come from any, or a combination of, the villages of Côte de Beaune, except Aloxe–
Corton, Beaune, Pommard and Volnay. Consequently, the finesse of a Monthélie wine can be blended
with an earthier Chorey wine to produce a greater quantity of wine that is better than its components. This
is a blended wine.

Bourgogne Hautes- Côtes de Beaune AC is a regional appellation directly parallel to Hautes- Côtes de
Nuits.

Pg.63, photos: The summit of Corton. Grand Cru hillside vineyards and communal appellation vineyards;
Vineyard within the walls of Chevaliers-Montrachet, a Grand Cru from the Côte de Beaune.

The Chalonnaise Coast

This area is a continuation of the Côte d'Or vineyards. The soils are similar and the grape varieties are the
same; however, this is not a monoculture region as there are areas of forests and pastures between the
wine-growing villages. The wines are also similar although they tend to mature faster. As these wines have
a lower prestige than those of the Côte d'Or, prices are usually lower and they offer good quality at a
moderate price.

Bourgogne Côte Chalonnaise AC applies to all wines made in the Côte and that use Pinot Noir for the
reds and Chardonnay for the whites. It has a regional appeal classification.

Rully AC produces more white wines than red wines. It is also an important centre for the production of
sparkling wines. Mercurey AC is the village in the Côte Chalonnaise whose red wines enjoy the highest
reputation, and price. Givry AC is the smallest appellation of the four villages. Their red wines are highly
admired. Montagny AC produces only whites.

Pg. 64, graphic: La Côte Chalonnaise.

Macon
It is the Mâconnais that one begins to notice first when going to the south of France. It's not just the
weather; it's also the attitude towards life. Here, daily agriculture is just as important to the local economy
as viticulture. (Calcareous soils are ideal for Chardonnay grapes, but they are also ideal for cattle grazing.)
In the past, this was an area of red wines made from the Gamay grape; now reds make up no more than a
third of production, only a quarter is made from Pinot Noir. Cooperative wineries play an important role in
wine production.

Mâcon AC can come from anywhere in the interior of the region. For whites, Chardonnay is used and for
reds, Gamay or Pinot Noir. For a wine to be eligible to bear the name Mâcon Supérieur AC, the minimum
alcohol level must be 0.5% vol. higher than Mâcon; most wines are graded. While some wines from this
vast region can lack flavor, most demonstrate a nice balance of fresh apple or citrus, crisp acidity and a
medium-full body. There may be a slight creamy note due to malolactic fermentation.

Mâcon Villages AC or Mâcon + name of village AC can be applied to a white wine from one of the 43
villages. These wines are usually good value for money, particularly for those who like soft Chardonnays.
Some individual villages, such as Lugny, have a large following for their wines. Another wine in the group
is Chardonnay, from which the grape gets its name. A wine called Village de Mâcon can come from any,
or a combination, of the villages. The wines are generally similar in style to Mâcon whites, but tend to be
more mature, with more body and character.

Pg.64, photo: The rock at Solutré, Mâcon.

Pouilly-Fuissé AC is the most distinctive wine of the Mâconnais. It occurs on amphitheater-shaped

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slopes, which act as natural sun traps. The wines are among the strongest in Burgundy, reaching up to
13.5% abv. Of all the wines from the Mâconnais, these are the ones that benefit most from barrel ageing.
Its ___location and exposure to the sun result in wines with mature, full-bodied flavours. Peach and lemon
flavors mingle with savory and nutty notes from the new oak. Some wines can even taste very similar to
those of the New World. Viré-Clessé AC, Saint Véran AC and Pouilly-Vinzelles AC also have their own
appeal.

Pg. 64, map: Burgundy, Mâconnais and Beaujolais.

Beaujolais
The first thing to note about Beaujolais is that it is a red wine region; red wine made from the Gamay grape
(only 1% of the wine is white, made from Chardonnay). Gamay produces fragrant wines full of raspberry
and cherry and very light in tannins. These characteristics are often enhanced by the winemaking
technique, which is a variation of carbonic maceration that extracts color, fruity flavors and very little
tannin, giving the wine a kirsch, banana, bubblegum and cinnamon character.

Beaujolais produces about half of Burgundy's quality wine production. It can be divided into two parts:

Beaujolais and Beaujolais Noveau

The vineyards are located to the south and east of the alluvial plain of the Saône River. Here the soil is
sandy and the vines are trained with wires. This is where the simple Beaujolais AC is made,
predominantly through carbonic maceration. It is also the source of Beaujolais Nouveau, a wine that is
specifically made to be consumed young and which today accounts for half of the annual Beaujolais crop.
This wine seems to have gone out of fashion in Britain, although it is now a novelty in countries such as
Japan. It may not be sold to the consumer until midnight on the third Wednesday in November after the
harvest, that is, the morning of the third Thursday, and may not be sold by growers or merchants after the
following 31st August. (Beaujolais Primeur may be the same wine as Beaujolais Nouveau, but it cannot be
sold commercially after January 31 following the harvest.) Nouveau and Primeur can only be of Beaujolais
quality or from Beaujolais villages; the ten crus cannot be sold in this way.

Beaujolais Villages and Cru de Beaujolais

Towards the north and west of the region, the vineyards are planted on a series of hills where the soils are
primarily granite. Gamay has a particular affinity for granite, which produces wines with more character
than those from sandy soils further south. Thirty-nine villages have the right to call their wines Beaujolais
Villages and account for at least a quarter of the region's total production. Wines are often blended
between villages, although sometimes you can find a wine named after an individual village. The vines are
positioned independently in a goblet shape and are trained in a goblet system.

Among the granite hills, ten villages are recognised as having the right to produce wines of particular
distinction and recognisable character. These are the Beaujolais crus. From north to south, they are:
Saint-Amour AC, Juliénas AC, Chénas AC, Moulin à Vent AC, Chiroubles AC, Fleurie AC, Morgon
AC, Régnié AC, Côte de Brouilly AC and Brouilly AC. Moulin à Vent and Morgon are the most powerful
and full-bodied, and will improve in bottle; Brouilly is the most widely available and has the largest
production. Most of these wines will be vinified in a traditional style and many of them will receive oak
aging, often in large barrels.

Pg. 65, photo: Gamay vines growing in Brouilly. In the background, Côte de Brouilly; Graphic: Mâcon;
Graphic: Beaujolais.

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CHAPTER 11
ALSACE

Geographically, Alsace is isolated from the rest of France, separated by the Vosges Mountains, which
form its border to the west. To the east, it is bordered by the Rhine River. For a long time it was part of
Germany, and its wine-making role was to produce large quantities of common wine, which in turn
protected the position of the traditional wine-growing estates of the Rhine and Mosel. When Alsace finally
became part of France after the First World War, it was decided to produce only quality wines. The first
step was the ban on hybrid vines in 1925. In 1962 the Appelation Contrôlée was introduced. Additionally,
legislation has been included that insists on bottling in the same production region (1972) and the
mandatory use of the typical Alsatian “flute” bottle (except in the case of Pinot Noir and sparkling wines).

On the one hand, the Alsace appellation system is very simple, as there are only two ACs for still wines.
However, this simplicity can cause problems as producers seek to be able to distinguish between the
different qualities of wine they produce. For this reason, it is common to read Réserve Personnelle and
Cuvée Spéciale on labels; these do not have legal status.

Alsace AC (or Vin d'Alsace AC) accounts for more than 80% of the region's wine production. Typically
the label will highlight the individual grape variety, although there are many blends that appear under
brand names.

Alsace Grand Cru AC. Since 1975, a number of individual vineyards have been recognized as having
produced the finest wines. There are currently 50 with Grand Cru status. For an Alsace wine to be
described as Grand Cru it must not only come from one of these vineyards, but it must also have been
made from a noble grape variety (Riesling, Muscat, Gewurztraminer or Pinot Gris) and the maximum yield
is considerably lower than that of Alsace AC. Each Grand Cru has its own committee, which has the power
to tighten controls, prohibiting, for example, chaptalization. A Grand Cru label will bear the name of the
vineyard and the grape:

Schlossberg Riesling - Appelation Alsace Grand Cru Contrôlée.

There are two other classifications for Alsace wines; they depend on the ripeness of the grapes. These are
Vendange Tardive and Sélection de Grains Nobles. The requirements for these two levels have been
progressively increased since they were first introduced.

Vendange Tardive (VT) = “Late Harvest”. These wines can only be made from one of the four noble
varieties and must have a natural alcohol potential (chaptalisation is prohibited) of 13.1% vol. for Riesling
and Muscat grapes, and 14.4% vol. for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer. Initially, this classification of wine
could include both dry wines, if the winemaker decided to ferment all the sugar, and sweet wines. Now,
everyone must have some residual sugar.

Sélection de Grains Nobles (SGN) = “Selection of Grapes with Noble Rot”. This wine is only produced in
outstanding vineyards and is always sweet. Usually, at least some of the grapes will be affected by noble
rot. The minimum natural potential alcohol must be, for Riesling and Muscat, 15.2% vol., and for Pinot Gris
and Gewurztraminer, 16.6% vol.

Pg.67, photo: Riquewihr's view of the Grand Cru vineyard in Schoenenbourg.

Pg.68, Chart: Alsace; Map.

CLIMATE, SOIL AND TOPOGRAPHY

The Rhine flows through a large, deep valley, where 25 million years ago the Alsatian plain collapsed,
leaving the Vosges Mountains to the west and the Black Forest to the east, with the river flowing through
the valley. The vineyards of Alsace are mainly located at the foot of the Vosges Mountains, where there is
a wide variety of soils. The slopes are composed of soils that include granite, calcite, sandstone, clay, and
even volcanic soils, while the plains are mostly alluvial. This geological complexity is a factor that
contributes to the wide range of styles produced in the area.

Another important factor is the climate. Although it is essentially continental, Alsace has the perfect

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conditions for wine production. This is primarily due to the influence of the Vosges, which protect the
vineyards from the rainy westerly winds. Lorraine, located to the west of these mountains, is one of the
rainiest regions in France; Alsace, to the east, is the driest, along with Rousillon, which lies north of the
Pyrenees. Precipitation is below 500 mm per year, and there are about 1,800 hours of sunshine, with hot
summers and long, dry autumns. These factors create the ideal conditions for winemaking.

The wine-growing villages are located in a narrow band 140 km long, at the foot of the Vosges, along two
départements, with the Haut-Rhin to the south and the Bas-Rhin to the north. The best vineyards are
located on the lower slopes. They face east and take full advantage of the morning sun. The slopes can
have an inclination of up to 40º. The less important vineyards are on the plain. The grapes here are
typically used to produce Crémant d'Alsace, the region's AC sparkling wine. The best wines come from the
vineyards of several villages around the city of Colmar, in the Haut-Rhin, where the highest Vosges exert
their maximum influence on the climate. There is less rainfall in this area than in southern Spain, and this
is where most of the Grand Cru vineyards are located.

GRAPE VARIETIES
Alsace differs from most wine-producing regions in France in that it is the grape variety that stands out on
the label. If a grape is mentioned, the wine must be 100% made from that variety. Over the years, with the
idea of improving the quality of wines, the range of varietals planted has decreased considerably. Only
Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and Muscat are considered noble varietals, suitable for making
Vendange Tardive, Sélection de Grains Nobles and Grand Cru wines. Because of the way they are made,
Alsace wines clearly reflect the character of the grape. They are generally drier and fuller-bodied than their
German counterparts, although it is common to find some residual sugar, even in non-Vendang Tardive
wines, especially those made from Pinot Gris or Gewurztraminer. Although it now has to be indicated on
the label, it is not always easy to know if a wine is very dry, dry or semi-dry until it has been tasted.

Riesling. With its steely clarity, Riesling is the variety of which Alsatian farmers are most proud. It is the
same variety found in Germany, with the same combination of fine fruit and high acidity. Being the variety
that takes the longest to ripen, it is ideal for late harvesting thanks to its hardiness. It accounts for almost a
quarter of total production and grows best on granite or schist soils.

Gewürztraminer. Gewürz is the German word for spice. The word describes this wine very well as it has
strong aromas of spices on the nose, reminiscent of lychees, roses and cashews. The skin of the grape
has a slightly pinkish hue, which gives color to the wine. Gewurztraminer is usually low in acidity and high
in alcohol, with a common 14% ABV wine. It pairs well with smoked fish or strong cheese. It grows best on
marl soil, and accounts for one-fifth of all plantations.

Pinot Gris. This grape has long been considered the Tokay of Alsace. Since Pinot Gris has never been
used in the production of Tokaji, the EU opposed the use of this name, but a temporary agreement was
reached to call it “Tokay Pinot Gris”, although the word Tokay is scheduled to be phased out in 2006. Pinot
Gris produces flavorful, high alcohol wines. It has a similar colour to Gewurztraminer, but is less aromatic.
On the palate it can be juicy and full of flavor. Their yields vary considerably and they grow best when
planted in deep clay soils. It provides one eighth of the area's plantations.

Muscat. This grape is being planted less and less in Alsace, now occupying 3% of vineyards. One of the
problems is that it tends to rot easily. It matures early, prefers sandy soil and gives a relatively low yield.
The best wines come from Muscat à Petits Grains, but Muscat Ottonel is planted in greater quantities
because it can be cultivated in a more regular manner. The wine has the classic grape flavour typical of
Muscat, while remaining dry.

Pinot Blanc. (Auxerrois, Klevner). A grape that usually ripens quite early and grows in light, fertile soils.
Plantations of this grape are increasing, as it is used in the production of sparkling wines, but as a still
wine it is light and refreshing. It occupies more than a fifth of the plantations in the vineyards.

Sylvaner. It was once the most widely planted variety in Alsace. It is now planted mainly in the Bas-Rhin,
where it gives large yields of an undistinguished wine. It grows best in deep, sandy and calcareous soils.
Less than one eighth of the vineyards are planted with this variety.

Pinot Noir. This grape is becoming increasingly important as it meets the demands of consumers looking

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for something more than just a white wine. It now occupies one-tenth of the plantations. Two different
styles of wine are made: the traditional one is a fruity rosé, while the modern reds have been aged in small
barrels and have much more color and body. These are the only Alsace wines, apart from the sparkling
wines, that do not require bottling in “flute” type bottles. Burgundy style bottles can be used.

Pg.69, photo: Spring frosts are a danger faced by Alsatian winegrowers.

VITICULTURE AND WINEMAKING

The vines are trained in tall rows that follow the contour of the slopes of the hillsides. This maximizes sun
exposure and minimizes the risk of damage from spring frosts. On the steeper slopes, the vines are
planted on terraces and are planted more densely than on the plain, where machinery can be used. The
pruning system used is the Double Guyot.

The area under vineyards in Alsace has increased by more than a quarter since the mid-1980s, and
production by a third. At the same time, the number of growers has dropped by a quarter. It is a region of
small properties; on average, each property is less than 3 hectares. Much of the wine is sold directly at the
estate's "gate", but four-fifths of the growers dedicate themselves solely to growing grapes, which they sell
to cooperative wineries (which play an important role in Alsace), or to merchants. Many growers have
small vineyards that they plant with different varietals. As these ripen at different times, the harvest can
extend over a long period. It usually starts in mid-October and can last until late November or early
December.

In Alsace it is said that the best wine is the one that has received the least treatment. The grapes are
usually pressed with pneumatic presses and, despite the climate, chaptalization is practiced. The must
ferments in large oak barrels, some of which are over 100 years old. Inside these barrels there is a thick
deposit of tartrate, which prevents the wood from having any influence on the wine. In the most modern
wineries, stainless steel containers are used, which makes it easier to control temperatures during
fermentation. This is usually stopped before all the sugar is converted to alcohol. Even wines harvested
early may have some residual sugar. With the exception of Pinot Blanc, malolactic fermentation is not
permitted, as it would hide the pure fruit flavours. Bottling usually takes place in the spring following the
harvest, while the wine is young and fresh, and many of the wines are ready for consumption, although
they may develop a little more in the bottle.

Pg.70, photo: Traditionally, old oak barrels are used to ferment Alsace wines.

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CHAPTER 12
THE LOIRE VALLEY

The Loire is the longest river in France. It rises in the mountains of central Ardèche and flows for about
400 kilometres before heading west near Orleans and finally reaching the Atlantic near the city of Nantes.
The last 600 kilometres of its journey are of interest for viticulture. The vineyards can be grouped into four
sub-regions. These are Centre, Touraine, Anjou-Saumur and Nantais.

Unlike other areas, in the Loire there is no regional generic appellation such as AC Bourdeaux or AC
Bourgogne. There is, however, a Vin de Pays, Jardin de la France, which covers the entire region, over 13
départements. Much of Vin de pays is Chardonnay, a grape that is otherwise used solely for the
production of sparkling wines. Only two AC wines include the name of the region on the label, Rosé de
Loire and Crémant de Loire, although production of these is concentrated in Anjou and Saumur
respectively. More than half of the total production of the four regions is white wine and a quarter is red;
almost 12% is rosé; the rest is sparkling.

Due to the length of the river, there are climatic variations between different regions. In Nantais and Anjou,
the dominant influence comes from the Atlantic Ocean. Upriver the climate becomes more continental.
However, the Loire and its tributaries moderate the climatic conditions. Because the vineyards are located
in a marginal area, there can be significant variations in temperature patterns from year to year, and
harvests can vary widely.

THE CENTRAL VINEYARDS

In the area east of the Loire, before the river turns west towards the Atlantic, lies an area known as the
Central Vineyards. In terms of production it is the smallest of the four regions, although it contains two of
the most famous vineyards of the Loire, Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé. The towns of Sancerre and Pouilly-
sur-Loire lie opposite each other on either side of the river. Geographically and climatically, they are more
similar to Burgundy, as the climate is continental, with severe winters and hot summers. Summer hail and
spring frost are a problem that recurs year after year.

For many wine lovers, Sancerre AC makes the best dry white wines in the Loire Valley. The vineyards are
spread across 15 villages on calcareous and stony soil. Much of this soil is (as in Chablis) rich in maritime
fossils and drains very well. The vineyards are located mainly on the slopes of the hills facing south-east
and south-west. The properties are usually small and are generally divided into tiny plots of vineyards.

Most Sancerre is white, high in acidity and made from Sauvignon Blanc. Traditionally it used to be slowly
fermented in 600 litre barrels, but now it is fermented in stainless steel vessels. It shares with Marlborough
Sauvignon Blanc a herbaceous character that some compare to cat “urine”, and others to currant or
elderflower. Individual villages such as Chavignol and vineyards such as Les Monts Damnés have built up
a reputation for wines that display smoky minerality and are able to evolve in the bottle, although in most
cases Sancerre is not a wine that ages well. The best Sancerre wines go very well with the local goat
cheese, Crottin de Chavignol. Due to popularity and limited vineyards, there is a lot of pressure for
(already high) prices to go up or for them not to be on the market year round.

20% of production is red or rosé wines made from Pinot Noir grapes. This is a vestige of a pre-phylloxera
period, when there were much closer links with Burgundy; a time when most Sancerre wines were red.
Because the best spots are now usually reserved for Sauvignon Blanc, the red and rosé wines are
generally light, although their rarity and novelty ensure high prices.

On the opposite side of the Loire, Pouilly-Fumé AC is produced on soils very similar to those of Sancerre.
The wines are dry and similar to those of Sancerre, but perhaps because they are more aged in barrels,
they lack the aggressive herbaceous character of their neighbor. Unlike Sancerre and Menetou-Salon, no
red wines are made under this appellation. Prices are similar to those of Sancerre, and a small number of
producers can ask for very high prices.

To the west and south of Sancerre, wines are produced from vineyards located on the tributaries of the
Cher. The most important appeal here is Menetou-Salon AC. It has Kimmeridgian clay soils similar to
those of Chablis, but makes white wines from Sauvignon Blanc and small quantities of red and rosé wines
from Pinot Noir. With more moderately priced wines than Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé, this area is

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experiencing a surge in popularity.

TOURINE
Located 200 kilometres from the sea, Touraine has a continental climate. The Touraine vineyards are
divided into two main groups; to the west is the red wine area of Chinon and Bourgueil, to the east the
white wine vineyards of Vouvray. Touraine AC covers the entire sub-region. Red wines are mostly made
from Cabernet Franc or Gamay grapes, and dry white wines from Chenin Blanc or Sauvignon Blanc.
These usually appear under a varietal label, for example Sauvignon de Touraine or Gamay de Touraine.

Pg.72, map: Loire Valley.

Vouvray AC wine is always white and made from Chenin Blanc grapes. Although it can appear in a wide
range of styles – still, pétillant and sparkling – from dry to very sweet. When there is noble rot in the
vineyard, the grape harvest can be one of the latest in France. Many winemakers dig their cellars into the
soft tuffeau slopes, which is one of the features of the two river banks in this area. This soil is calcareous,
full of marine creatures and is very porous, allowing the vines to develop a long root system. Good
drainage allows the vines to have the necessary water without flooding the roots and swelling the grapes.
The high calcium content allows the grapes to ripen without losing their acidity.

Chenin Blanc is the grape responsible for the best wines of Touraine and Anjou-Saumur, dry or sweet, still
or sparkling. The variety of styles that this wine produces is directly related to the degree of ripeness that
the grape has at the time of harvest and the amount of sugar contained in the grape. One difficulty with
this varietal is that the grapes in the same bunch can have different levels of ripeness. If care is not taken
to exclude grapes that are not sufficiently ripe during the harvest, this can lead to leafy aromas. Underripe
fruit is used for sparkling wines, while still wine styles (dry, semi-dry and sweet) reflect the use of very ripe
berries, including those that have wilted in the sun or been affected by noble rot. Chenin Blanc grows best
in calcareous soils and, due to its natural acidity, ages well. Young wines can have flavors ranging from
fresh apple to exotic fruit, depending on the ripeness of the grapes. It can also display smoky mineral
notes or the influence of botrytis. With aging they become richer, rounder and with more honey flavors.
High levels of sugar can become completely integrated into wines, resulting in the sweetness being almost
undetectable.

The most prestigious red wine of the Loire Valley is Chinon AC, produced around the town of the same
name. Almost all production is red, although a small amount of rosé is made from the Cabernet Franc
grape (a little Cabernet Sauvignon can also be found). The appellation has three different styles of wine
that vary depending on where the grapes were grown. The lightest wines come from the sandy soils of the
vineyards in the Vienne River Valley. It joins the Loire from the south about 15 kilometres west of Chinon.
On the plateau further north, the soil has much more clay and gravel, which produces firmer-bodied wines.
However, the finest wines come from the slopes, where the soil is predominantly calcareous. These are
wines for aging. Another factor that can affect the quality of wine is whether or not it has been aged in oak.
If oak has been used, it is usually in the form of old barrels.

North of Chinon, on the opposite bank of the Loire, are the vineyards of Bourgueil AC and Saint-
Nicholas de Bourgueil AC. They are protected from the cold northern winds by a wooded plateau, and
have a favorable climate.

Cabernet Franc gives the wines of these three appellations a certain rustic character, and many of them
need some aging in the bottle so that they can be fully appreciated. Cabernet Franc is the main grape of
the Loire. It is similar to Cabernet Sauvignon, with which it is often blended, but is better suited to the
cooler climate of the Loire and appears greener on the nose and palate. The wines can be fragrant and
juicy, with light tannins and fresh acidity, suitable for drinking slightly chilled. Wines that age well in bottles
are also made with stronger tannins and oak. Cabernet Franc is also used in rosé wines.

Pg.73, chart: Touraine; photo: Yellow tuffeau: the soft soil in which the Vouvray vineyards are planted;
photo: Barrels inside a winery built from the soft yellow tuffeau, Touraine.

ANJOU-SAUMUR
Anjou-Saumur is located in the heart of the Loire. To the west, its vineyards border those of Muscadet, to
the east they extend about 10 km beyond Saumur. This is where the continental climate begins to

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transform into a maritime climate. Humidity increases as we head further west and closer to the Atlantic.
There are no extreme temperatures in either winter or summer. The soil changes from calcareous and
tuffeau in the east, to cystic subsoil in the west. Of all the sub-regions of the Loire Valley, this is the most
productive, producing red, rosé and white wines in equal proportions. The best wines are produced south
of the river.

Towards the eastern border of Anjou, around the pretty town of Saumur, are the vineyards of Saumur AC.
As in Anjou, white wines are made from Chenin Blanc, and range from dry to, in their best years, sweet.
The best red wine in the region is made with Cabernet Franc and is Saumur-Champigny AC. Many of the
wineries are carved into the sloping tuffeau slopes on both banks of the river. Saumur is also an important
centre for the production of sparkling wine.

The broad Anjou AC appellation includes reds, whites and rosés. As in Touraine, a wide range of grapes
are grown. Among them, two important varieties are Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc. Grolleau (Groslot)
is found only in Anjou, where it is the most widely used red grape, giving high yields of flat, acidic wines.
These are often used as a base for Rosé d'Anjou or sparkling wines. There are three appellations for rosé
wines, of which the highest quality is Cabernet d'Anjou AC. It is usually semi-sweet and is made from a
blend of Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. The Rosé d'Anjou AC is also slightly sweet, but its
importance is less. It is made from a blend of Grolleau, Cabernet Franc and/or Gamay. Finally there is the
Rosé de Loire AC, which is always dry and must contain at least 30% Cabernet grapes in the blend.

The best Anjou-Saumur wines are white and made from Chenin Blanc. Many will have high acidity that is
balanced by some residual sweetness, as botrytis thrives in sheltered valleys. This is especially true of the
Layon Valley, which flows into the Loire from the south, west of Angers. The sweet wines of Côteaux du
Layon AC are produced in this valley. These wines combine the freshness of the fruit and appetizing
acidity of the sweet wines of Germany, with the body and alcohol of the Sauternes. The grape pickers will
pass through the vineyards several times to select the grapes, which become sweeter the later they are
picked. The most important areas are Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux, which have their own
appellation and are among the best confectioners in the world.

Savennières is located on the north bank of the Loire. The vineyards are very exposed to the sun, and the
circulation of air through them prevents the development of noble rot. However, it favours the late-
harvested Chenin Blanc grapes, which produce full-bodied, dry wines of exceptional complexity. When
young, these wines are quite austere due to their high acidity, but like Vouvray, as they age in bottle they
develop layers of honey and mineral and smoky flavours.

Pg.74, chart: Anjou-Saumur; photo: In these places near Rablay, Côteaux du Layon, Chenin Blanc finds
the ideal conditions for sweet wines.

THE NANTAIS
The only two vineyards in this area are located on both banks of the Loire, near its mouth and with the city
of Nantes at its centre. The most important wine of the region is Muscadet, whose vineyards extend
across a series of slopes. The best vineyards are in the Sèvre and Maine sub-region, south and east of
Nantes. They are planted in well-drained shale and gneiss soils, on a layer of granite. Traditionally, vines
were pruned using the gobelet system, but to facilitate harvesting with machinery, vines with wire training
are increasingly being used. The climate is humid and temperate, with mild winters and summers. Frosts
are not common.

Only one grape is allowed in the production of Muscadet and this is known as Melon de Bourgogne or
Muscadet. The first name is the most used. Considered a neutral variety, its best wines show aromas of
green apple or grass. It matures early and its frost resistance makes it well adapted to marginal climates.

All Muscadet wines must be dry. Until recently they were known for their austerity. Perhaps they are now
vinified in a softer, more commercial style. Chaptalization is often used, but the maximum permitted
strength for wine is 12.3% vol. Traditionally, wines were fermented in barrels, but now cement or stainless
steel containers are more common. The wine should be drunk young and goes very well with seafood.

Pg. 75, photo: View from Roche aux Moines towards the Clos de la Coulée de Serrant, two of the crus
within Savennieres; Graphic: The Nantais.

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Muscadet de Sèvre et Maine sur Lie AC is a specialty with increasing commercial importance. The wine
is bottled directly from the barrel or tank in the spring after the harvest, after having spent the winter on the
lees. Given its nature, it is usually bottled on the property, and in the spring mobile bottling plants go from
winery to winery. As the wine is hardly handled, it will retain its delicacy and freshness, and may have
some bubbles near the rim of the glass. Contact with the lees gives it more body and a slight yeast
character.

Pg.76, photo: Vineyards on the gentle slopes in Muscadet.

CHAPTER 13
RHONE VALLEY

The Rhône is one of the great rivers of the world. It rises in the Alps south of the Swiss city of Lucerne,
flows west through the valleys of Valais, and then joins the Saône River at Lyons. There it heads south for
about 400 km. before entering the Mediterranean west of Marseille. The area between the old Roman city
of Vienne in the north and Avignon in the south is where the best Rhône wines are produced. This is the
second largest quality vineyard region in the world, with a total of 80,000 hectares. It produces mainly reds
and rosés, although many interesting whites can be found.

Although the Rhône is considered a wine region, it is naturally divided into two parts with different climates
and grape varieties. The vineyards in the north are located between Vienne and Valence, a distance of
about 70 km. There is then a gap of about 60 km. before the vineyards reappear again in Donzère, south
of the town of Montélimar, well known for its nougat production. In the northern Rhône, trade is dominated
by négociants (merchants who buy grapes or finished wine to sell under their own name). In the south,
cooperative wineries play a dominant role, although there is a tendency for winegrowers who formerly
supplied cooperatives to establish their own estates and produce and bottle their own wine.

As in other parts of France, there is a hierarchy within Rhône wines. At the bottom of the list is the generic
appellation Côtes du Rhône, which comes almost entirely from the south, although theoretically it can be
produced anywhere in the region. This appellation is followed by Côtes du Rhône Villages, which comes
from a small number of villages located in the south. Then, at the commune level, there are 13 individual
cru, and they are towns that have their own AC. Eight are in the north and five in the south.

NORTHERN RHONE
Many of the most highly regarded and highly priced Rhône wines come from the north of the region,
although it accounts for only about 5% of total production. Many high-status growers around the world
have put a lot of effort into creating a quality image for Rhône wines, and the quality of the wines has
greatly helped to maintain this reputation.

Topography, Climate and Viticulture

Here the valley is quite narrow and steep. The terraces are mostly planted on the western slopes, near the
river. The soil is basically granitic and often has to be brought back to the vineyards after being washed
away by heavy rains. There are many side valleys that give the vines optimal sun exposure and also
protect them from the Mistral, a dominant climatic feature in this region. It is a strong, cold wind from the
north, which creates a fairly noticeable chill factor, but at the same time prevents diseases by improving air
circulation and reduces the size of the grapes, concentrating the flavors. Because of the force of the wind,
the vines are usually tied to a post; even the goblet-trained vines have their own individual post. The
climate is similar to that of Beaujolais: southern continental, with hot but not oppressive summers.

Wine and Varietal Production

In this part of the valley, wines have always been made in a traditional way, fermented in open containers
and aged in old oak for two years. Recently, new oak is being used more and more, which gives the wine
extra character.

Syrah is the dominant grape in red wine production. It produces wines with an intense colour, tannins and
good ageing potential. They tend to have dark fruit flavors (blackberries and blueberries) with spicy traces
of black pepper when young, and gamey aromas when mature.

For white wines, the most commonly used grape is Viognier. It produces wines with low and irregular

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yields, opulently fruity with exotic aromas. Until recently, this varietal survived only in some areas of the
northern Rhône. It is now widely planted in Languedoc, Australia, California, South Africa and South
America.

Another quality grape is Roussanne. Its plantations have declined because it is susceptible to rot and
does not resist wind well. Blended with Marsanne, which has higher yields and more alcohol, it adds
finesse, fruit and fresh acidity. While Roussanne and Marsanne often appear together, Viogner is never
blended with them in the northern Rhône.

Pg.78, map: Northern Rhône; photo: Tying vines to posts with raffia to form the traditional taille en archet
in steep Côte-Rôtie vineyards.

Regions and Wines

From the north of the Rhône to the south, the Crus go in the following order:

Côte-Roie AC. These vineyards are the northernmost in the Rhône Valley, around the town of Ampuis.
The name, which literally means “sun-baked slopes”, gives an idea of the influence of the sun on the area.
The vines are grown on narrow, steep terraces that are very difficult to work (the use of machinery is
impossible, although helicopters can be used for spraying). Vines are often trained in a tepee formation to
stabilise them against the strong, hot southern winds. Only red wines are made from the Syrah grape. Up
to 20% Viognier may be added, which has inspired New World Shiraz-Viognier blends, although no more
than 5% is usually included. The wines are extremely elegant, intensely colored, full-bodied, spicy and
complex. They are as sought after and expensive as those at the Hermitage.

Condrieu AC is a dry white made exclusively from the Viognier grape. It has a unique, floral perfume, and
is best consumed young.

Château Grillet AC is a single vineyard in an enclave within Condrieu, and produces similar barrel-aged
wines. The best wines come from old, low-yield vines, and it takes great skill to extract the delicate
perfumes from the skins. The work involved in caring for the sloping vineyards contributes to the high price
of these wines.

Saint-Joseph AC is also produced from vineyards located on the west bank of the river. Although some
white wines are made from Marsanne and Roussanne grapes, the majority are red and made from Syrah.
These tend to be the lighter-bodied reds from the Northern Rhône, which helps to bring out the raspberry
and peppery perfumes typical of Syrah. The best wines come from the terraced vineyards near Tournon.
The upper and lower areas of the slopes are more fertile and flat. Large volumes of wines with little
character are made that have prices similar to, or slightly higher than, those of Crozes-Hermitage.

The most important appellation in terms of volume is Crozes-Hermitage AC, whose vineyards are located
on mixed terrain around the Hermitage hill. Red wines are made from Syrah (with the option of adding up
to 15% Marsanne or Roussanne). The quality and style of these wines varies considerably (as does the
price). Lighter wines come from vines on flatter sites, which have high yields and are harvested by
machine. The most concentrated and complex wines come from hand-worked vines that grow on steeper
slopes. Some of the most expensive wines may be barrel aged. Crozes-Hermitage is the least prestigious
region in the area (compared to Hermitage and Côte-Rôtie), and the wines are produced in relatively large
quantities, making them average in price. Some white wines are also made from the Marsanne grape.
They are medium-bodied and fruity, and are best consumed young.

Hermitage AC. In the 19th century, this area enjoyed the reputation of producing the two best wines in the
world. After a period of decline, it is regaining its reputation by raising prices to premium levels. The
vineyards are located on the east bank of the river, on a high slope, facing south, behind the town of Tain-
l'Hermitage.

Red Hermitage is one of the most full-bodied French wines and ages well. The best wines can last up to
50 years or more. Although up to 15% white grapes can be fermented with Syrah, this is no longer
commonly practiced.

Approximately one-fifth of total production is white Hermitage. Marsanne predominates in the blend, giving

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it body. The use of Roussanne will give the wine fragrance and fresh acidity. These are long-lasting,
balanced-bodied wines that develop honey and hazelnut flavors as they age.

Cornas AC is considered by many to be the most underrated wine from the Rhône Valley, yet it still
commands a very high price. The vineyards are very exposed to the sun and produce wines with an
intense colour, full-bodied and long duration, which sometimes compete with those of Hermitage. Other
appellations in the northern Rhône allow a percentage of white grapes as a vestige of the days when a
vineyard had several varietals that were picked and fermented at the same time. As vineyards become
more controlled, there is a tendency for red wines to be closer to 100% Syrah. Cornas is the exception,
and wine must be made only from Syrah.

Pg.79, photo: Exposed vineyards on Hermitage Hill, above Tain.

THE SOUTH OF THE RHONE

Climate and Topography
Here the climate changes from continental to Mediterranean, with milder winters and hotter summers. The
Rhône Valley opens into areas of sandy soil between rocky terrain, the garrigues. Since there are no
slopes to protect the vineyards from the strong Mistral, it is necessary to plant windbreaks.

Grape varieties and viticulture

In this area, wines are not just made from one or two different varieties; Garnacha is the main grape in red
wines, but it can be blended with more than a dozen different varieties. Some of the most important are
Syrah, Mourvèdre and Cinsault. Grenache produces high-alcohol wines that are typically low in tannins
and color, with berry flavors (especially strawberry; which can even give the impression of being roasted or
burnt). Syrah provides color and tannins, Cinsault is low in tannins, but high in fruit and acidity, while
Mourvèdre is intensely colored and tannic. By combining these varieties, the final result is much better
than using them separately.

For white wines, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Bourboulene and other varieties join the Northern Rhône trio
of Viognier, Marsanne and Roussanne. Whites tend to be dense and full-bodied, high in alcohol and light
in acidity. New oak is rarely used.

All of these varieties are pruned low so that the reflected heat helps ripening. For Syrah, the Guyot training
system is usually used, while the others are pruned with a cane and thumb to give rise to an independent
bush. Many vineyards, especially in parts of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, are covered with ridges that retain
heat and keep the vineyards warm at night. This helps the grapes gain more ripeness.

Pg.80, Map: Southern Rhône; photo: Vineyards in the southern Rhône. In the background Dentelles de
Montmirail.

Wine Production
It is almost impossible to describe a typical red wine from the southern Rhône, as it is not only the soils
and grapes that vary, but also the winemaking methods. If made using carbonic maceration, the wine can
be fresh and fruity. This is a technique used even in some Châteauneuf-du-Pape estates, to make wines
with lighter tannins and suitable for consumption when young. Wines that are traditionally fermented in oak
can be full-bodied and have meaty flavors.

Regions and Wines

Côtes du Rhône AC accounts for more than 80% of the region's total production. The wine is usually
light, fruity and simple; made by cooperative wineries. Although the use of carbonic maceration is being
promoted, it is used less here than in Beaujolais or the Midi.

In the southern Côtes du Rhône, there are several villages that have the right to call their red wines, and
sometimes their whites and rosés, Côtes du Rhône Villages AC. In order to use this name, restrictions
on varietals, minimum alcohol levels and maximum yields must be respected. If the wine is a blend of
several relevant villages, it can be sold as Côtes du Rhône Villages AC, but there are 16 individual villages
that can add their name if the wine is not blended, for example Côtes du Rhône Villages Cairanne. Among
these, Beaumes de Venise and Rasteau, have their own appellation for their Vins Doux Naturels (see
chapter 36).

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Two villages have managed to move up from this classification to have their own appellations;
Vacqueyras AC and Gigondas AC have their own specifications for varietals, alcohol levels and yields.

Perhaps the best-known wine from the Rhône Valley is Châteauneuf-du-Pape AC. It is of great
importance in the history of France because it was here that the concept of Appellation Contrôlée
originated. In an effort to maintain quality, machine harvesting is prohibited, and manual sorting of grapes
is mandatory. Although the variety of grapes allowed in the blend is quite wide (up to 13), Grenache
dominates as in the rest of the southern Rhône. Some of the most successful Châteauneufs are made
from 100% Grenache, which can result in intense wines when using low-yielding vines.

A small amount of quality white Châteauneuf wine is made from Grenache Blanc (Viognier is not
permitted).

To the west of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, on the other side of the Rhône, the calcareous soil helps the grapes
to ripen without losing their acidity. The production of rosés and whites is encouraged here. Tavel AC
produces rosés, only a few of which have the reputation of being the best in France. They are full-bodied,
with intense flavor and capable of developing a salty complexity when aged in bottle. Lirac AC and Tavel
rosés are made primarily from Grenache and Cinsault. Lirac also produces red and white wines.

Around the southern edge of the Rhône are a number of “satellite” appellations producing similar but
lighter style wines from the same blend of grapes. These are Côtes du Vivarais AC and Côteaux du
Tricastin AC in the north, Côtes du Ventoux AC and Côtes du Luberon AC in the east, and Côstières
de Nîmes in the south.

Pg. 81, Chart: The Southern Rhône; photo: Chants at Châteauneuf-du-Pape, in the Southern Rhône plain.

CHAPTER 14
SOUTH OF FRANCE

The vineyards of southern France are located along the Mediterranean coast, from Italy in the east to the
Spanish border in the west. They are divided into three groups, Provence, Languedoc and Roussillon,
although the last two are usually considered together. It is here, more than anywhere else in France, that
things have changed recently. In the past, much of the production was for blending with wines from other
places to make Vin de Table. Sales dropped and winemakers in the area realized that their future lay in
producing less wine but of better quality. Fortunately, the EU has provided large amounts of funding that
have contributed to the modernisation of the area.

There is a natural progression from the vineyards of the Rhône Valley to those of the south. The wines of
Provence come from the east of the river delta, and those of Languedos-Roussillon from the west. The
grapes planted are mostly the same, apart from Carignan, which when its yields are limited, produces
robust and fruity wines. We will see how the development of the Vin de Pays category has contributed to a
huge number of plantings of classic varietals that are usually associated with other regions of France, such
as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay.

The climate is Mediterranean and there is a great variety of soils: in the river valleys it is rich, in the Rhône
delta it is alluvial and in the plains it is clay and gravel. The common factor in many areas is the incidence
of calcareous soils. These, together with a reliable climate, provide a firm foundation for the production of
excellent wines. Sometimes the problem for winegrowers is to achieve the desired income by producing
smaller quantities of better quality wine, rather than the traditional high yields typical of lower quality wine.
Cooperative wineries play an important role here. Some are very progressive and work hard to obtain the
high prices needed for their best wines. Others do not have the means to improve.

Pg. 82, map: Controlled Appeals of Southern France.

PROVENCE
Côtes de Provence AC. It is undoubtedly the largest AC in Provence. The wines are produced in
vineyards east of the naval port of Toulon. The inland vineyards are located north of the Massif des
Maures, while the rest are located along the coast. Traditionally, much of the wine was rosé, appeared in a
typical bottle and was consumed in the resorts of the Riviera. Any flaws in this wine were masked by a

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very cold ice bucket. Now, many producers are making more serious wines, mostly reds, taking advantage
of their right to add up to 30% Cabernet Sauvignon to the blend. Such wines usually appear in Bordeaux-
style bottles. In the west of the region, near the city of Aix en Provence, are the vineyards of Côteaux
d'Aix en Provence AC. A range of reds, whites and rosés are produced, and some individual vineyards
have already made a name for themselves thanks to their wines. The insatiable local demand for rosé in
these regions is contributing to higher prices. Ambitious local reds and whites also command premium and
occasionally super-premium prices.

Along the coast there are three isolated vineyard areas, each with its own Appelation Contrôlée. Of the
three, the most important is Bandol AC, near Toulon, which produces red wines based on the Mourvèdre
grape. These are dark, full-bodied wines with powerful tannins that require bottle aging before they can
reveal their spectrum of blackberry, meat and licorice flavors. Production is limited, and those who know
these wines are willing to pay high prices, as they consider them to be very high quality wines.

Vin de Pays des Bouches du Rhône and Vin de Pays de Vaucluse typically offer southern Rhône style
wines at lower prices.

Pg.83, chart: Provence.

LANGUEDOC-ROUSSILLON
These vineyards are located on the plain that extends between the southern limits of the Massif Central
and the Mediterranean. With the arrival of the railways in the second half of the 19th century, this region
became the source where French consumers quenched their thirst for wine of any quality. In the
warehouses of the ports, for example in Sète, the strong wines (which quickly went to one's head) from the
French colonies in North Africa were mixed with weaker wines from the Languedoc. The loss of these
colonies and the entry of France into the common market, together with competition from the Italian wine
market, led to the collapse of the economy based on wine monoculture. However, it was the EU funds that
enabled the economy to revive. Vineyards have been uprooted and orchards planted. High-yielding
varietals, such as Aramon, are no longer used. To satisfy a global market that drinks less but insists on
better quality, more attractive wines must be produced.

Here, since the collapse of the market for basic table wines, two processes have occurred that have
developed in parallel: the rise of several VDQS wines to AC, and the rise in importance of Vins de Pays.

Pg.83, graphic: Languedoc-Roussillon.

Appellation Wines
The Roussillon region consists of a single département, the Pyrénées-Orientales, whose main city is
Perpignan. This is the driest region in France and the centre of production of much fortified wine. The
Côtes du Rousillon AC covers almost the entire plain between the Pyrenees and the sea, and the
northern half, the valley of the Agly river, is entitled to the superior appellation Côtes du Roussillon
Villages AC. The base grape for all these wines is Carignan - Cariñena, although it does not make up
more than 60% of the blend. It has high acidity and tannins, and produces wines with intense colors and
quite bitter. The style is sometimes quite rustic and simple, and is sold at low prices. Carbonic maceration
is often used to extract softer tannins and a fruitier character, making it easier to drink and still selling at a
low price. Further north, Languedoc consists of the départements of Aude, Hèrault and Gard. Here the
appellations of Fitou, Corbieres, Minervois and Côteaux du Languedoc are the sources of large
quantities of spicy, full-bodied reds. Except in a few cases, they are blends consisting primarily of
Carignan and other proportions of varietals such as Grenache, Syrah and Mourvèdre. Recognition is
beginning to be given to higher regions with appellations, such as La Clape and Montpeyroux within the
Côteaux du Languedoc and La Livinière in Minervois. Faugères and Saint Chinian are now well-
established wines. They have a powerful character, full-bodied, sometimes with flavors of meat and new
oak. Some ask for high, even very high prices. The AC status imposes certain restrictions, as the rules
insist on the importance of tradition, especially with regard to the grape varieties used. Although a small
proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon can improve the quality of, for example, a Minervois, it is prohibited.
This brings us to the second process: the rapid rise of the Vins de Pays.

Pg. 83, map: VIN DE PAYS D'OC and Vins de Pays Departments of Southern France.

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Country Wines
Here, although yields are controlled, there is much more flexibility in terms of the grapes planted and the
styles of wines. Consequently, there have been many plantings of “foreign” varieties such as Cabernet
Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay and Viognier. At first, Vins de Pays used smaller names from the region,
such as Vin de Pays des Côteaux de Peyriac, but this had no meaning for the consumer. Furthermore,
departmental names, such as Vin de Pays de l'Aude, were considered very anonymous. This led to the
creation of Vin de Pays d'Oc, which covers all the vineyards of Roussillon as well as Languedoc, Gard,
Hérault, Ayde and Pyrénées-Orientales. To obtain this status, the wines must pass a tasting panel.

The Vin de Pays concept has been quite popular in export markets such as Germany and Great Britain.
The system allows a lot of freedom in winemaking, which has led to a lot of experimentation and the
injection of foreign capital. Because there is so much flexibility, wine prices vary considerably, and are
often more expensive than those of their neighbors with, in theory, better AC.

Pg.84, photo: Limestone soils behind wire-trained Syrah vineyards in Corbières, just before harvest.

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CHAPTER 15
GERMANY

One of the problems that German wines have historically suffered from is that, almost uniquely in the
world, they were made not to be drunk with food, but to be drunk socially. They were always low in
alcohol, and almost without exception had residual sugar. If a German wanted to drink wine with his meal,
instead of choosing German wine or beer, he would choose a French wine. To counteract this problem, in
the early 1980s many farmers began producing dry wines. Today, almost half of the wine consumed
nationwide is dry (trocken) or semi-dry (halbtrocken). For those consumers who were accustomed to
traditional German wines, these changes seem a bit shocking. Another historical problem has been the
great fragmentation of the large agricultural complexes, which has had the same effect that the division of
the lands belonging to the church and the imposition of Napoleonic inheritance laws had in Burgundy. To
counter this problem, successive German governments have implemented a redistribution of land to
facilitate work. However, one negative effect of this has been that many vineyards have been planted on
land that is not suitable for the production of quality wines.

German wines are often misunderstood and underappreciated, and it's not hard to see why. Germany
produces some of the finest wines in the world, but the existence of uninteresting and sugary bulk wines
deters many wine lovers from trying the best quality wines.

CLIMATE
It should be noted that German vineyards are located much further north than those in the southern
hemisphere. With the exception of Baden in southern Germany, all other vineyards are located in EU
climate zone A. Despite the low temperatures, Germany's continental climate provides warm summers,
although these are followed by cold winters. Rain falls throughout the year, with July and August being the
months when it rains the most. Frost in late spring is often a danger, as is heavy rain and hail storms in
summer. Within these frameworks, patterns vary considerably from year to year, giving rise to large
differences in quality and quantity between vintages. The combination of heat and rain during the summer
results in high yields, which must be controlled. On the contrary, the long, dry autumns facilitate the
production of high-quality late-harvest wines. The grapes are able to ripen slowly and develop rich,
complex flavors. In good vintages, the climate favours the development of noble rot (Edelfäule). Under
such marginal conditions there can be enormous differences in the qualities of wines from different
vineyards. The best vineyards are planted on steep slopes to make the most of the available sun. Due to
the climate, the majority of wines produced in Germany are white wines, although there is an increase in
the production of quality red wines.

GERMAN WINE LAWS

In 1971, Germany began revising its wine laws to make them more similar to those of other EC members.
As in other places, wines are divided into two classes: Table Wine and Quality Wine. The laws regarding
table wine are quite simple. However, in the case of quality wines these are quite confusing:
The two categories of German table wine are:

1. German Table Wine. This is the lowest classification, and includes less than 5 percent of the
wine produced in Germany. A production region can be listed, but it has to be one of four
specified regions. (It is very important that Deutscher Taflewein not be confused with Euro
Taflewein, as much of the latter is bottled and sold through German companies, usually with very
Germanic labels. This wine is a blend of wines from several EU countries.

2. Landwein. This classification was introduced in 1982 and is equivalent to the French Vin de Pays.
There are 17 specific production areas and the main one must appear on the label. A very
important restriction is that the wines must be trocken or halbtrocken. As with Tafelwein,
approximately 5 percent of German production falls under this classification.

Quality wines also have two categories:

1. Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA), or wine from a specific quality region. This
must be produced by one of the 13 Anbaugebiete (see below); blending with wines from another
region is prohibited. The label should show the region from which the wine comes and give some
indication of its style. These wines are often chaptalized and as a result will have a higher alcohol

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 level and/or be sweeter than some higher-class quality wines.

2. Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP). This is a wine with special attributes of quality wine. The
grapes must come from a single Angaugebiet, the name of which must appear on the label, and
from a single Bereich (see below). Wines in this classification cannot have their musts enriched,
although they can be sweetened using Süssreserve. The proportion of wines produced at this
level varies considerably from vintage to vintage.

Pg. 86, map.

There are two parallel classification systems for Quality Wines, one based on geographical ___location and
the other on the style of the wine, particularly the amount of sugar contained in the must (not in the wine).
This second classification only applies to QmP wines.

Geographical Classification
Let us consider the different geographical classifications in ascending order of size.

Einzellage (individual vineyard). This is the most important geographical classification for quality German
wines. It is the equivalent of the individual vineyard (Premier Cru or Grand Cru) that is named after the
bottles of the best Burgundies. As we will see, the problem is that the label does not specify whether the
wine comes from an Einzellage or a Grosslage (group of vineyards). For the consumer who has not
memorized the names of the hundreds of Einzellagen and Gosslagen, it is impossible to know which is
which. Price may be an indication, but there are also many good quality individual vineyards selling their
product at absurdly low prices. The names of the producers can also be used as a guide, as the higher-
end producers refuse to use the Grosslage names. The only sure method is to know the names of the
individual vineyards. The quality of the wines that come from these vineyards is usually very high and the
traits of expression of the vineyard between the different areas that grow the same Riesling grape can be
fascinating, so getting to know the names of these vineyards is not as difficult as it seems.

Grosslage (a group of adjoining vineyards). The 1971 Wine Law created this unnecessary classification.
These groups of vineyards create confusion since many of the names used were for vineyards that were
formerly individual. For example, Berkasteler Badstube had a good reputation as a single vineyard on the
Mosel; today the same name is used to define a much larger area, part of which produces wine of equal
quality to the original Badstube, but most of it does not. A Piesporter Michelsberg (Grosslage) can be a
cheap, characterless and sugary wine from high-yielding grapes and gently sloping vineyards that can be
as far as 8 kilometres from Piesport. Piesporter Goldtröpchen (Einzellage) comes from steeply sloping
vineyards on the south side of an amphitheatre of vines, just above the village of Piesport, and has a
reputation for being one of the best Rieslings in Germany. The latter can be sold for 3 or 4 times more
than the former. The difference between Grosslage and Einzellage is, as you can see, much more than
just a name.

Gemeind (a commune). In Burgundy, the equivalent would be the name of a village such as Gevrey-
Chambertin or Volnay. If the name of the commune appears alone, it means that the wine comes from
vineyards around the same town. The name of the commune usually appears on the label together with
the name of a Grosslage or Einzellage. So on the label you will rarely read “Bernkastel” or “Brauneberg”;
rather “Bernkasteler Badstube” or “Bernkasteler Lay”, or “Bernkasteler Kurfurstlay” (Grosslagen), or
“Brauneberger Juffer- Sonnenuhr” (if they come from individual vineyards in Lay or Juffer-Sonnenuhr).
(The ending “er” added to the name of the town is a German grammatical ending indicating “belonging to.”
The Juffer-Sonnenuhr vineyard therefore “belongs” to the village of Brauneberg. This also applies to
vintages, which is why you sometimes see “2002er”, which simply means that the wine “belongs” to the
2002 vintage.

Berreich (a district within a quality region consisting of several communes). There may be one or more
within a region. What is even more confusing is that a town that is a commune (whose name appears
together with Einzellagen or Grosslagen) can also give its name to a Berreich. Similarly, the village of
Beaune gives its name to the commune of Beaune (and its name goes alongside individual vineyards such
as Beaune-Grèves) and also gives its name to the larger Côte de Beaune. So a wine with the name
Berreich Bernkastel may or may not come from the village of Bernkastel. It could come from many other
villages such as Erden, Wehlen, Graach and Brauneberg.

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Anbaugebiet (Designated Quality Region). Germany's vineyards are divided into 13 such regions, some
of which will be discussed later in this chapter.

By law, if Berreich, Grosslage or Einzellage appears on the label, 85 percent of the wine must come from
the specific site.

QmP Wine Styles

The various wine styles (Prädikate) are listed below depending on the initial must weight in ascending
order:

Kabinett. These QmP wines are the most delicate and are often ideal as an aperitif. Rieslings made in this
style are light-bodied, with very fresh acidity and green apple or citrus flavors.

Spätlese indicates (literally) “late harvest” wine. These wines will have a higher concentration of flavors.
This style of Riesling has a little more body than a Kabinett wine, and generally a little more sweetness.
Fruit flavors will be more mature, usually without green apple notes and with firmer citrus aromas and
perhaps a small note of exotic fruit (pineapple or mango).

Beerenauslese (BA) indicates a fine, expensive wine that comes from individually selected grapes, ideally
from grapes affected by noble rot. Some varieties have been developed for Beerenauslese-style musts
without the aid of botrytis, but the resulting wines never have the exciting complexity and refreshing acidity
of a true Beerenauslese Riesling.

Eiswein (literally “ice wine”). This wine is made from grapes that have been left on the vine and have
sugar levels equivalent to a Beerenauslese wine, but are not affected by noble rot. They are collected
when the temperature is below -8º C. The water inside the grapes freezes, but not the sugar. During
pressing, the water, frozen in the form of ice, is removed with the grapes, leaving only an extremely sweet
juice for fermentation. This results in an expensive wine with an interesting contrast of body, acidity and
purity of fruit.

Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA). These wines are produced in minimal quantities, and only during the best
harvests. They come from individual grapes that have suffered from noble rot so severe that they have
shriveled and turned into tiny raisins. The sugar present in the grapes will give a minimum potential alcohol
of 21.5% vol., but will be matched by high levels of acidity. After fermentation, wines will rarely have more
than 8% vol. of actual alcohol. The highest quality TBAs are among the most expensive wines in the world.

There is some variation in the minimum must weights for some wine classes, depending on the region of
production; so a wine classified Auslese in the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer, may simply be a Kabinett wine in
Baden.

Pg.88, photo: Grapes seriously affected by botrytis, destined for Beerenauslese (BA) or
Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) wines.

Other Terms
There are certain terms that may appear on the label to describe the character of a wine. These include:
• Trocken: dry.
• Half-dry: semi-dry.
• Classic: “harmoniously dry” with a minimum alcohol level of 12% (11.5% in Mosel-Saar-Ruwer).
These must be made from a single grape variety, from a single harvest in a single region, all of
which must be mentioned on the label.
• Selection: Same as Classic, but these must be at least Auslese levels of ripeness (or a minimum
potential alcohol of 12.2%) and must come from a single vineyard area (Einzellage) which will
appear on the label.
• First Wine (Rheingau only): A Riesling or Pinot Noir from a recognised, high-quality Einzellage
(Premier Cru). These are subject to a number of requirements, including a rigorous tasting. First
Age and Grosses Gewächs have a similar meaning in the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer and other
Anbaugebiete.
• Liebfraumilch, aimed primarily at the British market: It must have at least 18g/l of residual sugar,

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 and must be produced exclusively in one of the four regions of Rheinhessen, Pfalz, Rheingau or
Nahe. Of these four, the first two are the most important producers. Liebfraumilch cannot have
mixtures from more than one region. Only the region will appear on the label, no other
geographical information. The grape varieties will not be named and the wine will be QbA
standard.

As mentioned above, there is a lot of fragmentation in German vineyards and an Einzellage can belong to
a number of different owners. In addition, each owner can, in the best vintages, produce a wide range of
wine styles from the same plot of vines. For example, the owner of a hectare of vineyards divided between
three different plots can produce approximately 20 different wines in a single harvest.

GRAPE VARIETIES
Due to its marginal climate, Germany has developed different grape varieties over the years that better
suited its needs. The Geisenheim Research Institute in Rheingau has played an important role in this
programme.

White Grapes
These make up about four-fifths of plantations in Germany and this proportion is slowly declining. The
main varieties are the following:

Riesling. This is Germany's noble grape and accounts for almost a quarter of all plantings, making it the
most widely planted variety. This grape is of great importance in the production of the best wines of the
Mosel-Saar-Ruwer and Rheingau. It ripens late, generally between October and November, but due to its
hardness it is ideal for late harvest wines. By having high acidity levels, the wines age well. When young
they have a fresh and floral character, but with age they exhibit petroleum notes on the nose and palate.
The Riesling grape has played an important role in many of the new crosses that have been developed.

Müller-Thurgau (Rivaner). Depending on who you talk to, this grape is either the salvation or the downfall
of German industry. Developed in the early 1880s, its origins are uncertain; one of its ancestors is believed
to be Riesling, but nothing else is known about it. It matures early and gives high yields. It is prone to rot
and is easily damaged by frost. It is present in most Liebfraumilch, giving the wine a flavour that its
admirers describe as floral, and its enemies as "mousy."

Silvaner. Considered as the grape of yesterday, plantations have experienced a great decline due to the
new crosses that have been developed. Nowadays it is only found in regions where plantations were
traditionally extensive, such as in Franconia. It ripens in early October and produces wines with low acidity
and somewhat neutral fruit.

Other white varieties include Scheurebe (Silvaner x Riesling), which when fully ripe develops strong
grapefruit aromas and makes very good sweet wines, as well as Kerner, Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer and
many others.

Red Grapes

Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir) is a late-ripening variety that produces fruity, full-bodied wines in Germany. It
is cultivated mainly in the southern vineyards such as in the Pfalz and Baden. Germany is experiencing
international quality success with barrel-aged Pinot Noir, so this grape is being planted more and more.

Dornfelder, which was developed in 1956, has the distinctive feature of being red on the inside. This
results in wines produced with this grape having a very intense colour, especially for Germany. It is mainly
for this reason that this grape is considered to have great potential.

Most other German reds are light, rather pale and rather dry and are consumed locally.

VITICULTURE
Because there are many different styles of vineyards, there are also different styles of viticulture. The most
important vineyards, which produce the highest quality QmP wines, are located on steep slopes in river
valleys. These vineyards may be terraced, but all the work has to be done by hand and access is usually
by funicular. In vineyards of this type, the vines are usually planted 1.3 metres apart and attached to an
individual post. It has been estimated that 8 percent of the vineyards in Germany are planted in this way.

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Naturally, the production costs in such vineyards are very high and have to be recovered through the
prices at which the wine is sold on the market. There is an increase in abandoned vineyards in the lower
Mosel region, which explains the marginal existence of many farmers.

Pg.89, photo: Riesling vines supported by posts on slate soils.

Nowadays, most vineyards are planted in the lower parts of valleys and on plains. Here, the vines are
usually trained with wires and the rows are planted at a distance of 3 metres from each other to facilitate
the use of machinery. Emphasis is placed on high yields and producing easy-to-drink wines at competitive
prices. These vineyards have some of the highest yields anywhere else in the world.

A few days before the harvest, the vineyards are closed to everyone, including the owners. During this
time, the vineyards will be covered with netting to protect them from birds. No grapes will be harvested
before the official day on which the grape harvest begins, which is usually announced by the local trade
association. Each producer will decide which day, after the date mentioned, he will begin to harvest the
grapes. Depending on the weather forecast, the grower will choose to leave the grapes on the vine for
greater QmP potential. The harvest can be done by hand or by machine, depending on the nature of the
vineyard and the quality of the wine to be produced.

VINIFICATION
Due to the low natural sugar level in most German wines, chaptalization or must enrichment
(Anreicherung) is usually carried out on all wines up to and including QbA, but is prohibited for QmP. In the
more northern regions, the equivalent of up to 4.5% vol. can be added. Since wines have a naturally high
acidity, they are sometimes de-acidified by adding calcium carbonate, or a product with similar properties.
An official permit is required to carry out deacidification or chaptalization. While chaptalization is used to
raise the alcohol potential of a wine before fermentation, unfermented must (Süssreserve) can be added
to an already fermented wine to sweeten it. Chaptalization and the addition of süssreserve should not be
confused. The latter is permitted even in QmP wines, and occurs frequently up to Auslese level. The must
must come from the same site, from the same variety of grape, and at least of the same quality as the
wine to which it is being added.

Before pressing, the grapes are weighed in the winery and then separated according to their sugar
content. In a cooperative winery, payment will be determined not only by weight, but also by the variety of
grape and its sugar content. After pressing, the must of lower quality wines will be enriched. A proportional
part of the musts will be saved for later use as süssreserve. The rest of the must is fermented to make the
dryest wine possible. When stored, this gives the wine more stability than a low-alcohol wine with residual
sugar. The unfermented must is microfiltered to remove yeast and stored, either at low temperature or
under pressure, to prevent fermentation. Immediately before bottling, the necessary süssreserve is added
to the wine, which then has to be bottled under completely sterile conditions.

Only a quarter of those who grow grapes in Germany make wine themselves; the rest send their grapes to
a cooperative winery. If the wine has been made and bottled by the producer or cooperative winery, the
label will say Erzeugerabfüllung, which means “bottled on the property.” Another alternative term used by
producers is Gutsabfüllung. The term Weingut is used for wine from a winery.

QUALITY WINE REGIONS (ANBAUGEBIETE) Mosel-Saar-Ruwer

This important region consists of the valley of the Mosel River, where it joins the Rhein at Koblenz,
towards the border with Luxembourg, and its two small tributaries, the Saar and the Ruwer. The best
wines come from the sloping, slate-rich, mineral-rich slopes and are made from Riesling, which is the
grape planted in more than half of the region. These are among the best wines from Germany. Mosel
Riesling Kabinett must have a perfect balance between sweetness and acidity, making the wine fresh and
never cloying. Of the great German Rieslings, these are the lightest bodied and their vitality is due to a
small residual touch of CO2. The best, for all QmP levels, come from the Einzellages villages around
Piesport, Brauneberg, Bernkastel, Graach, Wehlen and Erden in the Mittel-Mosel. The wine is bottled in
green bottles as opposed to the popular brown bottle.

Wines from Saar and Ruwer often have a steely acidity and tend to be more robust than those from the
Mosel.

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Pg. 90, photo: Schloss Johannisberg vineyard in the Rheingau; The best vineyards are located on the
steeper slopes, with flatter terrain towards the river.

Nahe
The Nahe Valley, west of the Rhine and south of the Mosel, and protected to the north by the Hunsrück
Mountains, contains a variety of soils. In the north, sandy marl predominates, where Muller-Thurgau and
Silvaner make pleasant, uncomplicated wines. On the valley slopes around the villages of
Schlossböckelheim and Bad Kreuznach, on porphyry, quartz and coloured sandstone soils, Riesling
produces wines of finesse and distinction, often with intense pineapple aromas.

Rheingau
At this point the Rhine flows west, so the Rheingau vineyards on the north bank face south and are
protected from the cold northern winds by the Taunus mountains. This provides ideal climatic conditions
for the ripening of grapes. The soil on the slope is a combination of broken shale and loess and marl, and
in the valley a combination of gravel and sandy loam. Riesling adapts very well to slate soils and takes full
advantage of their high mineral content. In addition, slate provides a dark soil that absorbs the heat of the
sun during the day and gives heat to the vines at night. This is a great help for late-ripening varieties such
as Riesling, which make up 80% of plantings. Many of Germany's best-known wineries and finest wines
are produced in the towns of Rüdesheim, Geisenheim, Johannisberg, Winkel, Oestrich and Eltville.

Pg.91, photo: Steep slopes above the Mosel. In the most exposed parts, Riesling can gain an extra 2%
alcohol; Chart.

The vineyards on the mountain slopes produce spicy wines with elegant acidity, balanced and fruity, while
those from vineyards in the valley have more body, richness and fleshiness.

In 1984 several of the leading Riesling producers formed the Charta Group to promote the consumption of
wine with food. They have been the protagonists in the campaign to produce drier wines.

Beyond Rüdesheim, where the Rhine turns north again, lies the village of Assmannshausen, which is
more famous for its red wines than its whites. They were once considered the best in Germany, but have
since given way to those from the Pfalz and Baden.

Pg.92, photo: While the best German vineyards are planted on sloping slopes, there are many others on
flatter soils, especially in Rheinhessen, where mechanized harvesting is possible; Graphic: Rheinhessen.

Rheinhessen
This is the region with the largest number of vineyards in terms of planted area. This is where the wines
most commonly seen on labels around the world come from. It was also in this area, in a small vineyard
called Liebfrauenstift in the centre of the city of Worms, that Liebfraumilch originated.

Until the mid-20th century, almost all the vineyards in this region faced the Rhine, and their reputation was
based on the excellent wines they produced. Since then, as more and more areas have been planted with
vineyards producing cheaper, lower-quality wines, this reputation has faded. This has been clearly seen in
Berreich Nierstein. In this area, along the west bank of the Rhine, in a narrow stretch of land from
Nackenheim to just north of Opgenheim, the small portion of Riesling that remains is planted on red sandy
soil slopes facing the river. The best wines from Rheinhessen in the Rheinterrasse are among the best
wines in Germany. They are the most balanced German Rieslings with complex aromas of exotic fruits.
Unfortunately, the reputation of Nierstein wines has been affected by the limited production in the 15
villages that make up the Grosslage Niersteiner Gutes Domtal, where quality is generally of secondary
importance. The soil tends to be sandy and produces light, easy-drinking wines. No particular grape
variety dominates, but Muller-Thurgau, with its high yields, is the most common, accounting for a quarter
of total production. The second most planted is Silvaner. Cooperative wineries play an important role here,
producing large quantities of cheap, characterless and sugary wine.

Pfalz (Palatinate)
This region stretches north from the French border and is protected by the Haardt Mountains, which are a
continuation of the Alsatian Vosges. In terms of the quantity of wine produced, this is the most important
region in Germany. The best wines come from several villages on the Deutsche Weintrasse (German

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Wine Route): Wachenheim, Forst, Deidesheim and RuPgertsberg. About 80 kilometres south of Rheingau,
the climate is one of mild winters and hot summers, which favours the production of many of Germany's
finest reds and whites, with an opulence found nowhere else in the country. Once removed from this
narrow band of villages, quality tends to decline as yields increase. The most common grape varieties are
Muller-Thurgau, Riesling and Kerner, and the soil is mostly eroded sandstone.

Baden
Baden wines come from the warmest wine region in southern Germany, and have long been kept a secret.
These wines are full-bodied and mature in character. The region is made up of several areas, most of
which are along the eastern slope of the Rhine, from Heidelberg to Basle. There are also scattered areas
along the northern shore of Lake Constance and a small enclave at the northern end between the
vineyards of Württemberg and Franken.

The two most important varieties are Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir) and Müller-Thurgau, followed by
Grauburgunder (Pinot Gris). The region's best wines come from Kaiserstuhl-Tuniberg, between Freiburg
and the Rhine, where mineral-rich soil inside an extinct volcano and topography that traps the sun's heat
combine to give full-bodied reds and whites alike. Spätburgunder wines from Kaiserstuhl are full-bodied
and very fruity. Many are aged in new oak barrels. Due to the high quality and high demand for German
red wines on the local market, these wines are never cheap.

Pg. 93, photo: Terraced vineyards on the slopes of Kaiserstuhl above Oberbergen, Baden; Graphic:
Baden.

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CHAPTER 16
ENGLAND AND WALES

The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in Britain. By the Middle Ages, vineyards had spread across
southern England, usually on monastery land. However, the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry
VIII led to a decline that continued until the early 1950s, when Sir Guy Salisbury-Jones planted a
commercial vineyard at Hambledon, Hampshire. The planted area reached its peak, at just over 1,000
hectares, in the early 1990s. Many vineyards that were planted in unsuitable areas have now been
uprooted and as of 2004 the total planted area is estimated to be 812 hectares, spread across 333
properties (317 in England and 16 in Wales).

CLIMATE, SOILS AND VITICULTURE

Considering that most of the vineyards are planted above the 51st parallel N, one would assume that this
would not be a suitable territory for wine production. However, the UK's maritime climate, tempered by the
Gulf waters and global warming, are boosting confidence in wine production. Spring frosts can be a
problem, as can rain and wind during the flowering season (mid-June), but a long growing season,
coupled with mild autumns, can compensate for this. Rain during the growing season can lead to infection
problems, but precautions can be taken. Brittany is considered a quality sparkling wine region.

Soils vary considerably. The best located are those in the south or south-east, in the low hills of southern
England. In some parts, the subsoil is slate or limestone, from the same geological period as that of
Champagne.

The old commercial plantations mostly used the traditional Burgundian double Guyot system for training
the vines. More modern systems, such as the Geneva double curtain, Lyre, Scott Henry and Pendelbogen,
are considered more suitable for British conditions. They allow large areas of leaf canopy to make as
much sugar as possible in limited sunlight without shading the fruit, which could inhibit ripening flavors.

GRAPE VARIETIES, WINE PRODUCTION AND STYLES

Due to the marginal climate, almost all plantings are of early maturing varieties. Although Müller-Thürgau
remains the most widely planted variety, its importance is declining. Most English wines are white,
unaoaked, low alcohol, high acidity and made from floral-aromatic varieties such as Schönburger and
Madeleine x Antevine 7672 (which is not the same as the Loire table grape, Madeleine Antevine). The
flavours and aromas are similar to Muscat or Gewurztraminer, although the acidity levels are much higher
and this is usually counteracted with a little sugar, generally added as a süssreserve, as in Germany.

Bacchus, Huxelrebe and Phoenix produce similar wines, light and fresh in style, but with much more
herbal character, reminiscent of Sauvignon Blanc. With all these aromatic varieties, low yields give an
intense fruit extract that combined with high acidity allows for evolution in the bottle. The wild rose,
chamomile and wet grass flavours that emerge are not to everyone's taste. The Reichensteiner and
Seyval Blanc wines are more neutral in character, although still high in acidity. Both varieties are
constant, relatively high-yielding, and fairly disease-resistant; both varieties are used in still and sparkling
wines. Reichensteiner is often the base of many blends, somewhat muting the extreme aromatic character
of the other components. Seyval Blanc (a hybrid variety) is frequently barrel-aged, and adapts well to
techniques such as lees contact, producing medium-bodied wines with peach and yogurt aromas and an
oaky finish.

In the case of red wines, the most important are Dornfelder and Rondo (most Pinot Noir plantations are
used for sparkling wines). Both give a lot of color, resulting in dark wines with very little acidity. They are
generally light-bodied, with fresh acidity, blackberry and peppery finish. Rondo is one of the few hybrid
varieties permitted for use in quality wines in the EU. Since the late 1990s, planting of red grapes has
increased by 10%.

Although the Ortega grape is typically used for dry wines, its high sugar levels and sensitivity to noble rot
make it ideal for sweet wines. It has powerful citrus fruit and moderate acidity. Of the more than 50 other
varieties grown, plantings of Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier have increased by more than
30 percent since the mid-1990s, and are used primarily in the production of sparkling wines.

Very few of the 300+ estates make their own wine, most sending their grapes to one of the well-equipped

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large wineries. The wines are sold under the name of the estate or become part of the name of one of the
many mid-volume brands. These brands are gaining in importance as high-volume production reduces
unit costs and enables them to meet the requirements and demands of stores. Those who sell wine under
their own label usually do so at the winery door or through specialized sellers. Half of the vineyards are
less than 1 hectare in size, production is small and the costs of labour, land and machinery are high. When
these costs are divided into a low result, the cost per unit increases and prices are generally high. Despite
this, and the instability of quality due to the climate, and winemakers still learning how to make the best
wine possible from the grapes available, demand for English and Welsh wine is strong. Most of the
demand comes from the local market, although a small quantity is exported.

It is permissible to “enrich” wine (increase the alcohol content by adding a sugar base), and as such, this
typically happens in almost every vintage for almost all wines. Wines can also be sweetened by using
grape concentrate to balance the high natural acidity of many wines. For table wines this can be imported,
but for quality wines it must come from British fruit.

Pg.95, photo: Picking Pinot Meunier grapes in the rain at Hambledon Vineyard in Hampshire; Graphic:
England and Wales

Wine Laws
With Britain's entry into the European Community in 1973, growers became subject to EU laws governing
wine farming and wine production. When certain levels of production have been reached, new laws have
come into effect. This took place for the first time in 1987, when cultivation reached 500 hectares and
preparations began to be made for the creation of an appeal system. This came into effect in the 1991
vintage and became known as the Quality Wine Scheme (QWS). Under this scheme, wines that were
accepted after being evaluated and tasted, that were made from 100% vinifera grapes, and that met
certain standards, could be labeled as English (or Welch) Vineyards Quality Wine. The disadvantage for
many was that wines made from a variety as widely cultivated as Seyval Blanc could not be included. As a
result, a new category called RWS (Regional Wine Scheme) was introduced in 1996, equivalent to the Vin
de Pays in France, thus allowing wines of any varietal to be evaluated. It is anticipated that many wines
labelled at county level (for example (Corniha Wine) or regional level (Thames Valley Wine) will make their
appearance on the market. Below these two levels is UK Table Wine, which is not tasted and cannot
mention the year of harvest, varietal or vineyard of origin on the label.

The quality schemes are administered by an industry body known as the United Kingdom Vineyards
Association, but responsibility for enforcing EU wine laws lies with the Wine Standards Board, which is
jointly sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Worshipful Company
of Vintners.

A Commentary on British (and Irish) Wines

Until early 1996 many of these wines were sold simply as British Sherry or Irish Sherry, but since then they
have had to be labelled as Fortified British Wine and Fortified Irish Wine. Under EU law, for these two
products the country and the word “wine” cannot be separated on the label, so the product can be labelled
as “Sweet Fortified British Wine” but not as “Fortified British Sweet Wine”. It should be noted that these
wines are made with imported concentrated must and not with must from fresh local grapes. It is clear that
British Wine is a very different type of product from English Wine or Welsh Wine.

Pg.97, map.

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CHAPTER 17
SWISS

In many ways, the Swiss wine industry is a special case. The demands of the domestic market far exceed
the production of local vineyards. Until very recently, local producers were highly protected, with imports of
white grapes strictly limited. The opening of the market has led to greater competition and it is only now
that many producers are beginning to consider exporting their wines. Swiss wines are generally expensive
to produce; this, coupled with the strength of the Swiss franc, means that they are often more expensive in
export markets than their intrinsic value. This is a shame as there are many wines of great interest.

Because arable land is expensive, vineyards are often planted on steep slopes and everything is allowed
to maximise production; chaptalisation is often permitted and yields are surprisingly high considering the
nature of the vineyards.

Swiss wines often reflect the variety of styles of wines from the surrounding countries; this should come as
no surprise when you consider the country's geographic ___location and ethnic makeup. Generally, white
wines tend to have low acidity due to the varietals used, the use of malolactic fermentation and harvesting
at very high levels of ripeness. Oak, when used, is usually not detectable. The most influential grape
variety is Chasselas, which can be found under different names depending on the region.

Pg.98, photo: Rack railway for transporting grapes in the sloping vineyards of Lac Léman, Dézaley, Vaud,
Switzerland; Graphic.

Regions and Wines

Three-quarters of Switzerland's wine production comes from the south-facing slopes along the Rhône
Valley and on the northern shores of Lake Geneva, shared by three cantons: Valais, Vaud and Geneva.
The canton of Valais is the upper valley of the Rhône. The most important grape here is Chasselas.

Dole is a red wine made from Pinot Noir and Gamay. There are also some local varieties that produce
unusual wines.

In Vaud the vineyards slope down towards the lake. Here the majority are white wines made from the
Chasselas grape. The most refined are aromatically neutral, with low acidity and strong mineral aromas
that develop great complexity and richness as they age. Rosé and red wines are also made from Gamay.

Ticino is the southernmost region of the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland. The specialty here is Merlot-
based red wines made in different styles. Some are light and fruity like Italian Merlots; others have rich
black fruit, velvety tannins and toasted oak aromas in their youth, reminiscent of a young Pomerol. Some
are even vinified as white wines.

CHAPTER 18
AUSTRIA

No other country has been as successful in improving its image as a wine producer as Austria. In 1985 the
country was embroiled in a series of wine-related scandals that destroyed its reputation. Today its white
wines, especially those of its own varietal, Grüner Veltliner, are considered among the most interesting in
the world.

LAWS OF WINE
A very important factor in the restoration of Austria's reputation was the new law introduced in 1993.
Among other things, it limits the maximum yield limits on wines named after the geographical region from
which they come. For this reason, Austria, which has about half as many vineyards as Germany, produces
only a quarter of the wine in comparison. The laws are very similar to those in Germany – for example,
chaptalisation is prohibited in quality wines and many of the terms that appear on labels are common in
both countries. The various levels of Prädikatswein that exist in Germany also apply to wines from Austria,
although this one has two additional levels. These are Ausbruch, which is a classification between
Beerenauslese (BA) and Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA), and Strohwein or Shilfwein, where the bunches of
grapes are spread out on a layer of straw during the winter to acquire more sweetness. It should be noted
that the minimum weight of must for the various classifications is higher than its equivalent in Germany.

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Although sweets are the specialty of the regions around Neusiedlersee in Burgenland, producers in almost
all other regions occasionally produce a TBA or Eiswein when conditions are right.

Although there is a similarity in wine laws between Austria and Germany, the styles are different. Due to
the central European climate, Austrian wines, which are predominantly white (70 percent), are more full-
bodied and alcoholic than German ones, but with fresh acidity and primary fruit aromas that are reflected
on the palate.

Pg. 99, photo: Vineyards planted along the Danube in Wachau, Austria benefit from great air circulation
and reflected sunlight.

Pg.100, photo: Terraced vineyards stretching along the banks of the Danube.

CLIMATE
Austria, along with Switzerland and Hungary, has a typical Central European climate, with short, cold
winters and long, warm summers. Autumns are long, favouring noble rot if humidity is high enough. There
are much fewer temperature variations than in northern Europe.

WINE PRODUCTION
The existence of a strong local market together with a high export of luxury wines results in high prices for
these products. One of the advantages is that winemakers spare no expense when investing in equipment
and education. Even in the smallest wineries you can find the most modern stainless steel equipment
alongside expensive oak barrels, and in some of the more traditional regions you can find antique carved
barrels. Although some winemakers' experiments with Grüner Veltliner and Blaufränkish varietals have
resulted in wines that are unbalanced in barrel age or excessively alcoholic, there have also been many
successes. Most fine wines, including small quantities of an outstanding red wine, rarely reach the export
market. Almost everything is consumed by the large local market before they have the opportunity to
demonstrate their great potential.

GRAPE VARIETIES
In total, there are just under 57,000 hectares of vineyards in Austria, and a large number of these are
planted with white varietals. However, the varietals for red wine are increasing more and more.

One third of all plantings are of Grüner Veltliner, a grape that is capable of giving a wide variety of
flavours: green apple, salad and white pepper when the wine is young; as the wine matures it will develop
honey and toasty flavours. When it comes from soils suitable for low yields, the wine is capable of
expressing exaggerated mineral notes. Until recently, it was usually sold young, without barrel aging. It is
said that letting the wine “breathe” a little in an old neutral barrel allows some of the predominant primary
aromas to soften and encourages the more subtle mineral notes to come through. Riesling is also grown
for the production of quality wines, especially in Wachau, Kamptal and Kremstal. These tend to be dry and
full-bodied, with ripe peach fruit. As with the Grüner Veltliner, many are bottled to reflect the characteristics
of a single vineyard. Mineral flavors are common and as they age, these wines can develop great
complexity. The Welschriesling in Burgenland and a little further south produce surprisingly good wines,
simple but juicy and appetizing. Particularly in southern Austria, it is considered a quality variety. It is
sensitive to botrytis and can produce sensational dessert wines.

In red wines, Blaufränkisch produces wines with moderate tannins, fresh acidity and a peppery sour
cherry flavour. In the right places, Blaufränkisch can express strong mineral flavours. Barrel aging results
in softer acidity and sweeter fruit character. Zweigelt (Blaufränkisch x St. Laurent) produces deep red
wines with soft tannins and blackberry. St. Laurent is an Austrian specialty that produces wines with a
character similar to Pinot Noir. Many winemakers are blending these Austrian varieties with international
varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot.

REGIONS AND WINES

Under the new legislation, Austria is divided into four regions (Weinbauregion). These in turn can be
divided into subregions (Weinbaugebiete) and districts (Grosslage). They are all located in the east of the
country, as the Alps in western Austria are not suitable for viticulture. The most important regions for the
international market are Lower Austria and Burgenland.

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Lower Austria (Niederosterreich)
This is the largest of the regions and the one that leads in production and export. Most of the vineyards are
located on the banks of the Danube and further north towards the Slovak border. Of the eight subregions,
the most important for exporting quality wines are Wachau, Kamptal and Kremstal. The vineyards,
situated on steep terraces, maximise their exposure to the sun and the long, dry autumns allow the Grüner
Veltliner and Riesling grapes to ripen with an immense concentration of flavours in the skins. Wines are
sometimes aged for a time in old neutral oak barrels before bottling. They are expressive varietals with
fruit and mineral flavors that develop over time to generate complex layers of honey and toast. The best
Grüner Veltliners from vineyards are comparable in quality and, to a certain extent, in style, to the finest
white Bordeaux. Rieslings are dry and generally fuller-bodied than those from the Pfalz or Alsace. Both are
highly sought after and sell for very high prices. Cheaper wines can be found in larger quantities in
Weinviertel. This region has the first DAC (equivalent to the French AOC but with stricter quality and style
limits. A wine labelled as Weinviertel DAC has to be a light, fresh and fruity Grüner Veltliner, without
prominent oak notes.

Burgenland
This region is located in eastern Austria, along the border with Hungary, and produces top-quality sweet
wines. There are four subregions:

Neusiedlersee and Neusiedlersee-Hügelland (which includes the well-known village of Rust) surround a
large lake in the north of the province, the Neusiedlersee. Autumn mists from the lake and the small ponds
to the east of the lake facilitate noble rot, which occurs almost every year. Most vineyards are located on
plains and yields are relatively high for the production of sweet wines. For this reason, and the fact that
botrytis is almost guaranteed every year, prices tend to be lower than the equivalents in France and
Germany. Beerenauslese and Trockenbeerenauslese wines are usually sold in half bottles. Other
specialties are Eiswein and Schilfwein or Strohwein. High-quality red and white wines are also made from
Zweigelt, St Laurent, Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Pinot Blanc and Chardonnay grapes, which are grown on
slopes that are away from the lake.

Pg.101, photo: The Neusiedlersee in Burgenland creates ideal fog conditions every year for botrytis;
Graphic: Lower Austria (Niederosterreich).

Mittelburgenland and Südburgenland are situated in the mountainous foothills southwest of the lake.
They are the centre of Austria's best red wines. They are made from Blaufränkisch, or from blends of
Blaufränkisch and Bordeaux varietals. They are usually aged in French oak.

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CHAPTER 19 HUNGARY

Vineyards have been planted on this part of the Danube since the 4th century BC, and as one of the great
military roads of Europe, it has seen a long list of conquerors. Vines have not always been planted
continuously; from the fall of the Roman emperors to the arrival of German colonisers in the 10th century,
wine production reached its peak. Like many medieval roads, monasteries offered travellers the
opportunity to spend the night and are credited with creating many of the vineyards that still exist today. It
was the Benedictines who established the vineyards of Eger and Somló.

The collapse of communism probably had a greater effect on Hungarian wines than on other Eastern Bloc
wines. This is because Hungary had a highly developed tradition of wine production, as well as a wide
range of grape varieties to choose from. Unfortunately, in the attempt to fill the shelves of Western
supermarkets, their Western European cousins have replaced many of these varieties. However, this has
given way to investment from within and outside the country. A new and proud generation of Hungarian
winemakers is emerging.

WINE LAWS
Hungary has a law based on the French Appellation Contrôlée system, where geographical origin
determines quality status. In 1997, Hungarian vineyards were reclassified into 22 wine districts divided into
three regions. All wines fall under one of the following three classifications:

Asztali Bor (Table Wine).

Minosegi Bor (Quality Wine) - Category equivalent to VCPRD.
Special Quality Wine - Only applies to wines with botrytis. These bottles must have the state seal.

GRAPE VARIETALS
In addition to international varietals, of which Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Cabernet Sauvignon and
Cabernet Franc are the most important, the following are the best-known Hungarian varieties:

Furmint makes strong-charactered white wines that taste of apples when young and develop nutty and
honeyy notes as they age. It is used for Tokaji and Somló. Hàrslevelú is late-ripening and prone to
botrytis. It has mild spices and a pronounced acidity, and is also used for Tokaji.
Sárga Muscotály (Muscat de Lunel) is aromatic with orange blossom flavours. It is best used for dessert
wines and is the third most important variety used for Tokaji. Olasz Rizling (Welschriesling) produces
fresh, light and dry wines with a bitter almond aftertaste and is grown in Balaton. Irsai Olivér is an
aromatic blend from Muscat. Cserzegi Füszeres and Kiralyleányka give similar aromatic dry wines. Dry
wines made from these grapes and other international varietals such as Chardonnay tend to be high in
acidity, with some residual sugar to balance them out.

Kardaka is a noble grape that was almost eliminated during communism. Ages well in barrels. It was once
the major component in Szekszárd and Egri Bikaver, but today it has been mostly replaced by
international varietals and Kékfrankos (Blaufränkisch), which produces light, purple-coloured wines with
high acidity. Kékoportó (Portugieser) needs a warm climate and is best blended, as its acids and tannins
are very soft. When yields are controlled, it benefits from oak aging. It is used in Villany and Szekszárd.
Zweigelt is an Austrian cross originating from Kékfrankos and St. Laurent. It is planted in many areas and
usually gives high yields.

REGIONS AND WINES

Geographically, when it comes to vineyards, Hungary could be divided into two. In the southeast lies the
Great Plain, where wine production is done on an industrial scale. The rest of the country is hilly, rarely
reaching 1,000 metres, and is divided into two wine-growing districts, Trans-Danubia and Northern
Hungary. Within these three broad areas there are 22 wine regions, but few have any significance in
foreign markets.

Hungary has a Central European climate with short, cold winters and long, warm summers. The ripening
season, autumn, is long which makes noble rot possible if humidity is high enough. This is the case of
Tokaji. Annual rainfall is usually around 600mm, with an average temperature of 10.5ºC.

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Northern Hungary
The best-known and most important region of Hungary is Tokaji-Hegyalja, at the foot of the northern
mountains on the border with Slovakia, on the banks of the Bodrog and Tisza rivers. Tokaji wine is
named after the town of Tokaj, and is often pronounced Tokay. The wines can be divided into two groups:
Quality Wines, bottled in 75cl bottles, and Special Quality Wines, which are bottled in traditional 50cl
bottles. The latter are considered among the best in the world and are severely affected by noble rot. It is
the mists on the rivers that create the ideal conditions for Botrytis cinerea to flourish.

The most important quality wine is Tokaji Furmint. It is made exclusively from Furmint grapes, is not
affected by botrytis and can be semi-dry or dry.

Special Quality Wines are made almost exclusively from Furmint and Hárslevelú grapes, which account
for 66% and 33% of the plantings respectively. The wines are presented in three different styles.

Tokaji Szamordoni (literally meaning “Tokaji as it comes”) describes the winemaking process where the
grapes are vinified as they are harvested, without separating the healthy ones from those affected by
botrytis. For this reason, wine can be dry (száraz) or sweet (édes), depending on the amount of noble rot
present, and even dry wine will exhibit noble rot characteristics. The wine is aged in a traditional barrel
called Gönc. The gönc used for Szamorodni is not filled all the way to allow the flor-type yeast to form
naturally in the wine; the wine develops a character similar to that of Fino de Jerez.

The word Aszú means botrytized noble grapes. In the production of Tokaji Aszú, healthy grapes and
those with botrytis are separated in the vineyard. The healthy ones are used to make dry white wine and
the grapes with botrytis are stored. These can have so much sugar that they hardly ferment. Aszú grapes
are made into a paste before being added to white wine to give the desired sweetness, which varies
depending on the amount of paste used. According to tradition, pasta is measured in puttonyos. Originally,
Aszú grapes were harvested in a 20 kg container or puttony. Today the measure refers to the residual
sugar content in the finished wine, and this qualifies the wine's designation. On a label you can see that a
wine will have a content of between three and six puttonyos. They will have the following residual sugar
contents:

3 puttonyos 60g/l
4 puttonyos 90g/l
5 puttonyos 120g/l
6 puttonyos 150g/l

This wine is aged between three and six years in barrels. Over the past decade, there has been
considerable investment in the Tokaji region. This has brought with it new winemakers and experts, who
have questioned many aspects of Tokaji wine production.

Producers still disagree on whether to allow a certain amount of oxidation at this stage, and there is a
strong trend towards wines with less oxidation. Classic Tokaji is a dark amber color, with high acidity and
intense aromas of orange marmalade, coffee and caramel, among other things.

Pg.103, photo: Harvesting Furmint grapes severely affected by botrytis (aszú). Tokaji, Hungary.

Aszú Essencia is made in the same way as Aszú, but only in the best years and from the best vineyards.
The sugar content is higher than that of a 6-puttonyo wine, approximately 200 g/l per litre. The massive
concentration of aromas in these wines ensures that they can be aged for more than a century without
losing their aromatic intensity.

Pg.103, chart.

Tokaji Aszú Essencia is expensive, as are all great and rare sweet wines, and is on a par with Château d
´Yquem or some of the best TBAs from Germany or Austria.

The vast majority of Aszú wines have an alcohol content between 13.5% and 14.5%.

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Southeast of Tokaji and along the same mountain range are the Eger vineyards, source of the historic and
full-bodied red wine Egri Bikaver or Bull's Blood. It is made from a blend of grapes and is aged in large
oak barrels in miles of cellars built into the Tufa rock beneath the town of Eger. Modern Egri Bikaver is
usually quite light in tannins and, although there are stronger versions of it that live up to their name, they
tend to be expensive.

Trans-Danube
The regions surrounding Lake Balaton are protected from the prevailing northern winds by a mountain
range. This creates an ideal climate for wine production. The soil, which can range from volcanic to very
rich in iron, contributes to giving body to the wine. A wide range of varieties are planted here, including
Chardonnay, Pinot Gris and Welchriesling. Further south, the Szekszárd region has long, warm summers
and its wines, similar in style to those of Eger, can also be called Bull's Blood.

Pg.104, photo: View of Lake Balaton. The lake accumulates heat and creates a mild climate around the
shore; photo: In the Tokaji region, showing the black mold of the wine cellars.

The Great Plain

Although this sandy, phylloxera-free region accounts for nearly half of Hungary's vineyards, very little of
the wine produced here is of sufficient quality for export.

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CHAPTER 20 ROMANIA

With 250 thousand hectares of vineyards, Romania is the fifth largest wine producer in Europe and the
eighth largest in the world. However, its wines may not have received all the international attention they
deserve, also because it is a large consumer of wines that leaves little for export. In recent years there has
been considerable foreign investment in modernising the industry, and wines are beginning to become
available internationally. In terms of volume, the most important region by far is Romanian Moldova in the
north-east of the country. Cotnari is produced here. This is a sweet wine, made from indigenous grapes,
and a reputation that once competed with Tokaji. Very little of this wine, as well as the local dry wines, are
exported; the vast local market absorbs the majority.

CLIMATE AND TOPOGRAPHY

The country is divided into two parts by the Carpathian Mountains, which extend in the shape of a
recumbent letter L. To the north and west of these mountains the climate is continental. Winters are cold
but short and warm summers, which extend into moderate autumns, allow for a long ripening season as
well as the possibility of noble rot forming in the more humid regions. To the west, the Black Sea has a
moderating influence, here the winters are mild and the summers hot.

REGIONS AND WINES

Romania's vineyards are divided into 8 basic regions. The best-known wines come from the Dealul Marc
vineyards. These extend on the south-facing slopes at the foot of the Carpathians, north of the capital
Bucharest, and produce a range of red wines from Pinot Noir, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and local
varieties. The wines are generally fruity in style and with soft tannins.

Other quality wines are also produced in the coastal vineyards, on the calcareous soils of Murfatlar. The
best wines are whites made from a range of varietals including Chardonnay and Pinot Gris, while the reds
are smooth from Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. Although Welchriesling is ubiquitous, most exported
Romanian wines are sold as varietals, including a wide range of classic European grapes.

Pg.105, photo: Vineyard and church in Dealul Vei at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, Romania;
Graphic.

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CHAPTER 21
BULGARIA

The recent history of Bulgarian wines is both sad and interesting. Under communism, industry grew and
became the main source of foreign capital income. In the late 1980s, the best-selling red wine in Britain
was Cabernet Sauvignon from Bulgaria, and in 1996 Bulgaria became the second largest exporter of
bottled wine in the world. With the collapse of government control over the industry, the infrastructure
crumbled, resulting in a decline in sales and pushing Bulgarian wine to the bottom shelves of
supermarkets. Since then, a large amount of foreign capital has been invested in wineries, but much less
has been invested in vineyards. This has resulted in a dramatic drop in yields, with total production down
by a third. Many foreign winemakers now work in the country and there has been a slow improvement in
quality. A large part of the vineyards are small independent entities, which means that wine production is
in the hands of large wineries, some cooperatives and others private.

LAWS OF WINE
Since 1946, Bulgaria has been building a system of wine laws, the most important of which is the Wine
Law of 1978, which classifies wines into different categories. These are:

Standard Wines: Entry-level still wines, light and consumed mostly by the local market.

Special Wines: includes sparkling wines, liqueurs and fruity wines.

High Quality Wines without Geographical Origin: wines from an unspecified region, usually sold under a
brand name.

High Quality Wines with Declared Geographical Origin (DGO): these have the production region
appear on the label. The grape varieties used will often also be mentioned. The label does not declare the
status, and may simply say “Russe Welchriesling”, Russe being the production region in the north of the
country.

Controliran: This category is the equivalent of Appellation Contrôlée in France. Wines must come from a
specific grape variety grown in specific vineyards. Labels must mention the variety and region, and the
wine must be tasted by a panel. The word Controliran must appear on the label. While Controliran has a
higher status than DGO, it is possible for wines from the same site to be bottled at two different levels. The
word Controliran gives additional guarantee.

Another term you can find on Bulgarian wine labels is Reserve. This applies to DGO and Controliran
wines that have spent a minimum period of time in oak. The barrels are usually large and old, which helps
the wine to soften and not acquire oaky flavors. When oak flavors are present it is most likely that it has
been mixed with shavings.

GRAPE VARIETIES
In the past, the international market was dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon from Bulgaria. Today, Merlot
has been added, as well as a number of local varieties including Mavrud, Melnik, Parid and Gamza. The
most popular grapes for white wine are Chardonnay, along with Aligoté, Dimita, Rkatsiteli and Muscat
Ottonel.

REGIONS AND WINES

Western Bulgaria, including the Thracian and Struma valleys, has a typical Eastern European climate.
Warmer than Central Europe, as it has milder winters and warmer summers. Much of the wine produced in
this region is red with medium-high alcohol, medium acidity, soft tannins and a good fruit character that is
evident on the nose and palate. Eastern Bulgaria has a Black Sea climate with mild winters and hot
summers. The great influence here is that of the Black Sea, which calms what would otherwise be a more
aggressive continental climate.

There are vineyards all over the country, except in the surrounding areas near the capital, Sofia. For
administrative reasons, the vineyards have been divided into five regions. As in Bulgaria, Cyrillic script is
used, and there are variations in the way names of places are written.

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Pg.107, chart; photo: Many Bulgarian vineyards are cultivated high and with plenty of space between them
to facilitate mechanization. In the photo the winemaker studies the ripeness of the grapes in the vineyard
before they are harvested.

Black Sea Region

This region includes the coastal area extending from the Black Sea to the Danube River. The Black Sea
moderates the climate, which is beneficial for white wines. The most important export is that of
Chardonnay. The best wines are produced in the Shumen Hills, which includes the areas of Novi Pasar
and Khan Krum. The first has Controliran status for Chardonnays and the second has it for its
Gewürztraminers, although it is better known for its Chardonnay Reserva Especial. Good, un-oaked
Controliran Chardonnays are also produced near Varna on the Black Sea. In the interior of the country,
where the mountains reduce the maritime influence, red wines are made.

The Danube Plain

This region includes the northern slopes of the Balkan Mountains and the great Danube plains. The
climate here is moderate continental with hot summers. The best-known wines of the region are the
Cabernet Sauvignon from Svischtov, which is located on the Danube itself. Other important production
centres include Suhindol, where the country's first cooperative winery was established in 1909; Russe,
another river port; and Pavlikeni, near Suhindol. All of these regions produce mainly red wines, although
Russe also produces whites.

Thracian Valley
The eastern Thracian Valley area is composed of the Thracian Valley and the Sakar Hills. The climate
here is continental, although it is softened by the cool breezes coming from the mountains. This is the
center of Merlot cultivation.

The vineyards of the Western Thracian Valley, which is mostly located in the Maritsa River valley, are the
most productive of the five regions. The most famous Controliran wine is Mavrud from Assenovgrad.
There are also significant plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon around the area of Plovdiv, the country's
second city. Oriachovitza, in the northwest, is well known for its Cabernet Sauvignon Reserva wine.

Wines from the East and West Thracian Valley may be blended and sold simply as Thracian Valley.

Struma Valley
Here the vineyards are located in the extreme southwest of the country, very close to the border with
Greece. In grapes, the specialty, and perhaps the most individual of the country, is usually known as
Melnik, like the town where it is located. Unfortunately, very little is planted nowadays. The Melnik grape
produces full-bodied, high-tannin wines that benefit from barrel aging. A very smooth Cabernet Sauvignon
is also produced.

CHAPTER 22
ITALY

The history of Italian wine is impressive, with the first vineyards planted by Greek colonizers, possibly as
early as 800 BC. The Etruscans produced wine both for their own consumption and for trade. Later, the
Romans recognized its commercial possibilities. Cato the Censor, in his work on agriculture, established
the principles of how to operate a vineyard in an economically beneficial way, an important factor being to
produce as much wine as possible. The Romans were probably the first to make wine for storage; they
stored the wine in amphorae with a layer of olive oil to prevent oxidation. So high was the reputation of
Italy's classic wines that the Greeks called the country Oenotria, land of wines.

Despite this rich history, it is only in the last 40 years that Italy has revived its role as a producer of quality
wine. The Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) quality wine classification was only conceived in
1963. Since then, rapid progress has been made on the path to quality. Italy today competes with France
for the title of being the largest producer and exporter of wine in the world. Since the mid-1990s, total
annual production has decreased from 55 million hectoliters to around 45 million hectoliters.

As in many other countries, many conflicting forces coexist in the world of Italian wine. On the one hand, a
large part of the production is in the hands of small landowners who are part of the rural tradition and have

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a very conservative character. There is little incentive to produce better quality wine when the local market
is undemanding; wine is taken for granted as part of everyday life in Italy.

The other side of the coin is the natural creativity and individuality of the Italian character. In the wine field
this has led to the creation of numerous highly idiosyncratic wines of great quality, which are widely talked
about even when their limited availability represents a problem for the more curious consumer.

THE ITALIAN LAWS OF WINE

The variety of Italian wines is enormous even within the DOC category. Approximately 1,000 different
types of wine are produced in more than 300 different geographical locations. This diversity can seem like
an impenetrable labyrinth. The 1992 legislation, the “Goria Law”, is changing this considerably, but there
are still a large number of the best wines from this country that remain outside the DOC and DOCG
classifications, usually because they are not made according to the traditions of the regions from which
they come. In the past, Italian lawmakers have not been generous to innovators.

Italian wine law recognizes four different levels of quality. These are, in descending order:

Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG): These wines must meet all DOC
requirements and, in addition, must be bottled in the region of production, and are subject to tasting by the
Ministry of Agriculture before they can be granted the necessary seal of approval. More than twenty wines
have obtained this status and the number is increasing. Among these the best known are: Asti and
Moscato d'Asti, Barbaresco, Barolo, Brunello di Montalcino, Chianti (including subregions), Gavi, Taurasi,
Vernaccia di San Gimignano and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano.

Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC): This was the first designation to be introduced, similar to
France's AC, which specifies a geographical area, varietals and yields. Today in Italy there are more than
300 geographical entities with the right to their

own DOC. For many traditional wines (Valpolicella, Chianti, Orbieto) the delimited DOC area extends far
beyond the original vineyard. Some of these regions indicate that the wines have been made in the
historic areas, which generally also come from the best sites, by adding the word Classico (for example,
Valpolicella Classico). Wines with DOC can be differentiated in several ways: still or sparkling wines,
sweet or dry, young or mature; by a geographical subregion; or by the varietal from which they are made.

Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT): A more recent classification introduced by the 1992 wine law. It is
designed to absorb those Vini da Tabola that are allowed to mention the region or district of origin as the
Vini da Tabola di Sicilia. As with the French Vin de Pays, which is its equivalent, it includes many wines
made with varietals and techniques that are not traditional to their production area, and which are
therefore not entitled to a higher classification.

Vino da Tabola: A large but declining segment of the market, partly as a result of EU policy to reduce the
so-called “wine lake” and partly because many of the highest quality wines have been reclassified to a
higher level. These wines cannot mention the varietal, the vintage or their geographical origin on the label.
A large amount of wine produced in the south and in Sicily is sold as Vino da Tabola.

CLIMATE
Given Italy's ___location, size, and shape, it is not surprising that there are considerable climatic differences
between the various wine regions. From the Brenner Pass to the south of Sicily there is a difference of ten
degrees in latitude; however, these differences are diminished by the proximity of the sea and the
mountains. In the north the climate is continental, with cold winters and long, hot summers. However, the
Alps and Dolomites offer good protection from the northern winds in winter and encourage a refreshing
breeze during summer. The largest lakes, Como, Garda and Maggiore, also help to create a mild climate
by moderating temperatures. Further south, the Apennines form the backbone of Italy from the Po Valley
to the southern tip of the country. Although the climate is more Mediterranean, with warmer winters and
hotter, drier summers, the slope of the mountains provides enough height to provide cooler growing areas.
In the north there can be wide differences from harvest to harvest, which are less marked in the south.

SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

There is a wide variety of soils to be found in the different wine regions of Italy, which can range from

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volcanic soils on the slopes of Vesuvius and Edna to glacial soils in the north. Until very recently, not much
research had been carried out in Italy on the relationship between soil and varietal. However, hill soils in
particular tend to be poor and well-drained, making them suitable for growing vineyards.

VARIETALS
Italy's wealth in the world of wine depends on the great diversity of wines it produces. At the same time,
this depends on the variety of varietals that are planted. It is estimated that Italy has more than 1,000
different varieties of Vitis vinifera. What is even more important is that many of these varietals are
indigenous and cannot be found anywhere else in the world. This is surprising when one considers the
level of emigration that existed in Italy in the 19th and 20th centuries. Not all varietals, it must be admitted,
produce great wines, but varietals such as Nebbiolo, Sangiovese and Aglianico are capable of producing
world-class wines. The different varieties are described in more detail in the sections corresponding to
each region.

VITICULTURE
The diversity of climates, soils and vines inevitably leads to different forms of viticulture in Italy.
Fortunately, and perhaps in a simplistic way, they can be grouped into two large groups, which can be
related to their ancestral Greek and Etruscan roots.

In central and north-eastern Italy, vines have traditionally been trained at altitude. The Etruscans used
natural supports such as olive trees, fig trees and walnut trees. The planting density was low and, with
minimal pruning of the vineyard, yields were high. When grapes were not given more importance than any
other crop, this inefficient method was acceptable. Today, as a result of the quest for quality, these
methods have virtually disappeared. This Etruscan influence remains, however, in the high conduction
systems still in use in north-eastern Italy.

The Greeks planted vineyards with very low densities, restricted yields and high quality fruit. In the
northwest and south, this system has historically been favoured and cable training systems such as the
espalliera (spalliera) and Guyot are still used. When it comes to quality, the vast majority of new vineyards
use one of these two systems anywhere in Italy. However, in the south where the climate is dry and hot
with less risk of rot, there is a tendency to plant vines in goblet (alvarello).

VINIFICATION
The juxtaposition of modern techniques and traditional practices is more obvious in the winery than in the
vineyard; especially for red wines, traditional habits are preserved with open fermentation tanks and long
macerations on the skins. In the last decade, stainless steel and new oak have replaced the potentially
unsanitary old oak. Where old wood is still used, many wineries take the necessary measures to prevent
contamination. With the advent of international varietals and the search for the highest possible quality,
there has been progress in different directions. Stainless steel fermentation tanks with temperature
controls, malolactic fermentation control and aging in new oak barrels are today the tools of producers in
Tuscany, Piedmont and other regions.

Advances in the production of white wines have been even more notable, with techniques to prevent
contact between grapes and must and oxygen, as well as fermentations with controlled temperatures,
which will result in cleaner and fresher wines.

REGIONS AND WINES

Politically, Italy is divided into twenty regions, each of which enjoys a certain degree of autonomy. In each
region, wine is produced with a quality of at least DOC. The following are the most important regions in the
international market.

Piedmont
Piedmont literally means “at the foot of the mountains”. The entire region is dominated by the Alps, which
extend to the north and west, and the Apennines to the south. The capital of the region is Turin and the
vineyards are spread over two different regions: to the north-west in the direction of Lake Maggiore, and to
the south-east in the Lange and the Monferrato hills, both DOC areas, where we find the towns of Asti and
Alba. The climate is very severe in winter but with a long ripening season in summer and part of autumn,
when fog is frequent.

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Piedmont has the largest vineyard region in Italy for the production of DOC and DOCG wines, covering
more than forty different appellations. Although white wines are produced, the region's reputation is based
primarily on its red wines.

Four of these have DOCG status, the most important of which are Barolo and Barbaresco.

Since IGT status is not recognized in this province, many of its wines use the Piedmont DOC designation.
Lange DOC is an increasingly important name, and there are many producers who use it even for their
best wines. These may be in the style of Barolo or Barbaresco, at a lower price, or they may be wines
made in a more international style with new oak, often at high prices. Wines may include Barbera and
Dolcetto, as well as international red varietals in the blend.

Barolo is made exclusively from the Nebbiolo grape and is considered by many to be one of the best and
most expensive Italian wines. It takes its name from the town of the same name southwest of Alba.
Traditionally, Barolo is aged for long periods in large oak barrels (a minimum of two years, plus one year in
bottle, to qualify for the designation), but some modernists tend to age their wines in barrels. The wines
have a high concentration of fruit and flavour, with high tannins, acidity and alcohol. For this reason, these
wines benefit from additional aging in the bottle before reaching their peak. When mature, Barolo wines
display a great complexity of aromas that can range from floral (roses/violets) to strawberries and notes of
mushrooms, leaves, tar and leather. Its sister wine, Barbaresco, is also made exclusively from the
Nebbiolo grape, although these wines may have less body and concentration than Barolo. It has lower
aging requirements. Prices are similar and, like Barolo, some producers make some special wines
(specifying very special individual vineyards). These special wines are among the most expensive and
most sought after in the world.

While Nebbiolo is the queen of Piedmont red grapes, there are others that also produce quality wines.
Among these is Barbera, with a good level of acidity (Barbera d'Asti DOC and Barbera d'Alba DOC) which
are gaining an increasingly better reputation. Wines made from this grape tend to fall into two styles: those
that express the lush, cherry-like fruit of Barbera that are meant for young consumption, and those that
use oak to enrich the wine with some tannin and toast and that need a certain age to reveal their true
potential. Dolcetto wines are generally smooth and fruity, although some producers are beginning to make
wines with greater substance, with a greater fruit load but light tannins and low acidity. Although the most
commonly found wine is Dolcetto d'Alba DOC, the best wine is considered to come from Dogliani. With
the exception of the more ambitious, oak-aged Barberas, most of these wines are mid-priced.

The most famous white grape of Piedmont is Moscato. This is the basis of Moscato d'Asti DOCG
(sparkling wine) and Asti (sparkling wine). These wines, very perfumed, sweet and fruity, should be
consumed young and fresh (see chapter 32).

The most famous still white wines of this region come from the vineyards around the village of Gavi, with
calcareous soils, made with the Cortese grape (Gavi DOCG). This wine has good acidity and is
exceptionally dry, which is rare in Italian wines. Piedmont is also the most important region for the
production of Vermouth, with the main centres in Turin, Canelli and Asti.

Trentino-Alto Adige
Region in northern Italy, so mountainous that only 15% of the land can be cultivated (in the Adige river
valley). The fertile soil of the valley is usually used for other types of crops; the vineyards are situated on
terraces on the lower slopes of the valley's hillsides. Historically, the south of the region (Trentino), around
the city of Trento, has always been Italian, while the north, Alto Adige, around the city of Bolzano, was
once part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The rest of the region, sometimes known as South Tyrol
(Südtirol), still speaks German and uses it for many of the wine names: the term Qualitätswein Bestimmte
Anbaugebiet may be used as an alternative to DOC for some wines. In fact, the separation between the
two parts that make up this province is such that some guides consider them to be two separate entities,
with the larger DOC of Trentino located in the south and Alto Adige (Südtirol) in the north.

While Alto Adige is not a significant wine-producing region in terms of quantity, it does have two qualities.
First, it is the region that has the largest proportion of DOC wines, and second, it is the region that exports
the largest proportion of what it produces. The latter is due to the fact that Austria is a good buyer of its
light, dry and acidic red wines from the Schiava grape and of the darker and more intense reds made from

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Lagrein (similar in character to Refosco, both in youth and with age). Most wine is sold under the varietal
name. Commercially and climatically, the future seems to lie in the production of flavourful white wines.
This has led to the planting of noble varietals such as Pinot Grigio, Traminer Aromatico (Gewürztraminer),
Moscato, Pinot Bianco, Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling.

The less interesting slopes of Trentino produce a greater quantity of acidic, light and commercial Pinot
Grigio wines. There is also a local red variety made from Teroldego, with high acidity, aromas of bitter
cherries and chewy tannins.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia
In the easternmost region, on the slopes of the mountains on the border with Slovenia, the vineyards
benefit from the air currents from the Alps and the Adriatic. The most important DOC in terms of quantity is
Friuli Grave. On this relatively flat terrain the wine is predominantly red, usually light and fruity blends of
Bordeaux varietals. Refosco has more of a reputation, producing wines with good acidity, red fruit aromas
and aggressive tannins that can develop flavours of plums and dark chocolate as they age. It is the white
wines from the mountains that have the best reputation. Although single-varietal wines are produced, the
best wines are usually blends. Barrel aging is increasingly used. The climate results in wines that combine
varietal acidity with fruitiness and a certain depth of flavors. Even more expressive white wines come from
the steeper slopes of the Colli Orientali and the Collio Goriziano (or simply Collio). Accepted white
varietals include a blend of local specialties with imported varietals. These include the Tocai Friulano (no
relation to the Tokaji of Hungary). This grape produces a full-bodied, rather neutral wine. Picolit produces
highly prestigious and expensive dessert wines. Among the most planted varieties are Pinot Bianco, Pinot
Grigio, Gewürztraminer, Riesling and Chardonnay.

Veneto
Veneto produces more DOC wines than any other region in Italy, with its climate tempered by mountains
to the north and the sea to the east. The DOC vineyards stretch from the mouth of the Piave east of
Venice to Lake Garda in the west. As far as exports are concerned, the three most important wines come
from the west, around the city of Verona. These are Valpolicella, Bardolino and Soave.

Valpolicella DOC is the second most important DOC in Italy for red wines, at least in terms of quantity.
The vineyards stretch from east to west in a strip north of Verona. The most important grape is the
Corvina, which has a bitter cherry or herbaceous flavor. Other grapes such as Rondinella and Molinara
are also permitted. Valpolicella wine comes in different forms. The most basic of wines is light and fruity, to
be drunk young and comes from high-yield vineyards grown in fertile valley soils and a warm climate. The
best Valpolicellas are produced in low-yield vineyards that include the Valpolicella Classico DOC area. It
is very common that a proportion of the grapes used to make the best Valpolicella wine have been
subjected to a drying process (recito) to increase the fruit concentration, alcohol and viscosity.

Amarone Della Valpolicella DOC is the most distinguished wine of the region. It is produced entirely from
semi-dry grapes, fully fermented and resulting in an intense and persistent wine on the palate. Styles can
vary widely depending on the degree of concentration that has taken place during the drying process;
whether botrytis has been allowed to affect the grapes; and the degree of oxidation that has occurred
during drying, vinification and aging. The older styles resemble port wines with a high alcohol content of 14
or 15% and many strange aromas (chocolate, dark rum, leather).

Today, many producers prefer a purer style, with cherry-like fruit, full-bodied and somewhat sweet on the
palate with a slightly bitter finish. Recioto Della Valpolicella DOC is also made from semi-dry grapes;
however, fermentation is stopped, resulting in a full-bodied wine with a slight sweetness. This may surprise
those who are not used to it. Finally, for Ripasso Della Valpolicella DOC, the unpressed skins of
Amarone or Recioto are added to the basic Valpolicella. The subsequent refermentation will give the
wine greater viscosity and tannins as well as the complexity of aromas of an Amarone.

Bardolino DOC. Originating from the shores of Lake Garda, which has its own cool climate. This wine is
light and uncomplicated, made from the same grapes as Valpolicella. It is very often found as a rosé wine.
Some producers are beginning to make wines with greater concentration and complexity. Bardolino
Superiore has been elevated to DOCG status.

Soave DOC is the second best-selling DOC wine in Italy after Chianti. For a long time, its main selling

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point was that it was a wine that did not offend anyone. Today, however, quality has improved
considerably and both Soave Superiore and Recioto di Soave have been promoted to DOCG level. The
latter is a sweet wine, made using the same drying techniques as for Recioto Della Valpolicella. The most
important grape is Garganega, which has almond aromas and a certain acidity and, when yields are low,
can develop floral and fruity notes. Garganega can be blended with Trebbiano di Soave (an aristocratic
cousin of the more common Trebbiano di Toscana) and with Chardonnay, although the latter cannot be
found in more than 30% of the blend. Some of the best wines come from the Classico region, around the
town of Soave. The most common Soave is a cheap and neutral wine.

Veneto IGT is the origin of wines labeled with the varietal, Merlot, and some Valpolicella style wines that
are made in a non-traditional way.

Emilia-Romagna
This province extends south of the Po River, where the land is relatively fertile and capable of producing
high yields. The best-known variety from this region is Lambrusco, which, like Vino da Tabola, was once
Italy's most important commercial success in export markets. This wine is made with a screw cap and
artificially stops the fermentation process to leave residual sugar, an alcohol content of between 7% and
9% and a slight bubble. White Lambrusco is made from the same type of red grapes but with the skins
removed immediately after pressing. There are four DOCs for Lambrusco, all of which are excellent
examples of a style of wine developed to accompany the region's cuisine. The area is very rich
gastronomically and the Bolognese sauces, Parma ham, Parmesan cheese and balsamic vinegars call for
wines that refresh the palate. Drier DOC versions than the light sparkling Lambrusco, with its soft
fruitiness, good acidity and low tannins, can fulfil this role admirably.

The four DOCs are located in the surrounding areas of the cities of Modena and Reggio Emilia. The best
known are Lambrusco di Sorbara DOC and Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro DOC. The vines are
trained at altitude to maintain acidity and the wine is usually purple in colour, dry, slightly sparkling, low in
alcohol, fruity and refreshing. Among other characteristics, for the wine to qualify as DOC, the bottle must
be closed with a mushroom-shaped stopper.

Probably the most popular still wine from the region is Sangiovese di Romagna DOC. Here clonal
selection has a serious effect on quality, and the best producers offer wines with a quality far above the
rather humble image of the appellation.

In the same area of this region, Trebbiano di Romagna DOC is produced, which is light, refreshing and
can be still or sparkling.

Tuscany
Tuscany is leading the way in Italy in terms of progress in both viticulture and winemaking. Within its
boundaries are six of the DOCG zones and it is here that the “Super Tuscans” (which used to be classified
as Vini da Tabola) and the IGTs were created. The region has many hills with areas that offer good sun
exposure. Many of the vineyards are located at a certain altitude, and the resulting temperature variations
between day and night help the grapes develop aromas and retain their natural acidity. The maritime
influence increases towards the west, creating ideal conditions for Bordeaux varietals.

The most classic wine of Tuscany, and perhaps of all Italy, is Chianti. Probably the traditional straw-
covered bottle, which was bought more for decorative reasons than for its wine, has done more damage to
the image of Italian wines than anything else. Fortunately, the quality and reputation of Tuscan wines have
recovered from this bad image. In the heart of the great Chianti region, between the cities of Florence and
Siena, lies the original Chianti or Chianti Classico DOCG. Seven satellite zones, each of which has
DOCG status in its own right, surround this area. Here the quality can vary considerably, but the constant
factor is the Sangiovese grape, which must dominate any type of blend and sometimes must be used
exclusively. This grape produces medium-bodied red wines with high acidity and tannins; its flavor
combines notes of bitter cherries with a somewhat earthy character. Other red grapes grown include
Canaiolo and Colorino, and increasingly Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and even Syrah. The traditional
white grape is Trebbiano. Chiantis generally have very lively acidity with flavors of sour cherries and tea
leaves which develop earthy notes with age.

Traditionally, many of the best Chianti wines were given extra body by inducing a slight secondary

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fermentation in barrels, ideally through the addition of must from semi-dry grapes. This technique was
known as governo.

Parenting has also been a matter of taste. Some producers believed in using traditional large-capacity oak
barrels known as botti, but today small barrels are more commonly used. Two different styles of wine are
usually produced: basic Chianti, for early consumption, and Riserva, aged in oak and bottle for more than
two years before being released to the market. The latter generally requires longer bottle aging.

Another quality version of Sangiovese is Brunello di Montalcino DOCG, the best of which compete with
the great Barolos for the title of being Italy's finest and longest-lived wines. Made solely from Sangiovese,
usually Sangiovese Grosso, around the village of Montalcino, south of Siena, this is a robust wine that
benefits from long ageing. The bottle should be opened well in advance of consumption to allow the full
complexity of the wine's aromas to develop. By law, wine must be at least four years old before it can be
released onto the market; two of those years must have been spent in barrels. In order to give producers
greater flexibility, a wine has been developed that can be sold earlier: Rosso di Montalcino DOC. It is
also made with Sangiovese but higher yields are allowed and only one year of aging is required. Some
producers use this AOC in the same way that a large Bordeaux château might have a second brand.

Vino Nobile di Montepulciano was the first wine from Italy to be classified as DOCG. It is made around
the town of Montepulciano, under laws similar to those of Chianti Riserva, and from a grape member of the
Sangiovese family, the Prugnolo.

There is only one white wine with DOCG status in Tuscany, Vernaccia di San Gimignano, produced in a
region west of Chianti Classico. This medium-bodied and rather neutral wine is made to be consumed
young; traditionally it was made for storage.

Many Tuscan producers make prestigious wines, based largely on Sangiovese, Cabernet Sauvignon or
Chardonnay, outside the DOC system. These are the producers known as “the new winegrowers”, who
have questioned tradition and whose influence is spreading increasingly throughout Italy. The original
movement began as a simple hobby in 1948, with the planting of Cabernet Sauvignon at Tenuta San
Guido, in the Maremma. In 1968, a single-varietal Cabernet Sauvignon was produced, known as
Sassicaia, which was unique in its time within Italian wine. This was followed in 1975 by Antinori's
Tignanello, a blend of Sangiovese with some Cabernet Sauvignon and aged in barrels. The introduction of
these two Super-Tuscans may represent a turning point for the international image of Italian wine. It is
from here that many of the most recent changes in Italian viticulture and winemaking described in this
chapter begin. With these two wines, of small production but with great prestige, Italy is becoming
international, reaching a new level of wine lovers around the world.

Initially, the legal status of these wines, as well as that of the many followers they inspired, was no more
than that of Vini da Tabola. They were sold as individual brands, often designed to attract attention or
under one of the unofficial names known as Predicati. The 1992 legislation attempted to find a solution to
the anomaly whereby many of the country's best wines remained outside the quality system. The
introduction of the new Toscana IGT category allows wines made in a non-traditional style to be awarded
the status of quality wines. With its reputation now fully established, the coastal region of Bolgheri, origin
of many of the original Super-Tuscans, has been upgraded to DOC status.

Marche
The most famous wine from this region, bordering the Adriatic, is Verdicchio, traditionally sold in a green
amphora-shaped bottle. Although this presentation may put off potential consumers, this dry white wine
can be very good. The use of cold fermentation and stainless steel is quite common among producers who
aspire to export their wines. There are two DOCs that use the Verdicchio grape as part of their name; the
easiest to find is Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi. The style can vary from a light and fresh wine to a full-
bodied, complex and rich wine, with subtle notes of fennel and other herbs making it an ideal companion
for white fish.

The most important DOC for red wine in this region is Rosso Conero, produced near the city of Ancona
almost exclusively from the Montepulciano grape. The wines tend to be fuller-bodied, more colorful, but
lower in tannins than Sangiovese wines.

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Umbria
Umbria has a topography and climate similar to Tuscany but without any maritime influence. The main
wine-growing centre is Perugia. Historically, Umbria is known for its white wines from Orvieto. These were
predominantly sweet but the trend today is for them to be dry. However, there is also production of
Abboccato wine. Here, the tuffeau soils are similar to those of Vouvreai in the Loire Valley and the best
wines also have aromas of sour apples. Most, however, are simple with some refreshing acidity and rather
neutral. The main grape is Trebbiano (locally called Procanico), which can be blended with more
interesting varietals such as Grechetto, Malvasia and Verdello.

Latium
White wines dominate Latium and of these, Frascati DOC is the best known, owing its reputation to the
trattorias of Rome. Its fresh, clean flavour and pale colour are appreciated by many who do not like to take
risks when choosing a wine. The basic grapes of the blend are Malvasia (which develops quickly,
displaying light and pleasant aromas, a lot of body and little acidity) and Trebbiano. The best and most
characterful wines are those in which Malvasia del Lazio dominates. With rare exceptions, these wines are
simple, inexpensive and very neutral in style.

Abruzzo
If the map of Italy is a leg, Abruzzo is located behind the knee and is a mountainous region that extends
through hills towards the sea. While most Italian winegrowers believe that fragmentation in the DOC
system generally leads to high prices, here they have opted for simplicity and until very recently there were
only two: Montepulciano d'Abruzzo DOC for reds, and Trebbiano d'Abruzzo DOC for whites.

The Montepulciano grape is very colorful, with moderate acidity and, in the best wines, quite tannic.
However, most of the wines are made in cooperatives, where the goal is to make very simple and easy-to-
drink wines. (Note: The Montepulciano grape grown in Abruzzo should not be confused with the Tuscan
town of Montepulciano, which produces Sangiovese wines.

Campania
It was in Campania, with the Bay of Naples at its centre, that the finest wines of the classical era were
produced, with the name of one of the local grapes, El Greco, attesting to their origins. Volcanic soils are
ideal for the production of good wines. Sadly, quality levels have since declined, and it is only in recent
years that a very small number of producers have attempted to recreate the quality of the past.

Taurasi is a red wine, made from the high-quality grape called Aglianico, which has been promoted to the
DOCG category. The Aglianico grape has a very thick skin that retains its acidity, allowing it to be
harvested very late after very complex aromas have had time to develop. Along with Nebbiolo, this is one
of the latest-ripening grapes in Italy and produces full-bodied, tannic wines with good acidity and flavors of
black plums and smoky spices. These wines need aging. A minimum of three years is required before
sale, of which at least one must be in barrel.

Puglia
Located in the heel of Italy, Puglia has a warm rather than hot climate. Along with Sicily, it has the largest
wine production in Italy and historically was the origin of much of the blending wine shipped around the
world. Even today, the production of DOC wines represents less than 5% of the total, although there is a
clear trend towards the production of quality wines. On the one hand, the best-known French varietals
have been widely planted; and on the other, there are intentions to produce great wines with local varietals
such as Negroamaro, Uva di Troia and Primitivo (Zinfandel). The latter is used to make full-bodied red
wines, with high alcohol content and spicy berry aromas. Almost all of these belong to the IGT category.

There are two DOCs with little more than local notoriety, which are Salice Salentino and Copertino; both
wines can be of a medicinal, Port-like intensity and are made from the Negroamaro grape with a little help
from Malvasia Nera.

Basilicata
This is a desolate mountainous region where the Aglianico grape reigns supreme and is responsible for
the only wine with DOC status, Aglianico del Vulture, which can appear in a variety of forms: fruity young
reds and Vecchio, which is aged for a minimum of three years.

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Sicily
It is the largest region in Italy and also the one with the most vineyards, which are spread throughout the
island. However, the main production is concentrated in the west of the island. Wine cooperatives have
benefited considerably from EU financial support. The region has its own quality award, which can be
given to any level of wine. This is symbolized by a “Q” on the label. An increasing amount of good quality
wine is appearing under the Sicilia IGT status. These wines can be made with native varietals such as
Nero Davola or with blends with international varietals such as Catarratto/Chardonnay. Quality varies
greatly with the large amount of wine produced in bulk to be used in anonymous blends. The best wines
come from the mountainous interior of the island and from the slopes of Etna, where the climate is cooler.
Several producers have demonstrated beyond a doubt that Sicily is capable of making wines that can
compete at the highest international level, and the best wines, both from local and international varietals,
can command very high prices.

The fortified wine of Marsala, produced from vineyards around the port of the same name, is described in
Chapter 36.

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CHAPTER 23 SPAIN

Spain has a long wine-making history. Columnella, who was the author of one of the oldest and most
detailed Roman texts on winemaking, belonged to a family that owned vineyards in what is now known as
Cádiz. At that time, Spain was one of the largest producers of wine for Rome. Since Spain joined the
European Union, there have been more changes in the wine industry than in all the past centuries.
Modernisation has come at a rapid pace, and this has been reflected not only in the vineyards and wineries,
but also in legislation. Everything is constantly changing and talking about the Spanish wine industry now is
like taking a snapshot of a particular moment. Spain has a larger area of vineyards than France or Italy, yet
its annual production is much lower than that of either of them. The reason is that many of the vineyards are
planted sparsely and the harvests are poor due to the age of the vines and a very arid climate.

LAWS OF WINE
Wine laws in Spain are continually developing as new regions seek to gain official status for their wines. As
in other countries, there is a lot of fragmentation. The current hierarchy is as follows in order from highest to
lowest:

Qualified Designation of Origin (DOC or DOCa). At the moment there are two: Rioja and Priorato.

Designation of Origin – Payment (DO Pago). This is a new category that has just come into effect. It
applies to individual properties that are outside the DO system and that use only their own grapes to make
their wines. In 2004 only two vineyards obtained this designation.

Denomination of Origin (DO). The number of wines with this DO has already increased to 60, although
many of them are not of great importance. Like French AOC wines, these wines must possess a minimum
quality and meet specifications regarding grape varieties, viticulture, and ___location, and must have a certain
style above mere local interest.

Vino de la Tierra (VdlT) is equivalent to the French Vin de Pays. Although there are at least 40 wines that
belong to this category, only two are of commercial importance. These are: Wine from the Land of Castile
and Wine from the Land of Castile and León.

Finally, there is Table Wine.

Aging
Each DO or DOC bottle has a numbered label on the back that is granted by the Regulatory Council, which
guarantees the classification of the wine. In addition to certifying the region of origin, the length of time the
wine has been aged will also appear. There are minimum requirements for each of the four categories, and
these generally apply nationally to all DOs. Some regions, for example Rioja, may require more aging time
to qualify.

Young wine is a wine that may or may not have spent some time in barrels before being bottled the year
after the harvest and immediately released onto the market. Crianza red wines must be at least two years
old and have aged a minimum of six months in small oak barrels before being released to the market. White
and rosé wines must be at least one year old (there is talk of creating a new category that would require
some aging time in barrels, and would be between a young wine and a crianza). Reservas are usually
wines from selected barrels and from the best vintages. Red wines must have been aged in barrels and
bottles for a minimum of three years, of which a minimum of one year must be in barrels. The winemaker will
decide how to balance the aging time between bottle and barrel. Whites and rosés must be aged for at least
two years, with a minimum of six months in barrels. Gran Reserva wines will only be produced in years with
excellent vintages. Red wine must be at least five years old before being put on the market and must have
spent at least two years in wood and three in bottles. Whites and rosés will be aged for four years, with six
months of these remaining in oak barrels. Many of the wines that carry the Reserva or Gran Reserva label
have been aged much longer than the minimum legal time required. Whites and rosés of Reserva and Gran
Reserva are very rare.

GRAPE VARIETIES

Tempranillo comes from the word "early", and one of its great advantages is that it ripens early. Although it

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is not the most planted variety, it is the main one and is present in most of the vineyards in northern Spain. It
is known under different names. It prefers slate soils and grows well in cold climates. It produces strawberry-
scented wines with low acidity and is best when blended with other varieties. Ages well. Garnacha is the
Grenache of the south of France, and today it is the most planted grape in Spain. It produces wines with
high yields and alcohol, with a tendency to mature quickly. It is mostly used for rosés. Graciano plantations
are very limited due to their low yield. It is grown mainly in La Rioja where it is used to make the best wines.
It is used in small quantities to add strong aromas, body and tannins that help age the wine. Mazuelo (Rioja)
or Cariñena (in the rest of Spain) is the Spanish version of the French Carignan, producing wines with high
acidity and tannins and intense color. When a small proportion of Carignan is combined with Tempranillo it
makes a good blend. This grape should not be confused with the DO region of Cariñena, southeast of Rioja
and Navarra. The Monastrel is the Mourvèdre of the south of France. It is grown in Denominations of Origin
such as Yecla and Jumilla, and produces very dark, strong and spicy wines.

Viura (Rioja) or Macabéo (Catalonia) is the same variety as Macabeo/Maccabeu from the south of France.
It produces white wines with good fruit and acidity, but to achieve this the yields must be restricted. It is used
in Rioja and is often mixed with Parellada and Xarel-lo in Catalonia. Malvasia produces full-bodied white
wines and is often the main component of the best traditional Riojas, where its richness balances the
lightness of the Viura. A number of light, fresh and aromatic varieties are grown on the coast of the Basque
Country and Galicia, the most important of which is Albariño.

International varieties are becoming increasingly important. In many parts of Spain, traditional local varieties
have not been very successful in producing quality wines, so Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and
Chardonnay are used to make better quality wines. These varieties, as well as other international varieties,
are planted and already established in many regions, especially in the northeast. Sometimes they appear
mixed with local varietals. Used in this way, international varieties give the consumer a recognized name on
the label as well as adding character to the blend. The local variety component, for its part, adds volume and
gives local producers the opportunity to market grapes that would otherwise have difficulty finding a place on
the market.

Pg.121, map.

REGIONS AND WINES

The main DO regions of Spain can be grouped into six geographical zones, each with a common climate
and varietals. These six unofficial areas are: the Upper Ebro, Catalonia, the Duero Valley, the northwest
(Galicia), the Levant and the Meseta.

Upper Ebro
Along the Ebro River, from the mountains of Cantabria to the Mediterranean, there are many vineyards, but
the best wines, perhaps in all of Spain, come from the Rioja region, which is protected by mountains on
three sides. The region gets its name from the Oja River, a tributary of the Ebro. Vineyards already existed
during Roman times, but the modern history of the region begins when phylloxera destroyed the Bordeaux
vineyards. Many of the merchants, winegrowers and winemakers from Bordeaux moved to northern Spain
and settled in the region. It is for this reason that until recently the trade has been based on sellers and their
names, rather than on vineyards and their growers. Spain's liberation from the Franco era led to a revival of
trade and the establishment of new companies. The way wines were aged also changed; wines, which until
then had been aged in wood for several years, began to be aged for longer in bottles. Despite these
changes, the ageing period still exceeds the minimum requirements, which in Rioja are usually higher than
in any other region. For example, a Crianza red wine must spend a minimum of twelve months in barrels
instead of the six months stipulated for other DOs. Recently, wines produced on a single estate and from
individual vineyards, rather than wines from blends in merchants' cellars, have also been gaining popularity.

Rioja is a region of small farmers, many of whom sell their grapes to cooperatives. Vineyards are usually
planted in a glass arrangement; training the vines with wire is permitted but only for experimental purposes.
In Rioja, three-quarters of production is red wine, with 15% rosé and 10% white. Small plantings of varietals
such as Cabernet Sauvignon are generally historical relics in La Rioja. Those that are permitted are national
varieties. Tempranillo is used with small additions of Graciano and Mazuelo for the more expensive reds,
Garnacha is used in young wine and rosés, and Viura and Malvasía in whites (Garnacha Blanca is also
allowed).

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Pg.122, photo: Vineyards of Rioja Alavesa. Tempranillo grapes planted in slate soils with the Cantabrian
mountains in the background.

The capital of the province of Rioja is Logroño, at the foot of the Ebro. It is used as a reference point in the
three subregions. Typically, a bottle labeled Rioja will be a blend of wines from more than one of these
subregions. Rioja Alavesa is located west of Logroño on the northern bank of the Ebro. The climate is
influenced by the Atlantic and is cool. Of the three regions, it is the one where the most rain falls. The soil is
very slate-like and the wines are probably the lightest in Rioja, as well as the best. The predominant variety
is Tempranillo. La Rioja Alta is also located west of Logroño, but south of the Ebro. The soils are mostly
clay, but many are reddish with a high amount of iron. Clay soils are good for white wines made from Viura
and iron-rich soils are better for red wines made from Tempranillo. In the river valley there are rich alluvial
soils that greatly favor the Malvasia. The climate is warmer and drier than in Rioja Alavesa but remains
mostly maritime. Many of the large wineries are in Logroño or in the small town of Haro. La Rioja Baja is
located east of Logroño, on the left bank. The climate is continental, with hotter summers and harsher
winters. The soils are mostly clay and the dominant grape is Garnacha. Most of the Young Wine comes from
this part.

Red wines come in a variety of styles. Traditional Reserva and Gran Reserva wines underwent long periods
of ageing in oak, resulting in a controlled degree of oxidation and the development of aromas of meat,
caramel and strawberry. They used to be pale brick-colored with a brownish border. The most modern wines
seek to preserve the fruit, they are generally darker and the strawberry and plum notes of Tempranillo are
more appreciated. Modern Crianzas and Reservas have less oxidative aging time, thus achieving the
development of the integration of fruit and oak. Oak and vanilla, coconut and toasted aromas are sometimes
appreciated.

Traditionally, white wines were aged for long periods in American oak. This caused them to develop a
deep golden color and salty almond flavors. This deliberate oxidative style is unique, but it takes time to
learn to appreciate it. Modern whites are typically fermented at low temperatures, stored in stainless steel
and bottled young to preserve the maximum amount of fruit. Some of the more modern wineries are also
producing oak-aged whites, but they use French oak instead of the traditional American barrels.

I Pg.123, photo: Tasting wine from a new oak barrel in La Rioja; Graphic: El Alto Ebro.

Historically, Navarra's reputation has been based on its rosés. These were made from Garnacha grapes,
usually exceeded 15% vol. and oxidized quickly. They were not to the taste of modern wine lovers. For
this reason Navarra has changed its methods. Now it tends to produce quality reds. Rosés (which are now
lighter and fresher) are still important, but white only makes up 5% of total production. The 18,000
hectares of vineyards in Navarra are located downstream from Rioja and extend from the valley to the
edge of the Pyrenees. This results in many variations in soil and climate. The vineyards of Navarra have
traditionally been planted with the same varieties as in Rioja, predominantly Garnacha, although thanks to
a certain element of pragmatism, other varietals have also been permitted. These are Cabernet
Sauvignon and Merlot for reds, and Chardonnay and Moscatel for whites. The same investment that has
been made in the vineyards has been made in the wineries, where small oak barrels are used.
Temperature-controlled fermentation tanks for whites and rosés are giving better results. Traditional wines
are similar in style to Rioja, although many of the reds gain more colour and black fruit aromas through the
use of Cabernet and/or Merlot. There are also varietal wines made with national and international grapes.

Somontano means “under the mountains” and is located on the edge of the Pyrenees, north of Zaragoza.
It has a cold climate and a lot of rain. A wide range of imported French varietals are planted here,
including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Pinot Noir (for reds), and Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc and
Gewürztraminer (for whites). Modern wines are often sold under varietal names, with whites taking
precedence over reds, which are replacing traditional reds and rosés made from local varietals.

Pg.124, photo: Vineyards in Costes del Segre; Graphic: Catalonia.

Catalonia
Catalonia, with its long tradition of nationalism, has fiercely embraced Spain's policy of empowering the
regions. Traditionally it has been the cradle of Cava production and the three “great” Cava varieties
(Parellada, Xarel-lo and Macabeo) are widely planted in this area. These varieties are important for

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 sparkling wines as well as still wines.

Catalonia has recently created its DO, which extends throughout the community, with a wide variety of
climates and wine styles. It was initially introduced to encourage the blending of wines from different
regions and to create the possibility of bringing large quantities of the same wine to market under the
same name.

Until recently, Penedés was the name given to still Catalan wines. The vineyards are located southwest of
Barcelona from the Mediterranean coast to the inland mountains. Due to its ___location, it has three distinct
climatic zones. The hottest area is found on the coastal plain where the climate is Mediterranean, with hot
and dry summers and where full-bodied wines from Garnacha and Monastrell are produced. In the interior
area, in the valleys, the climate is milder and the vineyards in this area produce much of the white wine
used in the production of Cava. Further towards the mountains, the vineyards grow up to 800 metres
above sea level. The climate here is cool and international varietals such as Riesling, Gewürztraminer and
Pinot Noir are planted. Traditionally, vines have been pruned in a goblet style, but recently training with
wires has become more common, particularly in the case of French and German varietals.

In addition to the diversity of climates, there is a wide variety of varietals grown in the region. Historically, the
reputation of this area has been based on the production of white wines made from Parellada, Xarel-lo and
Macabeo. In recent years, the Torres company has paved the way for the planting of new and international
varieties, including Chardonnay, Riesling, Gewürztraminer and Sauvignon Blanc. Few white wines are aged
in barrels. The best ones express very expressive varietal fruit aromas.

Historically, powerful oak-aged wines made from traditional Garnacha and Monastrell grapes dominated red
wine production. Today there are also important plantations of Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet
Franc, Merlot and Pinot Noir. There is no doubt that the introduction of French and Spanish varietals has
allowed local winegrowers to improve the quality of their wines and strengthen the reputation of the region.
Due to the wide spectrum of styles and qualities, the prices of these wines vary considerably.

Costes del Segre is located inland near the city of Lleida. A subsidiary of one of the Cava companies has
invested in vineyards and a winery and dominates production in this area. The climate is continental and rain
is not very frequent, but since the vineyards are classified as “experimental”, irrigation is permitted. The main
crops are Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo and Chardonnay.

Tarragona contains a wide selection of wines, ranging from dessert wines, which are produced on the
coastal plains, to wines that compete with those of Priorat, produced in the hills.

Priorato is the new fashionable wine in Spain. This hilly region has a soil known as llicorella, which consists
of layers of red slate, with tiny particles of mica that sparkle in the sun and reflect heat. Traditional Priorat is
a red wine with a very high alcohol content and is made from low-yield Garnacha and Cariñena vines. Many
were aged for long periods in oak, sometimes in a solera, and began to develop musty aromas (gamey and
mushroom-like). However, it is modern wines made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Pinot Noir, in
addition to traditional Garnacha and Cariñena, that have raised the profile of this region, resulting in the
granting of DOC status. When young, modern wines display intense blackberry fruit with secondary flavors
of new oak. Strong tannins and massive fruit extract give these wines great, long aging potential.

Pg.125, photo: New vineyards in Priorat.

Douro Valley
While the Douro Valley is best known for its Port wines, in Spain, under the name Duero, there are vineyards
that produce wines of the highest quality and with a worldwide reputation. This part of the country has a
continental climate that can be very aggressive. The altitude favours cold nights and there is also a long, dry
ripening season for the grapes.

Toro is the first DO region upriver from Portugal. The dominant grape here is Tempranillo. Extremely hot
summers favour high alcohol content wines; 14.5% vol. is very common. The wines are fuller-bodied and
more complex than Rioja, but do not usually have the same aging potential. Young wines usually contain
some Garnacha; Reservas and Gran Reservas can have a very intense colour and a lot of tannin when they
are young.

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Pg.126, chart: Duero Valley.

Rueda is located south of Valladolid. In the past, fortified Jerez-style wines were made, but their image was
renewed when in 1972 a Rioja company established a winery in the area to produce light white wines. The
soil of this region is rich in calcium carbonate and has a continental climate with cool summer nights. The
traditional grape of the region is Verdejo, which produces wines of surprising elegance, as the cool nights
favor the development of aromatic flavors while retaining acidity. Sauvignon Blanc and Viura are also used.
Modern winemaking techniques, such as night harvesting and low-temperature fermentation under inert gas
to prevent contact with air, preserve the natural fruity aromas of these varieties. The result is fresh and light
wines, with aromas of peach and melon. They are best consumed when young although some, especially
those made with Sauvignon Blanc, can be aged in barrels. Traditional sherry-style wines are still made,
although it is a niche and declining market.

Ribera del Duero is a relatively new DO and includes some of the most prestigious red wines in the country.
Its vineyards are located on both banks of the river. The high quality of these wines is due to the altitude and
the rich calcareous soils in the best parts of this area. As in Rueda and Toro, the altitude favors summers
with hot days followed by cool nights. The result is that Tempranillo from Ribera del Duero has thicker,
darker skins, as well as higher levels of acidity, than Tempranillo from Rioja. The wines have a more intense
color and stronger, more astringent tannins, and a more evident blackberry and plum fruit character. The
best wines age very well in new French oak barrels and can be compared in style (and quality) to the Cru
Classé of the Médoc. In fact, Bordeaux varietals such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec and Merlot have
been grown alongside the traditional Tempranillo and Garnacha for over a century. However, with the
exception of Vega Sicilia, most of the best wines are made with 100% Tempranillo.

Vega Sicilia wines are aged for many years in small barrels, oak vats or cement tanks before being bottled.
This formula produces wines of intense complexity. For a long time, these wines were the most prestigious
and expensive in Spain. They now have competition from Priorat and the independent vineyards of the
“great expression” Riojas. For a long time Vega Sicilia was thought to be an exception and, for more than a
century, very little importance was given to the rest of the region. Since the 1980s, modern wineries have
demonstrated that they are capable of producing wines of similar quality for early bottling.

The Northwest (Galicia)

The exceptionally humid climate of the northern Atlantic coast does not seem ideal for promoting wine
production. However, Albariño (Vinho Verde in Portugal) is capable of producing wines of distinction that are
increasingly popular. Rías Baixas wines are distinguished by their peach flavour and high acidity. They are
light-bodied and sometimes a little CO2 is added, making them an ideal accompaniment to the seafood of
this region. The demand for these wines is very high locally, in the rest of Spain and worldwide. As a result,
these wines, when found, are not cheap.

Pg.126, photo: Vineyards supported by low pergolas and farms among the pine forests. Fornelos, Galicia
(DO Rías Baixas), Spain.

The Levant
The Levante is the region located on the Mediterranean coast south of Catalonia.

In times past, Valencia exported bulk wine of little reputation. However, there has been considerable
investment in the vineyards and wineries of this region, creating an image of simple, good quality,
reasonably priced wines. Many are simply table reds or whites made in a style that meets the needs of a
particular part of the market.

Until the mid-1980s, hybrids dominated, and low-quality local varieties still occupy the majority of plantations.
Recently Tempranillo has begun to gain importance in red wines, and Macabeo in white wines. There are
also experimental plantations of international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay,
especially in the Utiel-Requena region. A local specialty is Moscatel de Valencia, a highly perfumed sweet
wine that may or may not be fortified.

Further south, various DO red wines are produced, which are beginning to find their place in the international
market: these include Yecla and Jumilla. The grape that dominates these wines, of an intense dark colour,
is Monastrell, which favours an intense body, high alcohol content and aromas of black fruits with small

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notes of meat or liquorice.

Pg.127, map: Southern Spain.

The Plateau
Almost half of the total wine production in Spain comes from this vast central plateau. Many vineyards are
cultivated by small farmers and many of their products are vinified in cooperatives. La Mancha is the bastion
of the most widely planted white grape in the world, Airén. This may seem strange when you consider that
this grape is found in very few other parts of the world, and even in Spain. Most of the wine produced from
this grape is distilled and used for Brandy de Jerez. The climate is hot, dry and very continental. The vines
are planted far apart and grow so close to the ground that the leaves not only protect the fruit clusters but
also cool the surrounding soil. This helps preserve any moisture that may be in the soil, although irrigation
has been permitted since 1996. Traditionally, wine was stored in huge clay jars that were buried, leaving
only the neck visible. Before refrigeration existed, this was the best way to keep wine cool.

Now everything, or almost everything, is changing. Foreign investors have realized the potential of this
region and have changed the way things are done in the wineries. In the case of white wines, the grapes are
harvested fifteen days or more earlier than was done in the past. This results in wines with lower alcohol
levels and fresh acidity. In wine cellars, stainless steel is omnipresent and the preferred wines are the
fruitiest ones. Most of the funding comes from the EU, which has led to other varieties such as Tempranillo,
Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah coming to share Airén's extensive plantations. In addition to this, small
estates are producing excellent quality wines with a classification no higher than Vino de la Tierra, because
they have decided to use “foreign” varieties. Although this region is known primarily for its cheap but honest
wines, it also has some excellent, but expensive, ones.

Pg. 128, photo: Vines planted in a glass pattern and very far apart from each other in La Mancha in late
spring. Note the huge, flat and arid vineyards; Graphic: La Meseta.

Valdepeñas is located in the south of La Mancha. Its name literally means “valley of rocks or stones.” The
wines are mostly red, made with Tempranillo and sometimes a little Airén is added. The tradition is to age
them in old American oak barrels, although some young wines are now made with carbonic maceration.

CHAPTER 24
PORTUGAL

As far as wine production is concerned, Portugal's entry into the EU has come as a blessing. Funds have
been invested to modernize an industry that had been at a standstill under the dictatorship of Antonio
Salazar. Initially the funds were used to improve the wineries and their machinery; now the money is being
used to improve the vineyards. Indigenous grape varieties are gaining respect, and are now mentioned on
labels. Another advantage has been the loss of importance experienced by cooperative wineries while, at
the same time, individual ownership, or quinta, is gaining ground. As in many other countries, the quantity of
wine produced has decreased but the quality of the wine has increased.

Portugal has a range of indigenous varieties that are known by different names in different regions. What
can be even more confusing is that the same name can be used to describe different varietals depending on
the region where they are found. Apart from indigenous varieties, there is great flexibility in the production of
Vinhos Regionais (for example Vinho Regional Alentejano) which has resulted in an increase in plantings of
French varietals such as Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon. These are usually blended with local varietals.

CLIMATE
Although Portugal is a small country, it has great climatic diversity. The most important influence comes from
the Atlantic Ocean, and much of the country has a maritime climate with warm summers and cold, wet
winters. However, in the vineyards of the inland area (Douro, Dao, Alentejo/Alentejano), the climate is
continental; hot and dry. The large differences in rainfall and average temperatures from one year to another
partly favour the diversity of wine styles.

LAWS OF WINE
As in most other EU wine producing countries, in Portugal there are four different levels:

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Denominaçao de Origem Controlada (DOC), equivalent to APgellation Contrôlée.

Indication of Regulated Provenance (IPR), equivalent to VDQS.

Vinho regional, wine from the region, equivalent to Vin de Pays.

Table wine, table wine.

In 1999, wine legislation in Portugal was revised resulting in most wines with IPR status being upgraded to
DOC. All IPR and DOC wines are identified by a seal (Selo de Origem). Originally this seal came on the
neck of the bottle. Now it usually comes glued on a back label.

There are also Reserva and Garrafeira, which indicate potential additional quality. A Reserva must come
from a single harvest, which must be mentioned on the label, and must have passed through a tasting panel.
If it is a DOC wine, it must have a higher percentage of natural alcohol than the minimum established by the
DOC law. The term Garrafeira can be applied to all wines, not just those at DOC level. In addition to
meeting the necessary parameters to be a Reserve wine, red wines must be aged for at least two years in
barrels and an additional year in bottles. Garrafeira white wines must remain in barrels for a minimum of six
months and in bottles for a further six months.

REGIONS AND WINES

Northern Portugal
The Vinho Verde region is located north of the Douro River up to the Minho River on the border with Spain,
and extends approximately 90 kilometres from the interior to the coast. The weather is warm in the summer.
There is a lot of rain, especially in winter and to a lesser extent in summer and during the grape harvest
season. For this reason, vines have been planted that allow the bunches of grapes to be exposed to the air.
In ancient times, vines were hung from trees, and until the 1974 revolution, planting vineyards in the region
was prohibited. Recently, vines are planted using the double cordon system, while traditional vines use a
cross-trained cordon system with high training. Although Vinho Verde means the same as “green wine”, this
has nothing to do with the color of the wine. In fact, almost all wine production is red. The green color refers
to its youth, and traditionally it is the vintage that is consumed later. A wide range of grapes are used to
make wine, which vary according to the subregions, although the most important for white wines are
Loureiro and Paderna. This is where a Riesling with fresh aromas and acidity comes from. In the north of the
region, more expensive whites are made, often from individual estates, using the Albariño grape. These
wines have a higher alcohol level than other Vinhos Verdes, and have little or no CO2, although they are still
light and exhibit a green apple aromatic character. Even when fully ripe, these grapes tend to be low in
sugar and acidity. This means that the wines are low in alcohol and by law cannot exceed 11.5%, unless
they are made with Albariño. Traditionally, malolactic fermentation was allowed and the wine was bottled
after the harvest. This gave the wines a characteristic bubble. Nowadays malolactic fermentation is not
permitted, so to obtain that same characteristic bubble, CO2 is injected into the wine at the time of bottling.
For export markets, wines are often sweetened by the addition of some unfermented must. The final product
may be very different from the wine consumed within Portugal.

Pg.130, photo: Vines driven in a crossbar in Vinho Verde, with two vines on each pole; Graphic: Northern
Portugal.

The still wines of the Douro have long depended on the production of fortified port wines. By law, the mill
controls the amount of Port produced each harvest; grapes not used in production are used to make the still
wine of the Douro. The vineyards used to be the same, although now there are many vineyards that are not
used to make fortified wines. Since receiving DOC status in 1982, the reputation of these wines has grown
considerably and some of them are among the most prestigious and expensive in the country. The grapes
used in ancient times were usually the same as those used in Port. However, especially in the upper part of
the Douro Valley, varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc and Gewürztraminer have been
planted. The best reds, from vineyards dedicated to still wines, are balanced and fruity in body, sometimes
with the typical aroma of Port wines, with firm tannins and fresh acidity. As with Port, viticulture is labor-
intensive and expensive. The delicate fruit is treated with great care, resulting in wines of extremely high
quality. Whites, especially those from high vineyards, can stand out for their very fresh fruit and acidity.

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Pg.131, photo: Huge bunches of Loureiro grapes used to make Vinho Verde; photo: Terraces in the Douro
Valley.

The Dao region is located south of the Douro, about 80 kilometres inland, and takes its name from one of
the tributaries of the Mondego River. The vineyards are located between 200 and 400 metres above sea
level on a plateau with granite soil. They are protected on all sides by mountains, which makes the area drier
than the coast. Since the mid-1990s, wines have gone from being boring and heavy to having much more
fruit character. The individual potential of grape varieties such as Jaén, which ripens early and produces
fruity wines, and Touriga Nacional for ageing wines, is beginning to be exploited. Wines made from Jaén are
usually red, intense in colour, fruity and with lower tannins and acidity than most Portuguese red wines.
Touriga Nacional and Tinta Roriz (Tempranillo) are used to add tannins, acidity and fruit concentration. The
best whites are balanced in body, with plenty of nutty notes, and are made from the Encruzado grape.

The name Bairrada comes from the Portuguese word bairro (mud), since in this area the soils are mostly
very muddy and very calcareous. This area is located between the Dao and the sea, north of the university
city of Coimbra. Most of the wine is red and made from the local Baga grape, whose individual style is very
similar to the Nebbiolo of Piedmont. Traditionally, these wines were fermented with the stems, took a long
time to reach their peak and needed to be decanted before serving. The more modern style wines are still
very tannin and acidic, but they denote more red fruit and pepper. 15% of total production is white wine. It is
produced mostly with Bical grapes, which have high acidity. When the grapes are very ripe, these wines
exhibit a fantastic exotic peach perfume, which becomes more toasty as the wine ages.

Pg.132, chart: Southern Portugal; Photo: Portugal is the largest supplier of cork for wine bottles. These trees
have had their bark removed.

Southern Portugal
Ribatejo DOC, or “Ribera del Tajo” is a recent DO that includes most of the vineyards on the river's alluvial
plains and which usually produce high yields. Fernao Pires is widely grown in this area and produces large
quantities of neutral white wine for the local market. The wines exported are mostly red, made with
traditional Portuguese grapes, such as Castelao Frances, and with a selection of international varietals. With
controlled yields, Castelao Frances can produce wines with fresh acidity, raspberry and firm tannins; as
yields increase, the wines lose body and become austere.

Alentejo DOC is an important wine region located southeast of Lisbon and extending towards the Spanish
border. In addition to vineyards, it is a very important region for its cork oaks. The climate is continental, with
little rainfall and hot summers. The soils are predominantly a mixture of clay and sand mixed with granite
and rock fragments. The most important quality grape is Trincadeira, which produces wines with notes of
plum, chocolate and coffee that are enhanced when aged in oak. Wine made from Aragonez grapes can be
used in blends or can be bottled separately.

Roupeiro and Antao Vaz make full-bodied white wines with honey notes, with low acidity that is sometimes
heightened when combined with the fresh and aromatic Arinto (the same as Paderna de Vinho Verde).
Some more ambitious wines are fermented or aged in oak to give them more depth and complexity.

Pg.133, photo: “Tintajas” used to store wine in Alentejo.

Regional Wines and Table Wines

There has been much expansion in the Vinho Regional category, particularly in the Alentejano area,
although Vinos Regionales are exported from the Terras do Sado, south of Lisbon, and Beiras, which
includes the Bairrada and Dao DOC areas in the north. Winegrowers in this region are experimenting with
blends made from foreign grape varietals such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah.

Over the years, Portugal has had great success in international markets with its rosé wines, which are
usually slightly sweet with a slight spicy note on the tongue.

In the United States, these wines are known as “crackling rosés.” These are simply table wines. The style
(sparkling/still, sweet/dry) is chosen according to the particular demand of an export market.

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CHAPTER 25
GREECE AND CYPRUS, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND NORTH AFRICA

Greece has probably benefited more than any other country from its entry into the EU, as this has brought
with it the modernisation of its wine industry, keeping an eye both on the past and the future. Fashionable
grapes have been introduced from Western Europe, but plantings of traditional varietals, cultivated since
classical times, have also spread. A small number of large traders dominate the industry, although there
are also some boutique wineries with foreign-trained winemakers who are producing excellent wines.

GREECE
In the mountainous areas and islands of Greece, land for vineyards is scarce and expensive. Still, only
half of the grapes are used in wine production, the rest are consumed as table grapes and raisins. Many
Greek wines, especially those aimed at the domestic market, remain very traditional in their style. An
example is the classic Retsina, a wine flavoured with pine resin and mentioned by writers as early as the
3rd century BC. Authentic Retsina is a white wine made from Savatiano and Rhoditis grapes (some rosé is
also made). Pine resin, extracted from local trees, is added to the wine when it is still young and removed
during the first racking; by then the wine has already acquired its distinctive character. The term
Traditional APgellacion (TA) is used to designate Retsina in Greek wine law, and has been incorporated
into EU law, although it is a production method rather than a geographical description. Other wine laws
have been adapted to the EU regime, and French has been adopted as the international language.

There are two terms for Quality Wines:

APgellation d'Origine de Qualité Supérieure (AOQS) applies to light wines. There are 20 regions with
this classification.

APgellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) applies to liqueur wines. There are eight different regions with
this classification. They are made mainly from dried Muscat grapes, or the red Mavrodaphne.

Apart from these, the Vin de Pays category is very important in the case of international varieties and
wines produced in non-traditional styles. The total production of Quality Wines and Vins de Pays remains
low, although it is gradually increasing. Most wine is table wine.

Northern Greece
In the regions of Macedonia the climate is distinctly cool and many of the vineyards are planted at high
altitudes. This is a region for the production of red wine, with Naoussa being the most important
appellation. The Xinomavro grape is capable of producing wines with strong tannins, high acidity, and
complex aromas and flavors reminiscent of Barolo. It is also blended with international varietals to make
local Vins de Pays. Interesting Vins de Pays are also being made in the Côtes de Meliton region, on the
west side of the peninsula near Mount Athos. Red, white and rosé wines are made here from blends of
Greek and international varietals.

The Peloponnese Peninsula

The Peloponnese region contributes to one third of Greek wine production. Its vineyards are free of
phylloxera. Nemea produces a red wine exclusively from the Agiorgitiko grape, which comes from
vineyards at an altitude of 250 m. The Mediterranean climate contributes to short, mild winters with
generally hot summers, so the best vineyards face north and are located at a certain altitude to ensure
cooler growing conditions. Precipitation typically occurs between fall and spring, a small amount of water
falls in winter, and summers are dry. Even with vineyards at high altitude, the wines are smooth, low in
acidity and with rich, spicy fruit.

Pg. 135, photo: Looking towards the town of Naoussa and Mount Vermio. View from Ktima Kyr- Yianni,
Yanakohori, Naoussa, Macedonia, Greece; photo (below left): Close up view of a very old Assyrtico
vineyard in Santorini. The basket-type training system helps protect the vines from strong winds; Photo:
Old vineyards in Santorini.

The Islands
Santorini is a powerful, dry white wine made from the Assyrtiko grape. It is considered the highest quality
wine from this area. This variety retains its acidity even when the grape is very ripe, produces wines with a

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perfume similar to the exquisite Viognier and contains mineral flavors from volcanic soils. Many of the
vineyards are very old, and the vines are wound like ropes to withstand the strong winds. The yields are
low and the effort involved in working the vineyards is not usually rewarded with the prices obtained.
Unfortunately, the local tourist industry is destroying the vineyards so that resorts can be built in their
place.

In terms of volume, Crete is the most important of the islands and its wine industry is undergoing a much-
needed renewal. At the moment it seems that only their Vins de Pays reach international markets.
Cephalonia also produces internationally renowned wines from the Robola variety. These wines are
medium-bodied, with fresh acidity and citrus.

CYPRUS
The only wine with a historical or international reputation is Commandaria. This fortified wine takes its
name from the Grande Commanderie established by the Knights Templar, who are credited with having
made this wine known during the time of the Crusades. Commandaria, once considered one of the best
wines in the world, was, in January 1963, the first Cypriot wine to be granted quality wine status in the EU.
It is made from sun-dried bunches of grapes. Before fermentation is complete, liquor is added to the must
and then it is aged under the solera system.

Cyprus, along with Chile, claims to be a phylloxera-free country, but this has led to them being reluctant to
experiment with imported varietals. The plantations are dominated by the local black Mavro and the white
Xynisteri varieties, which cover 90% of the surface and produce greyish wines. Much of the production is
converted into concentrated musts (mainly for the British market), liqueur wines or brandy. Basic wines are
also sold in Eastern European markets.

Fortunately, the government is aware of the decline that the wine industry is going through and for this
reason more interesting varietals such as Garnacha and Cariñena are being planted. The majority of the
vineyards consist of goblet vines planted on the southern slopes of the Troodos Mountains. The grapes
are sold to one of four main wineries.

Pg.136, photo: Many vineyards in Cyprus are planted at high altitude in the Troodos Mountains and
benefit from cooler temperatures. Mavro vines are usually trained in goblet formation.

LEBANON
Wine production in Lebanon is concentrated in the Bekaa Valley where vineyards are located at an
altitude of around 1,000 meters. Here, grape varieties tend to come mostly from the south of France,
although there are significant cultivations of Cabernet Sauvignon. More and more winemakers are making
quality red wines inspired by Bordeaux, but exhibiting more maturity and exotic spices. The wines range
from classic Cabernet Sauvignon blends, with cedar and cassis flavors, to powerful, full-bodied wines with
leather and balsamic aromas. The style varies depending on the winemaker and the vintage.

White wines are also made. Styles also vary, from smooth varietal wines to deliberately oxidized, golden-
colored, nutty-flavored wines.

Pg.137 photo: Vineyards in the Beka'a Valley, Lebanon

ISRAEL
Israel's modern industry began in the late 19th century, when many Jews returned to the country and
Baron Rothschild donated a large sum of money to plant vineyards as part of an agricultural development
program. Of the five defined regions, the most important in exporting quality wines is Samaria, which
includes Mount Carmel. 80% of production is in the hands of just three wineries, although there are now
more than 90 mostly small wineries.

Kosher wines must follow the following specifications:

• The vineyard must be in its fourth year before its grapes are used to make wine.
• The vineyard must be left to rest every seven years. (this only applies to vineyards on biblical
lands).
• Vineyards cannot be shared with any other crops.

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 • From the moment the harvested grapes arrive at the winery, they may only be handled by Jews
who observe the Sabbath, and the machinery used in production, aging and bottling must be
made from Kosher materials. (In the case of Kosher wines produced in the USA, France, South
Africa and other countries, this is the only rule that must be strictly observed.)

In order to be considered Kosher for Passover, the wine cannot come into contact with any bread or
dough. Meshuval is wine that has been boiled or pasteurized, making it sufficiently altered to be safe for
use in non-Jewish religious rituals.

NORTH AFRICA
During the time when North Africa was under French rule, two-thirds of the wine produced worldwide
came from this region. Independence brought with it a period of hibernation for the industries of Morocco,
Algeria and Tunisia, from which they are only now beginning to emerge. Of the three countries, Morocco is
the one that seems to have the best future. The vineyards are located at an altitude of over 500 metres
and are blown by the fresh Atlantic wind. Many of the vineyards have old vine plantations and there is an
appellation system with 14 classification regions. Traditional Carignan and Cinsault grapes are now joined
with Bordeaux and Rhône varietals. In Tunisia, there has also been recent investment in winery
equipment. The best wines come from the coastal vineyards near Tunisia, where powerful reds and
Muscats, both sweet and dry, are produced. Algeria, once the largest producer of the three, seems to
have fallen behind with very low production. The state monopoly, which controls the industry, claims to
have established large new plantations of international varietals.

CHAPTER 26
SOUTH AFRICA

When we talk about New World wines, we must not forget that South Africa has been making wine for
about 350 years. The first vines were planted in 1654 at the Cape, which was a supply station for the
Dutch East India Company. In 1688, about 150 Huguenots, fleeing persecution in France, arrived in South
Africa. Many of them were skilled in winemaking and established a colony in what is now known as
Franschoek. During that time, Governor Simon van der Stel was planting his own vineyards in Constantia,
in the shadow of Table Mountain. Historically most of the grapes planted in South Africa were used in the
production of brandy and fortified wines. There are currently some 108,000 hectares of vineyards, with
only one-ninth planted specifically with grapes for distillation, although many of the other plantings can be
considered dual-purpose. In addition to the use of grapes in the production of Brandy, there is also a large
proportion used for grape juice and grape concentrate.

LAWS OF WINE
Wine legislation in South Africa dates back to 1973, and is known as Wine of Origin. A bottle receives a
certification seal on the label only after it has been tasted by an independent panel, this guarantees the
veracity of the information appearing on the label. If a vintage is specified, 75% of the wine must come
from that particular year. If a variety (known locally as a cultivar) is specified, 75% must consist of that
variety. The variety and vintage specified must make up 85% of the wine for those sold in the EU, but
100% of the grapes must come from the specified production area. The smallest production area
recognised within the Wine of Origin legislation is the Estate (see the Producers section). Groups of farms
form Wards (such as Franschoek, Constantia), which are grouped into Districts (Paarl, Stellenbosch,
Overberg). The largest area of recognized production is the Region. Not all Districts are part of a Region,
and not all Wards are part of a District. This results in the production boundaries of each area being very
confusing. For example, the “Coastal Region” which covers almost the entire area, creates many
combination options as it includes wards in the Paarl and Stellenbosch districts, in addition to the
Constantia ward (which does not belong to any district).

Pg.13, map: South Africa.

PRODUCERS
The wine trade in South Africa has historically been controlled by a large cooperative, KWV, established in
1918 with the intention of creating stability at a time of chronic overproduction. She became so powerful
that she oversaw all sales of all wines at all levels. Recently, this cooperative has been privatized and has
to compete with other producers. This appears to have revived trade, although it also means that

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winegrowers no longer have a guaranteed price for their grapes. The result is that this will lead to an
improvement in quality.

There are now three types of wine producers in South Africa. First there are the cooperative wineries,
which are responsible for most of the wine produced. They have recently invested a lot of capital in
machinery. Some of them market their own wines, while others sell them in bulk to large merchants.
Recent developments have led to a rapid expansion in the number of estate wineries. These can only
produce wines from grapes grown on their own land, and many of them already have a well-established
reputation. Finally, there are a small number of independent wholesalers who purchase grapes and wines
to sell under their own labels. They also distribute wines to a certain number of wineries on estates on an
exclusive basis.

CLIMATE
In general, the climate is Mediterranean and very suitable for wine production. In the ocean, the cold
Benguela Current has a cooling effect that extends far into the interior. Irrigation is necessary in regions
with little rainfall. In recent years, vineyard plantations have expanded to completely new areas. These
include cooler areas near the coast, on both sides of the Cape of Good Hope.

GRAPE VARIETIES
Recently, the demand for red wine has outstripped demand and the local wine industry is focusing more
on noble red grape varietals that have a high global demand. Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are used
in varietal wines and in elegant Bordeaux-style blends. Where the soils are rich in iron, Merlot is capable
of creating very dark wines, with plum notes, very similar to those of Pomerol. Syrah is also grown with
great success and produces intense, berry-flavored, full-bodied wines, as well as elegant, peppery whites.
There are extensive cultivations of Cinsaut (in South Africa it is spelled with the 'l') which is used to add
savoury flavours to blends, although it can also appear alone. Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault) produces
wines of different styles. It is sometimes blended with international varietals, as part of a “Cape Blend.” On
its own, typical Pinotage has berry fruit, and wines from old cluster vines can be full-bodied, rich in berry
fruit and spice. Some wines show notes of meat, rubber, banana and even nail polish remover. These
somewhat wild flavors, when not dominant, can make for an attractively complex wine. Pinotage is
certainly a variety whose limits are still being explored.

White wines still contribute just over half of production, and a fifth of the vineyards are planted with Chenin
Blanc, known locally as Steen. Although the importance of this variety has declined, growers are now
taking advantage of its versatility by producing, as in the Loire Valley, great wines in both sweet and dry
styles. Barrel fermentation and aging help give these wines more body and toasted oak flavors.
Chardonnay has demonstrated the ability to make wines of exceptional quality, especially in cool
locations. Burgundian techniques such as barrel fermentation and less stirring can contribute to the
character of these wines. Sauvignon Blanc is also grown with great success, demonstrating a range of
styles. Some are light, fresh and full of herbaceous characters. Others take advantage of oak to add
structure and complexity, and are able to develop nutty and vegetal flavors in the bottle. Muscat of
Alexandria (known here as Hanepoot) has the ability to make amazing dessert wines, including the
resurrected Vin de Constance.

Pg. 140, photo: Klein Constantia with False Bay in the background.

REGIONS AND WINES

South African vineyards are divided in descending order of size into regions, districts and wards. In total
there are five regions (three of which are in the Cape), 16 districts and almost 50 wards. There is also the
term Western Cape, which covers all vineyards in the Cape and is a name that allows wines from a single
varietal to be mixed with those from different regions and sold in the EU.

Coastal Region
In the case of good wines, the most important area is the coastal region. Constantia, the oldest district,
has a small number of prestigious vineyards and is located in the outer suburbs of Cape Town. In the
opposite direction are the hills of the Durbanville district. Both areas are influenced by the nearby sea,
which provides ideal conditions for the production of Cabernet Sauvignon wines. These wines display a
wide spectrum of aromas. Further inland is the Stellenbosch district, which lies at the heart of the quality
wine-producing area. Here the climate is a little warmer and the soils are granite and sandstone. Different

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types of international varietals are found here, although this area is best known for its red wines made
from Bordeaux and Pinotage varietals. It is also the headquarters of the National Wine Research Institute.
Paarl is warmer, and is where the KWV wineries and offices are located, as well as other important farms.
A few miles east of Cape Town, in the Overberg district, the Walker Bay ward includes the Hemel-en-
Aarde valley, where the country's finest Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are produced.

Breede River Valley Region

Above Bain Kloof Pass is the Breede River valley, which has a considerably warmer climate and is home
to the two major districts of Worcester and Robertson.

Pg.141, photo: Chardonnay vineyards in front of the Simonsig Mountains.

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CHAPTER 27
AUSTRALIA

Upon his arrival in 1788, the first Governor of New South Wales recognised the potential that existed in
wine production. Since the first plantings took place, vineyards have spread to all states of the
Commonwealth, including the Northern Territory. The transformation of the image of Australian wines has
been very rapid. It has been a long time since it was known as a producer of Port and Sherry style wines.
Today it is known in many markets as a major producer of quality wines. This progress was due to a
strong investment (from Australia and abroad), which brought with it the planting of vineyards and the
construction of wineries with the most modern machinery. This expansion has occurred at great speed,
which in turn has meant problems. Australia is yet another country suffering from periods of wine gluts in
an oversupplied market. However, competitiveness in the international market is much more important for
Australia than for any other wine producing nation, because the domestic market is comparatively small
and static. In 1984, export sales were 4% of production and now they are more than half. The combination
of affordable pricing, consistent quality and supply of different styles of wine has led Australia to make
inroads into new markets. However, the sale of wines at very aggressive prices threatens the long-term
viability of the Australian wine industry: Australia's largest wine producer was almost driven out of business
by its pricing policy in European markets; they were producing too much wine that they were forced to sell
at prices that were too low.

The success of Australian wines, like other New World wines, is due to a combination of factors that can
probably be summed up in the word “certainty”. By selling a varietal instead of a region, they help the
inexperienced consumer by giving them a clear idea of what to expect. As they gain more knowledge, they
can learn more about the other factors that go into creating the flavor of a wine. Most New World
producers understand that in the age of supermarkets, a bottle has to sell itself. Presentation is very
important: the product must stand out and be noticed by the supermarket consumer. Informative labels
have also contributed to the attraction of New World wines. It's not that they are better than the wines that
the consumer already knows, but that they offer something different and exciting.

What advantages do New World producers have over the rest? To begin with, in many cases land is
cheap. In fact, in parts of Australia (and also in Argentina) there is one for those who want to plant. Apart
from land at a good price, there must be enough water for growing vines. If there is enough rain, land is
unlikely to be cheap. It would be naive to think that land in the New World is always cheap. There are
areas of Australia where wine-growing land is as expensive as in many parts of France. In many cases the
vineyards have been planted in such a way as to take full advantage of the sophisticated machinery that
has been developed. Economies of scale are very important in most New World wine production.

The main complaint that Old World producers have against their New World colleagues is that wine
legislation is too liberal. The main problem, however, is that Europe is tied down by too many rules, which
are often designed to control production and keep prices high. Let's take the case of irrigation as an
example. Until recently it was banned within the EU, except for the creation of new vineyards. The fact is
that in many parts of Europe it is difficult to make good wines without the help of irrigation. It is now
allowed, albeit with strict restrictions. In the EU, the only permitted method of adding oak flavours to wine
is through barrel ageing. In the New World this can be achieved much more cheaply by using oak
shavings or staves. Should new techniques for producing better wines at lower prices be rejected simply
because they are new? It would be a shame if these techniques were used for the great wines of
Bordeaux and Burgundy, but there is little reason why they cannot be used in the case of Vins de Pays.
On the other hand, chaptalization is widely practiced in Europe; in the New World it is generally prohibited
(although it must be said that it is rarely necessary).

Finally, there is the question of mindset. For many European producers, tradition is the most important
thing. The New World winemaker approaches production without being influenced by traditions and ideals,
he simply makes wine in the most correct way. The importance of Australian wine production can be seen
by the large number of “flying winemakers” who roam the world’s vineyards seeking new experiences and
spreading the gospel of Australian wines: “quality control”.

CLIMATE, TOPOGRAPHY AND SOILS

Comparatively, Australia's landmass is small enough to grow vines. Most vineyards are planted near the

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coast or are located in the large Murray-Darling valleys where irrigation water is available. However, as in
other countries, boundaries are expanding, particularly with vineyards in cooler areas, and this is leading
to increased plantings in places like Tasmania and higher-altitude sites on the mainland.

It is very easy, and dangerous, to generalise about Australia, but generally the climate is Mediterranean.
There is little difference between the different vintages of a wine from south-east Australia (the most
common geographical ___location listed on labels), as the area in which the wines for blending are produced
is very large. However, there are large differences between areas and each one has to plan its harvest.
Harvest usually takes place between February and April, although it can extend into May in cooler regions.

Pg.143, map: Australia.

One distinction often made between wine production in Europe and the New World, particularly Australia,
is that European quality wine is determined by terroir, or the desire to express its origin, while the New
World winemaker uses technology to create quality, regardless of origin. This is a missimplification in both
cases. It is true that, as far as we understand, the reasons why great wines are made in certain traditional
sites are explained by the influence of physical characteristics, such as the availability of sufficient (but not
excessive) water, heat, sunlight and nutrients. It is also true that some techniques such as sophisticated
irrigation programs and control of leaf mass (to create coolness and shade for ripening grapes) can
simulate some of the advantages of more traditional sites. Some adjustments, such as adding acids or
tannins to the must, can correct many deficiencies of the raw material used in wine production. The limits
that science can have when it comes to improving the quality of wines are still unknown. Despite all this, to
say that terroir is unimportant in Australia would not be correct. Many wines are made in specific places or
regions that display typical characteristics of the area. Some of these features are described in the
regional sections that follow. It should be noted that many South-Eastern Australia blends are exactly that:
blends that carefully combine elements from several regions, each with different characteristics, and each
contributing to the balance and complexity of the final product. If terroir wasn't truly important, there would
be no need for multi-region blends, and there would be no need to pay extra for fruit from prestigious
areas like Coonawarra and McLaren Vale.

GRAPE VARIETIES
Approximately 90 grape varieties are grown commercially in Australia. In total there are more than 150,000
hectares of vineyards and there are eight red varieties and eight white varieties with more than 1,000
hectares. These are, in descending order of importance, reds:

Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Ruby Cabernet, Grenache, Mataro (Mourvèdre) and
Cabernet Franc; in whites: Chardonnay, Sultana (Thompson Seedless), Semillon, Riesling, Muscat
Gordo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Colombard and Verdelho. (Those in bold are quality varietal wines
while the others are used in bulk wine production.)

The classic Australian red variety is Shiraz. For many years it was not fashionable and there was an
oversupply. Unfortunately, many very old, low-yield vineyards were destroyed during the “grubbing-up”
plan of the 1980s. The remaining old vines are very valuable, as the age of the vine is considered to be a
contributing factor to the quality of Shiraz wines. Warm regions such as the Hunter and Barossa Valleys
produce a soft, spicy style wine that develops leather and caramel notes as it ages. In cooler regions such
as Margaret River, Western Victoria and the Central Range area of New South Wales, a finer, pepperier
style of wine is produced. These qualities can be combined in a blend from different regions. Shiraz is also
used to add softness and lightness to blends with Cabernet Sauvignon, playing a similar role to Merlot in
Bordeaux. Historically, this allowed a wine with the characteristics of Cabernet Sauvignon to be produced
in larger quantities at lower prices. Today this mixture survives thanks to its own merits. (It should be noted
that in the 19th century, Syrah from Hermitage was added to the best Bordeaux wines to give them more
body and flavour.) Shiraz-Viognier blends, following the example of Côte-Rôtie, are becoming increasingly
common. Viognier contributes to the aromatic complexity and texture of the blend. This has inspired
experimentation with blending Shiraz with other white varieties.

Australian Cabernet Sauvignon is typically darker, with firmer tannins and higher acidity than Australian
Shiraz. It can appear as a blend, either with Shiraz or with Merlot. Both add complementary flavors and
result in a smoother wine. Australian Cabernet Sauvignon typically displays ripe dark fruit characters
(currants, black cherries), often accompanied by toasted and oak notes. Classic regions include

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Coonawarra and Margaret River.

Pg.144, photo: “Potter Fermentation Tanks”. Huge fermentation vessels at McLaren Vale.

Ten years ago the most popular grape in Australia was Chardonnay. This grape is grown in all regions
where there are vineyards and is made in a variety of styles. Much of the Australian Chardonnay is
blended in these regions and includes components that give different types of aromas (peach, melon, fig,
banana), and varying degrees of oak, lees and malolactic flavours. Most Australian Chardonnay goes
through some oak, either through the use of chips, staves or fermentation and barrel ageing. However,
unaoaked Chardonnays are becoming increasingly common. It is also very common to mix Chardonnay
with Semillon. The reason for this is commercial (a wine with the broad characteristics of Chardonnay can
give more when blended with Semillon and greater quantity is achieved). Semillon can also add fresh
acidity and refreshing herbal notes to the blend.

Many of the best Australian white wines are made from Riesling. These typically have strong citrus (lime,
lemon, grapefruit) when young, developing notes of toast, honey and petroleum as they age. The wines
are not oaked and are generally dry or slightly semi-dry, although sweet wines are also made. Classic
regions include the Eden and Clare Valleys in South Australia.

Good dry wines are made from Semillon but they are not very appreciated. It is widely planted, but the
classic region is the lower Hunter Valley, whose dry Semillons are light-bodied, with fresh acidity and
flavours that are initially fairly neutral but which, when aged in bottle, evolve into complex flavours of toast,
nuts and honey. In Western Australia, a much more herbaceous style is made that could be confused with
a Sauvignon Blanc.

Fashion plays a huge role in Australian vineyards, perhaps more so than anywhere else in the world.
Areas where individual varieties are grown may change due to new cultivars, but in Australia grafting onto
mature vines is used to achieve a rapid transition. Most vineyards are usually very young and use the wire
conduction system, which makes harvesting and caring for them with machines easier. However, for a
surprisingly high number of varieties, the oldest vines are found in Australia. Many of these ungrafted
goblet vines are over a century old and are located in South Australia, where there is no phylloxera.

WINE LAWS AND THE LABEL INTEGRITY PROGRAM

Although there is a long tradition in Australia of using terms such as Burgundy, Claret, Chablis and Hock
on wine labels for the domestic market, an agreement has been reached with the EU for the few such
terms still in use to be phased out.

Pg.145, Chart: Australia.

In late 1993, the Geographical Indications (GI) Committee was established, whose role is to “determine
geographical indications for wine in relation to regions and localities in Australia”. Australian GIs are not
appellations in the strictest sense, as they do not specify grape varieties, viticulture methods, yields or
wine styles in the same way that appellations in Europe do. Such stipulations are seen as limiting
experimentation and progress, especially given the short time Australian growers have had to test different
varietals. GI legislation is part of the Label Integrity Program, which ensures the validity of the information
appearing on the bottle. If regions, varietals or vintages are specified, then 85% of the wine must come
from those regions, varietals or vintages. The quality and style of a wine is left to the consumer, who is
unlikely to buy a second bottle if he has not enjoyed the first; and to the producer, who will have to face the
financial consequences if he is unable to sell the product. While vintages and varietals are easy to
determine, regional boundaries have caused controversy. A hierarchy has been created with zones and
regions that can be used in labels to indicate the geographic ___location.

Within the EU, wines that have been blended from several regions cannot be sold as quality wines and
therefore do not have the right to specify the vintage or varietals. Grape variety is very important in the
marketing of many Australian wines. The South East zone covers approximately 95% of total Australian
wine production and was designed with the idea of enabling blending for wines labelled with the varietals
sold in the EU.

Below this, each state is a zone, and within each state, there will be more zones. These in turn can have a

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number of regions. For example, Coonawarra is a region within the Coastal Limestone Zone, which is
located in South Australia, which in turn is located in southeastern Australia. So a Coonawarra wine can
be paired with a Padthaway wine and say it comes from the Limestone Coast, with one from the Barossa
Valley and say it comes from South Australia, or with one from the Hunter Valley and say it comes from
South East Australia.

All of this has resulted in wines labelled as originating in south-east Australia dominating among high-
volume brands, as well as the virtual disappearance of places like the Hunter Valley from export markets.
It is also worth noting that some long-established production areas, such as Sunraysia in New South
Wales, are not accepted as zone or regional names.

SOUTHEAST AUSTRALIA
The largest fruit producing areas for Australia's major brands are the Riverland in the south, Murray-
Darling in Victoria and Riverina in New South Wales. The blend of wine components from regions such as
Barossa, Adelaide Hills or McLaren Vale can enhance these wines. The selection of components in a
blend will depend on the varietals, the desired style and the price sought. Some of Australia's most
prestigious and expensive wines take advantage of the blending opportunities allowed by this appellation.

Pg. 146, map: South-eastern Australia.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA
South Australia produces almost 43% of the total, has no phylloxera and has very strict quarantine rules
regarding the movement of plants. The vineyards are concentrated in the southeast of the state.

Lower Murray Area

The vast, irrigated vineyards of the Riverland Region supply large quantities of fruit for bulk wine
production. The fruit from this area is without exception healthy and of good quality, since this is a dry
area, there are few problems with rot or mold. This creates ideal conditions for organic viticulture, but the
warm conditions also cause the grapes to reach their sugar ripeness level before they have had a chance
to develop sufficient flavor.

Barossa area
The Barossa Valley is located north of the state capital, Adelaide, and is about 30 kilometres long and
produces fine wines. In the mid-19th century, German immigrants from Silesia settled in this area. The
small towns among the vineyards still retain a distinctively German character. The soils in the lower part of
the valley are made up of minerals with a high iron content (ironstone) and are calcareous. In the warm
climate, the old bush vines produce excellent Shiraz, Garnacha, Mataro and Cabernet Sauvignon. Classic
Barossa Shiraz is a balanced, smooth, spicy, full-bodied wine that develops leathery aromas as it ages.
Exceptional Rieslings are made in the cooler vineyards on the surrounding hills, especially in the Eden
Valley region. These are medium-bodied, dry or slightly semi-dry and high in acidity. When young they
have citrus notes of lime that turn to oil, honey and toast as they age.

Mount Lofty Range Area

The specialty of the Clare Valley Region, which lies north of the Barossa, is also Riesling. These tend to
be lighter bodied and more austere in style than those from the Eden Valley, due to the cooler climate.
They also age extremely well. Just east of Adelaide lies the Adelaide Hills Region, a cool climate region
that specializes in making Chardonnays of great elegance. These have high levels of natural acids and a
very intense fragrant fruit of nectarines and lemons. The region is also known for the good reputation of its
Sauvignon Blanc.

Fleurieu Peninsular Zone

To the south lies the McLaren Vale Region, where breezes from the nearby ocean soothe the climate.
Reds made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz and, more recently, Merlot dominate. In all three cases the
style accentuates very soft and juicy fruit, with bold aromas on the palate. Very close by, the Langhorne
Creek Region produces a Shiraz with notes of earth and countryside, and a good mouthfeel.

Limestone Coast Area

Far south-east of Adelaide, almost 400 kilometres away, not far from the border with Victoria, lies what is
known as the Limestone Coast. The climate is quite cold, as it is influenced by the cold currents of

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Antarctica. The best known wine region is the Coonawarra Region. This area consists of a narrow strip of
land, 1.5 km. for 15 km, with a reddish soil, terra rossa, on a calcareous subsoil. Cabernet Sauvignon
reigns supreme here. There are similar soils, and wines, in the Padthaway Region.

Pg. 147, Photo: Lush vineyards in the cool climate of the Adelaide Hills; Photo: A section of Coonawarra
soils. The iron-rich soil is located on a calcareous soil with good drainage. The structures seen in the
background are fermentation tanks.

VICTORY
Historically, Victoria's vineyards were the most important in all of Australia, but most were destroyed by
phylloxera and never replanted. However, it has now overtaken New South Wales in production and
accounts for more than a quarter of total production. One of the interesting things about Victoria is the
wide diversity of wines it offers.

North West Victoria Area

In the northwest of the state are the vineyards of the Murray-Darling Region, which produce bulk wines.
Together with the Riverland in South Australia and the Riverina in New South Wales, this irrigated inland
region provides large quantities of healthy fruit that form part of most south-eastern Australian blends.

North East Victoria Area

Just beyond the Murray River is the Rutherglen Region, world-renowned for its Liqueur Muscats and
Tokays (these are covered in Chapter 36).

Port Phillip Area

The city of Melbourne is situated on Port Phillip Bay, and Port Phillip is the name of the area surrounding
the bay, with several individual areas. Of these areas, the best known is the Yarra Valley Region, which
stretches from the northeastern suburbs of the city. The climate is quite cool and receives more than 1,000
mm of rain per year. The soils vary from a mixture of clay and sand to very fertile, reddish and volcanic
soil. The specialty here is Pinot Noir, although there is also plenty of Chardonnay and Cabernet
Sauvignon, as well as excellent sparkling wine. Pinot Noirs from this region tend to be full-bodied and rich
in fruit, but they don't contain the jammy, baked flavors that Pinot Noirs acquire when grown in warm
regions. The Chardonnays exhibit citrus characters and fresh acidity. Cabernet Sauvignon and its blends
have firm tannins and notable acidity. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are also specialties of the Morington
Peninsula region, south of the city. This is mainly an area of small farms, with the sea on three sides,
which gives an extremely maritime climate.

Victoria Central Area

The Goulburn Valley Region produces robust Shiraz and Cabernet wines. It also produces whites from
Rhône varietals such as Marsanne, Roussanne and Viognier, as well as a delicate, age-worthy Riesling.

Western Victoria Area

This area includes the Pyrenees and Grampians. Powerful, highly tannic Shiraz wines come from here.
The altitude makes temperatures cooler and this results in wines with high levels of acidity, and more
peppery spice than other Australian Shiraz wines. There is also a long tradition of sparkling wines in this
area.

NEW SOUTH WALES

In terms of production, this area is in third place, after Victoria. The most important wine is the one that
comes from the Hunter Valley, which is about 160 km away. north of Sydney, inland from the city of
Newcastle.

Hunter Valley Area

The valley is divided in two, with most production concentrated in the Lower Hunter Valley. Here the
vineyards share space with the coal mines. The best soils are a type of volcanic rock. This region has a
difficult climate, with more than 750 mm of rain falling throughout the year, including during the grape
harvest, which can make rot a major problem. Phylloxera is also present. Despite all this, a large number
of important wineries are based in the Lower Hunter. They are believed to have achieved their success
thanks to their proximity to Sydney and a thriving tourist industry. Apart from this, much wine is imported
from elsewhere to counteract the lack of consistency from year to year in the quality of Hunter Valley

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wines. The grapes that stand out in this area are Semillon and Shiraz. Semillons are harvested early and
have low sugar levels and high acidity. The wines have a low alcohol content and when first bottled have
an almost neutral taste. As they age in the bottle they develop extraordinary honey and toasted flavors.
Hunter Valley Shiraz is usually very smooth. About 60 km. To the north are the vineyards of the Upper
Hunter Valley. Here the climate is drier and there is generally irrigation in the vineyards. Here, one
company dominates, just like one grape: Chardonnay.

Central Mountain Range Zone

In the inner Sydney area, on the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, are the three regions of
Mudgee, Orange and Cowra. In all three areas, the cool climate produces highly concentrated
Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Big Rivers Zone

In the interior of the central mountain range there are two bulk producing regions: the Murray-Darling,
where the two rivers meet, and the Riverina Region, in the irrigated Murrumbidgee Valley. Botrytis-infused
wines made from Semillon are a speciality of the region, which is located around the town of Griffith in the
Riverina. Most are reasonably priced, and the best ones are extremely high quality.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Any winemaker in Western Australia will tell you that although they produce no more than 3% of the
country's wine, they take home 30% of the medals. Given that they are excluded from supplying wine to
south-east Australia, except to a very small extent, winemakers in this area have managed to be
successful with their wines, although they have regularly sold them at much higher prices than their
eastern rivals. Western Australia has embraced the image of boutique wineries and created quality wines
rather than becoming suppliers of wine to the masses.

Greater Perth Area

Western Australia's historic wineries are located in the Swan Valley Subregion, just north of Perth, which
has a very hot climate.

South West Australia Area

The state's real success story is centred around the Margaret River Region, some 200km away. south of
Perth. Here, with the proximity of the cold sea, the maritime climate is cooler, although there are climatic
variations depending on the ___location. Some sites are warm enough to produce excellent Cabernets and
Bordeaux blends; others are cool enough to produce elegant Chardonnays and herbaceous Semillons that
are similar to New Zealand Sauvignon Blancs. Precipitation is comparatively high, 1,150 mm per year, but
falls mainly during the winter. The most serious danger appears to be the hungry masses of birds. Over
time, the southern area has expanded. The Great Southern Region includes the Mount Barker and
Frankland River sub-region, known for its deep-coloured Cabernet Sauvignon, tannic and peppery Shiraz,
and elegant and intensely fruity Riesling. The Pemberton region is gaining a reputation for its Pinot Noir
and Chardonnay.

Pg. 149, photo: Irrigated vineyards next to a reservoir on the Frankland River, Western Australia.

TASMANIA
There are about 1,000 winegrowers in Tasmania. Tasmania has the coolest climate in the country and will
benefit from global warming. Originally considered suppliers of excellent base wines for sparkling wines,
they are now developing a reputation for fine Pinot Noirs and aromatic whites from Alsace varieties.

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CHAPTER 28
NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand plays a very small role in the world of wine. Its vineyard area is ranked 50th in the world, and
its production is ranked 30th. More than 85% of this production is controlled by foreigners, and half of the
total production is in the hands of a single international company. Since the domestic market is so small,
the wine industry is dependent on export. Britain is certainly the biggest market, but they are making
inroads into North America and, surprisingly, Australia. The dynamism of New Zealand's industry needs to
be enhanced. As far as the production of excellent quality wine is concerned, it should be noted that this
has been achieved in one generation. The first vines were planted in Marlborough in 1973, and it is now
the most important region. There is great potential for expansion and new vineyard areas are being
developed every year.

Although the explosion in wine production has been recent, the first vineyards were planted a long time
ago, in 1833, by James Busby, who had been a pioneer in the white wine industry in Australia. In the
second half of the 19th century, many settlers from Dalmatia came to New Zealand to work on the rubber
plantations of North Island, and eventually planted vineyards. They were the true pioneers of wine, and
you only have to look at the surnames of the families that own some of the great wineries to see that this
influence is still alive. Initially, the majority of production consisted of fortified wines, called “sherries” and
“ports”, and the Müller-Thurgau grape reigned supreme. It was not until the early 1970s that quality
varietals such as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon were first planted.

LOCATION AND CLIMATE

New Zealand consists of two relatively narrow islands. Its climate is predominantly maritime, although in
the northern vineyards around Auckland it is subtropical. The sunniest vineyards are those in Marlborough
in the northeast of the South Island. The driest and most continental is Central Otago, which is where the
world's southernmost vineyards are, although they are as far south as Montélimar is in the Rhône Valley to
the north. Excessive rainfall seems to be the most important climatic problem and for this reason most of
the vineyards are on the seafront, where the mountains protect them from the prevailing westerly winds.

VITICULTURE AND WINE PRODUCTION

Having started producing wine later than other countries has given New Zealand certain advantages when
it comes to winemaking technology. Being a leader in the dairy industry has also been a big help as they
have the knowledge of stainless steel and temperature controls. Strict hygiene controls and careful
handling of the wines during fermentation result in wines of very pure and intense expression. This is very
evident with Sauvignon Blanc, with which New Zealand has created a new classic style.

It is in the vineyard, however, where New Zealand has been a leader, pioneering leaf mass management
and vine support techniques, making the best possible use of heat and sunlight to create sugars and
flavours in the grapes. Interestingly, many winegrowers still plant ungrafted vines, even though phylloxera
is widespread throughout the country. This is because the government does not have subsidies available
for planting new vineyards, but it does have subsidies for replanting vineyards that are destroyed by this
disease.

GRAPE VARIETIES
New Zealand has made a name for itself as a quality wine producer thanks to its Sauvignon Blanc, as
Marlborough's distinctive herbaceous wines have conquered the world. This wine is considered a world
reference point. Its intense aromas focus on green pepper, freshly cut grass, and elderflower, but can
include passion fruit, mineral notes, and traces of oak. The best quality wines, with their intense
concentrated fruit aromas and high acidity levels, are capable of developing asparagus notes as they age
in bottle. The most planted grape is Chardonnay. As in other New World countries, all options (such as
the use of oak, malolactic fermentation, aging on lees, etc.) are explored with this variety, leading to
different styles. Wines from Gisborne tend to exhibit riper, more exotic fruit than those from Marlborough
and Central Otago. They all tend to have a pure, clean fruit character and fresh acidity.

Until recently, New Zealand was perceived as a white wine-only country due to its climate. Now their Pinot
Noirs are compared to those of Burgundy. Exceptional examples can be found in Martinborough (savory,
cherry-fruited and velvety-textured), Marlborough (lighter and more vegetal), and Central Otago (complex
and powerful, yet elegant). Together, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir account for more than

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three-quarters of all wine grown in New Zealand. The Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Riesling crops
are smaller, each accounting for between 5 and 10% of the total. The Müller-Thurgau follows, although it is
in decline. Varieties such as Pinot Gris and Syrah are increasingly planted.

Pg. 151, photo: Harvester in Gisborne; photo: Vineyards covered with nets to protect them from birds,
Auckland; Map: New Zealand; Graphic: North Island

REGIONS AND WINES

North Island (North Island)
The Auckland region stretches north of the city of the same name, producing mostly red wines from
grapes grown on clay soils. This region and Northland are the warmest wine-growing areas in the country.
On the west coast, around Poverty Bay, is Gisborne. This region is considered the Chardonnay capital of
the country and has very fertile soils. Further south along the west coast is Hawkes Bay, around the cities
of Hastings and Napier. Although Chardonnay is, once again, the most important variety, this region is
perhaps most important for Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, particularly on the gravelly soils of Gimblett
Road. In the Wairarapa, north of the capital Wellington, lies the small provincial town of Martinborough. A
number of boutique wineries have been established here and are well known for the reputation of their
wines, particularly for their full-bodied, cherry-fragrant Pinot Noir.

South Island (South Island)

In the northeast of South Island, with its centre in the city of Blenheim, lies the Marlborough region. This
is the sunniest part of the country, so vineyards are expanding rapidly. The best are on the stony soils of
the Wairau Valley, but many of the recent crops are prone to frost. This area can be considered the world
capital of Sauvignon Blanc, as its wines have an ability to concentrate their natural herbaceous character
that is incomparable. There are also significant crops of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, which are also used
in the production of sparkling wines. At the north-west tip of the island is the Nelson region, which is
perhaps best known for its fruit orchards. The Moutere Hills wineries and long autumns make it best suited
to late harvest wines, especially those made from Riesling. It is probably in Canterbury that the best
possibilities for the expansion of vineyards throughout the country lie. Currently most are concentrated in
Waipara, but there are also some on the outskirts of the city of Christchurch. The Central Otago
vineyards are located in the south amidst the Southern Alps. The climate is continental, with warm days
and cool nights. These extreme temperature differences help to concentrate fruit flavors in the grape.
Many vineyards are planted in desert conditions, but there is sufficient river water for irrigation. The most
successful varieties seem to be Pinot Noir, Riesling and Pinot Gris. The vineyard area seems to be
continually expanding.

Pg.152, photo: Aerial view of Marlborough, showing the scale of viticulture in the region. Chart: South
Island

CHAPTER 29
UNITED STATES, CANADA AND MEXICO

When the Vikings arrived in North America, they were amazed by the number of vines that grew there, so
much so that they named the place they had just discovered Vinland. Much later, waves of English, Dutch
and French immigrants attempted to plant vineyards along the sea in the east, but were unsuccessful. It
was not until the early part of the 19th century that immigrants to Ohio, mostly German, managed to form a
thriving wine industry dependent on native vines. Now, there are vineyards, of major or minor importance,
in all 50 states of the USA. Some are from European varietals that are grafted onto American roots, others
produce wines from American varietals that descend from the original wild vines, and others are hybrids.
The most important centers of the wine industry are California, the Pacific Northwest (Washington,
Oregon, and Idaho), and New York State. Canada and Mexico also produce wine. In Canada, the main
vineyards are located in Ontario, on the Niagara Peninsula and in southern British Columbia in the
Okanagan Valley; in Mexico, they are located in Baja California.

UNITED STATES: WINE LAWS

In the United States there is legislation at two different levels: Federal law and State law.

Federal law used to be in the hands of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (BATF). In 1978, this
agency established the American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) system to supplement an existing appellate

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system; the resulting scheme continues to be developed. The AVA guarantees the authenticity of the
place of origin but does not guarantee quality or production. Anyone can request an AVA, of any size. This
means that some AVAs only have one winery. If the AVA appears on the label, at least 85% of the wine
must have been produced with grapes grown in that area. Recently, certain aspects previously controlled
by the BATF have become the responsibility of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau.

State laws vary considerably from state to state. For example, Oregon requires that most of its varietal
wines contain 95% of the varietal listed on the label, Washington requires 85%, and California, and most
other states, requires 75%. On the other hand, there is New York State, which, mostly for climatic reasons,
allows its winemakers to label as regional wine something that may have added up to 35% sugar and
water, as well as 25% wine from somewhere else. In the past, much American wine was labeled with
generic names like Burgundy or Chablis, but the rise of varietal wines and the glut of wine on the market
has led to their disappearance, even in the domestic market.

CALIFORNIA
It's sometimes hard to appreciate how young the wine industry is in California. Spanish missionaries
planted the first vineyards in La Paz, Baja, California, but it was not until 1769 that they founded their first
mission on what is now U.S. soil in San Diego. The furthest north they went was Sonoma, where the
Franciscans built a mission in 1823. They brought with them the Mission grape, which although it does not
produce good wine, can survive harsh climates and requires little care. It is still grown in parts of
California, mostly for the production of fortified wines. The first commercial California wine was made in
1824, and the first vineyard was planted by J.J. Walker in Los Angeles in 1831. The “gold rush” of 1849
led to a “boom” in the wine industry, with crops at the foot of the Sierra Mountains, close to potential
consumers. In 1851, the Hungarian Agoston Haraszthy introduced several grape varieties from Europe
and, on a visit ten years later, brought back with him 300 different varieties. You could say this is the
foundation of the modern California wine industry. In 1920, Prohibition led to a decline in wine production,
as it could only be used for medicinal and religious reasons. However, there was an increase in demand
for grapes for the production of “grape juice” at home, which kept many vineyards afloat. From repeal in
1933 until the mid-1960s, wine production was concentrated in the Central (or San Joaquin) Valley, and
primarily fortified and jug wines were made.

Since the 1960s, vineyard areas have tripled and there has been a proliferation of boutique wineries, many
specialising in varietal or blended Meritage (Bordeaux style) wines. At the other end of the scale there are
a small number of large wineries that produce millions of cases a year.

This polarization is not only present in the size of the wineries. The price range is also very wide. A glut of
grapes once led a California merchant to sell a varietal wine for $2 a bottle. On the other hand, there are
wines that have no difficulty in selling for $150 a bottle, or more. The move towards quality wines has been
noticeable, and even large wineries have invested in the production of better quality and more profitable
wines. While small wineries concentrate their wines in their particular AVA, most California wine is sold as
a blend of wines from all over the state.

Pg. 154, map: North America

CLIMATE
The state of California stretches some 1,100 km from north to south, and there are vineyards along its
entire length. Different climates vary greatly, but they all have one factor in common: lack of rain during the
ripening season. To prevent the effects of a lack of rain, drip or sprinkler irrigation is used; there are rarely
vineyards where irrigation is not provided.

During a study in which vineyards were studied according to their microclimate, climatic variations led the
faculty of enology at the University of California Davis to create a classification system based on “degrees
per day.” In this classification, regional climates are divided into scales from I (the coldest) to V (the
hottest). Using this system, potential vineyard areas in California have been classified into one of five
zones, and the most suitable grape varieties for each zone have been identified. Zones I-III are considered
the best for the production of quality wines.

The Pacific Ocean currents play a very important role in the climate, as they create fog and mist that cool

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the weather and appear in the mornings, creating contrasts in temperature and bringing humidity. These
fogs are especially strong in late May and early summer, as the landmass warms and creates breezes that
draw fog in from the sea. This helps to add finesse to the final wine. In inland areas where this influence
does not exist, summer temperatures reach 40ºC or more.

Pg.155, map: California; Photo: Mists over Ridge Vineyards in Santa Cruz.

GRAPE VARIETIES
It's safe to say that there's someone in California growing almost every known grape.

For the cheaper blends, the major components are Colombard, Chenin Blanc, Thompson Seedless,
Carignan, Ruby Cabernet and Barbera. These come mostly from the hot Central Valley, where the soil is
very fertile and irrigation is used extensively to produce industrial crops of even the finest varieties. This
results in wines with weak and quite diluted fruit. The biggest problem California has when it comes to
quality is the size of the yields. This is intensified by the demand of the domestic market, which is largely
guided by what is fashionable. One year White Zinfandel is in fashion, the next everyone wants
Chardonnay or Merlot. This results in growers pushing their vines to the limit with excessive irrigation.
Yields are sometimes too high, especially in the Central Valley. Any shortage is solved by combining with
other grapes. It is not surprising that this leads to wines of dubious quality and the excessive demands for
some varietals have led to their overproduction. The jug wines of the past have been replaced by varietal
wines at very, very low prices.

Pg.156, chart: California.

Zinfandel is considered California's native grape, and is widely planted for blends, varietal wines, and the
sweet, softly rosé, or “blush,” White Zinfandel. For a long time the origins of this grape were unknown, but
today it is recognized as the Primitivo of Italy. There are many old Zinfandel vineyards, and it is often
blended with other varieties. These vineyards, as well as others in good locations, can be sources of
complex, full-bodied reds. This variety has a tendency to not ripen evenly, so once the bunch has fully
ripened, some of the grapes have already begun to turn raisin. This concentration results in intense red
berry flavors and extreme alcohol levels, often with small amounts of residual sugar.

Pg. 156, photo: Zinfandel grapes on a 100-year-old vine at Ridge's Lytton Springs Vineyard, Healdsburg,
Sonoma County, California. Some of the grapes are beginning to dry out, resulting in a concentration of
flavors and sugar.

Many Cabernet Sauvignon varietals are simple, smooth wines with light tannins and some black cherry
fruit, originating from the Central Valley. The best sites, among which the most famous are in Napa Valley,
can give extremely expressive wines that compete with the best wines anywhere. Aside from site and
variety, there are two determinants that influence the style of these and other California wines: the long
time the fruit remains on the bunch, resulting in a broad spectrum of complex, opulent flavors in the grape
but unbalanced alcohol levels; and the production of the wine with no expense spared, including careful
grape selection, high-tech machinery, and temperature-controlled cellars, resulting in highly crafted wines
with powerful, toasty French oak flavors.

As Merlot has become more fashionable, many cheap examples have appeared with soft tannins and
very little varietal character. Many of these wines exist to satisfy the demand that was created when the
beneficial effects of red wine on health were discovered. (Although some of them are so smooth and light
that there are white wines from Hungary that possess more beneficial compounds.) The best Merlots
come from cooler places like Monterey and the North Coast regions, especially Napa. These reds have
soft, intensely velvety tannins, full-bodied and high alcohol, with classic blackberry and plum flavors.

In the past, Pinot Noir was planted in very hot locations, resulting in baked, jammy, and flavorless wines,
as the sugar had ripened before the flavors could properly develop. Many of the older Pinot Noirs were
planted for use in sparkling wines. When this market did not develop as expected, they were used for still
wines. Unfortunately they were not the right clones and many of the wines lacked fruit. There are now very
good wines coming from cooler regions like the Russian River Valley and Carneros. Styles vary
considerably, depending on the potential of the region and the goals of the winemaker. Some are light in
color, with gamey and vegetal notes, although most show layers of ripe red fruits (red cherries,

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strawberry). There are very few cheap California Pinot Noirs.

All of the Chardonnay production options are practiced in California. Classic California Chardonnay has
a very full body (almost licorice-like), high alcohol, low acidity and has obvious oak, hazelnut and butter
flavors, softening the exotic peach and banana flavors. There are many other examples from cooler
regions such as Carneros and the Russian River Valley.

In most of California it is too hot to make modern, clean, vegetal Sauvignon Blancs. Most of the
production follows the same models as Bordeaux. Fermentation and/or aging in oak results in full-bodied,
spicy wines (often with traces of licorice), with a bit of green pepper. Many of the Sauvignon Blancs that
receive this treatment are called Fumé Blanc. There are versions of this wine that come from very hot
places and show very little fruit.

The current fashion for Rhône-style wines has led many growers to plant varieties such as Syrah,
Mondeuse, Viognier and Marsanne. The American market is very susceptible to fads, which can be
problematic when the latest diet suggests that Merlot is good for the heart. Wineries are not always able to
meet the imminent demands and this results in quality and authenticity problems.

Pg.157, photo: Barrels in air-conditioned winery at Arrowood, Sonoma.

MAIN AREAS OF VITICULTURE

The main vineyard areas are grouped into six regions, three of which are very important for the production
of top quality wines thanks to their ___location on the northern coast. They contain most of the known
counties and AVAs.

North Coast Region

This includes vineyards north of the San Francisco Bay. Perhaps the best-known region is the Napa
Valley AVA. It has the most expensive wine estates and some of the most prestigious wineries in
California. Morning mists from the bay make for milder weather in the southern part of the region, which is
Davis Zone I. Here, the Carneros AVA, which also extends into Sonoma County, specializes in the
production of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, much of which is used to make sparkling wines. Towards the
upper part of the valley, where the soils are volcanic, the climate is almost Mediterranean, and the
northern end is in zone III. In the lower part of the valley, spring frosts can be a problem. To the east are
the wines of Sonoma County, which have a great reputation along with the prestigious areas of Russian
River Valley, well known for its Pinot Noir, and Dry Creek Valley, for its Zinfandel. To the north lies
Mendocino County, a very large and diverse region that includes Anderson Valley. This valley is very
cool and is where top quality grapes come from, which are used to make aromatic whites such as Riesling
and Gewürztraminer, as well as sparkling wines.

Pg.157, photo: Carneros, looking at the bay.

North Central Coast

This includes the fertile Salinas Valley in Monterey County, where the cool, dry climate produces
Chardonnay wines with unusually high acidity, very fresh and citrusy flavors, as well as Merlot with
powerful tannins and black fruits. The diverse Santa Cruz Mountains region consists of cool areas of
poor, inhospitable soils that produce some of California's finest wines, including wines from Rhône
varietals. Here the climate is Zone I. Throughout the region the best wines come from hillside vineyards.

South Central Coast

In this region the mountains are located east-west, rather than north-south, which encourages the flow of
cool ocean breezes. In this area there have been many crops by large wineries, because climatic studies
show that it has great potential for the production of quality grapes. Further inland the climate changes
from Zone I to Zone II or Zone III. The best-known subregions are Santa Ynez Valley, in Santa Barbara

County (Santa Barbara County), and San Luis Obispo County (San Luis Obispo County) which
includes the Paso Robles AVA, where some very good quality Zinfandel comes from.

Central Valley
This is where 80% of California wine is produced. It extends about 600 km. from south of Sacramento and

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is known for its large quantities of grapes and vegetables. The climate is mostly warm (Zone V), and a
range of new varieties have been created in Davis to make the most of the conditions. The most
successful are the Ruby Cabernet and the Emerald Riesling. The most important wineries are located in
the cities of the valley, which are continually looking for new ways to use surplus production. “Pop wine”,
“wine coolers” and brandies play an important role. At the northern end of the valley, at the mouth of the
Sacramento River, lies the Lodi AVA, where the climate is cooler and better wines are made.

Sierra Foothills AVA

These vineyards are located at the foot of the Rockies, where the original vineyards were planted during
the “gold rush”. Hot days and cool nights (Zones III and IV) contribute to good fruit concentration. This part
specializes in old vine Zinfandel and Italian varietals.

Southern California
This is where the vineyards of Los Angeles and Southern California are located. This part has suffered the
pressures of urban expansion and Pierce's disease.

Pg.158, photo: Huge fan used to disperse frost. Oakville, Napa.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
California has the advantage of having the largest wine market in the world at its feet. Like many other
growing regions, California struggles to match production with demand. In addition to this, he has two
individual and particular problems. The first problem is phylloxera; a careless study conducted at the Davis
campus led to the widespread use of the AXR-1 graft, which turned out not to be resistant to phylloxera, so
more than half of Napa Valley's vineyards had to be replanted. More recently, Pierce's disease has spread
from orange groves in Southern California. This disease is carried by insects called “sharpshooters” and is
incurable and fatal for the vineyard. Although it is possible to create a cordon sanitaire to combat the
problem, it does not solve the root of the situation.

THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

The Northwest vineyards are divided between the states of Washington, Oregon and to some extent,
Idaho. In climatic terms, they can be divided by the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The coastal vineyards
of Oregon and Washington have maritime climates, and benefit from the warm currents of the North
Pacific. The other vineyards in Washington and Idaho are definitely continental, with very cold winters and
hot summers.

Oregon
In Oregon, vineyards extend south of the city of Portland. Those in Willamette Valley are almost at the
gates of the city. Winters are mild and summers are hot and cloudy. The most successful grape is Pinot
Noir, followed by Pinot Gris and Chardonnay. The quality of the wines is very high but is constantly
improving thanks to clonal selection. South of the Willamette Valley are the Umpqua Valley and the Rogue
River Valley, which straddle the state line with California. The warm climate here favors the growth of
Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot.

Washington State
In Washington State, there are vineyards around Puget Sound, but most are located inland in the fertile
valleys of the Columbia River and its tributary, the Yakima, with one additional AVA, Walla Walla, much
further east. This part is practically desert and viticulture is only possible thanks to irrigation with river
water. Phylloxera is not a problem, but every six years severe frosts occur during the winter, sometimes
reducing crops to less than half. Washington is now second only to California in grape growing. Sales are
dominated by a large winery group and a large proportion of the grapes come from independent growers.
The most important grapes are Chardonnay, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon, although Syrah is showing
increasing promise.

NEW YORK STATE

This state is the third in terms of grape cultivation, although two-thirds of its hectares are of Vitis Labrusca
grapes that are used in the preparation of jams and preserves. The introduction of the Farm Wineries Act
in 1976 led to an increase in the number of wineries, most of which planted wine grapes rather than the
American varieties and hybrids that had previously dominated production.

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There are three main vineyards in the state. The first is in the Finger Lakes, where each lake has an
individual climate. The Hudson Valley, north of New York City, is an area of small but highly regarded
vineyards. Of greatest interest are Long Island's vineyards, where a wide range of European varietals
thrive. The water surrounding three sides creates a mild maritime climate.

Pg.159, Chart: Pacific Northwest, USA; Chart: Canada.

CANADA
In Canada, production is controlled by the Provincial Liquor Boards, which includes the Vintners Quality
Alliance (VQA) regulations which cover appellation boundaries as well as viticulture and production
levels. Labrusca wines, which used to form the majority of production, are not graded, although certain
American hybrids and varietals are permitted for VQA. The wines must be submitted to an independent
jury for examination.

Canada's largest production area is the Niagara Peninsula, on the southern shore of Lake Ontario. Here
the climate offers mild conditions, and the body of water to the north and the slopes of the Niagara cause
air currents to the west and south. A particular speciality is Ice-Wine, which has had great commercial
success in the Far East.

The second most important area for wine production is the Okanagan Valley, near the city of Kelowna,
320 km away. east of Vancouver. There are some 2,000 hectares of wine grapes here, planted in desert
conditions. The most popular are Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris, Riesling and Gewürztraminer.

Pg. 159, photo: Harvesting Vidal grapes for Ice-Wine. Niagara, Ontario, Canada.

MEXICO
Mexico has approximately 50,000 hectares of vineyards. It is the fourth largest area in Latin America, and
has the oldest winery in the Americas, which was established in what is known today as the city of Parras,
in the 16th century; however, wine production is small. Most of what is produced is used in the distillation
of brandy, with table grapes and raisins being of greater importance than wine.

The blending of imported wine is not unknown, although recent legislation has mandated that wines
labeled Made in Mexico must be made entirely from Mexican grapes.

Almost 90% of quality wine production comes from vineyards in northern Baja California, a 1,300 km
peninsula. long on the Pacific coast. Here the vineyards are concentrated in three valleys that rise on the
Pacific coast. The most important is the one located further north, the Valle de Guadalupe, just north of
Ensenada. Coastal influences are similar to those of California. The cold Alaskan current causes fog in the
mornings, bringing humidity to the vineyards. The vineyards are irrigated by drip irrigation, with water that
comes from underground. Salinization is a problem. Although the soil is sandy, most of the vines are
grafted.

The most successful wines are full-bodied reds and a wide range of European varietals are grown. Petite
Syrah and Zinfandel are very popular. In addition to the three main producers, there are a small number of
boutique wineries that produce mostly Bordeaux-style blends.

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CHAPTER 30
SOUTH AMERICA - CHILE

The history of wine in Latin America begins with the arrival of the Spanish and Portuguese at the end of
the 15th century. On each conquistador ship came a priest who brought with him the Bible and vine
shoots for the mass wine. The first vines were planted in what is now the Dominican Republic around
1493, and this invasion is believed to have come to an end with the construction of the mission in Sonoma
California in 1823. The importance of production in the New World can be judged by the fact that the
governments of Spain and Portugal prohibited the production of wine in the American colonies, except for
mass, in order to protect domestic growers. The further the colonies were from the mother country, the
more difficult it was to enforce laws, and Peru became the dominant centre of production in the Americas,
with an area of vineyards three times larger than it is today. In the early 19th century, two factors drove the
current industry in South America: the fall of the Spanish Empire, and social unrest in Europe that led to
thousands of people emigrating to the New World. The Portuguese, Italians and Spanish who settled in
South America brought with them their need to incorporate wine into their daily diet and planted vines
around their homes that they would use for personal consumption.

Pg. 161, map: South America

CHILI
The most important supplier of South American wines to the export market is Chile. Modern trade began
in the mid-19th century when two factors contributed to the creation of a fairly wealthy middle class. One
of these factors was the exploitation of mineral resources, and the second was its geographical position as
a supply center for ships to satisfy the California “gold rush.” All things French became fashionable and
much of the wealth gained was invested in Bordeaux-style châteaux and vineyards in the suburbs of
Santiago. This resulted in production being concentrated on four varieties: Cabernet Sauvignon and
Merlot for reds and Sémillon and Sauvignon Blanc for whites. Since the fall of dictator General Pinochet in
1989, the wine industry has boomed and there has been a lot of foreign investment in planting vineyards
and building modern wineries. Stainless steel tanks and oak barrels are now common. Sales in the United
States and Europe have skyrocketed.

Chile has many advantages for producing quality wine. The climate is almost perfect, with prevailing winds
from the Pacific blowing inland. The ripening period is long and the lack of rainfall is compensated by the
melting of the snow in the Andes. This reaches the vineyards through a very extensive irrigation system,
the rights to which belong to individual growers. Dry cultivation (without irrigation) can only be carried out
successfully in the south of the country.

Phylloxera does not exist in the country, so most of the vines are not ungrafted. However, with the
expansion of drip irrigation, nematodes can be a problem and grafted vines are becoming more common.
The biggest problem in producing quality wine is the restriction of vine vigor. High returns are common.

Pg. 162, photo: A modern winery in Colchagua.

GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINES

The Chilean domestic market is small, so the market is dominated by varietals in international demand.
Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are used for varietal wines, and for Bordeaux-style blends. Typically,
the wines tend to display intense varietal flavors, with strong berry and green pepper. It should be noted
that much of what has been sold as Merlot is actually an old Bordeaux variety called Carmenére. It
produces red wines with an elegant and velvety texture, and is becoming a Chilean specialty. The
Chardonnays show great purity of fruit thanks to the ripe and healthy grapes. Casablanca is emerging as
a region of great potential, with wines with fresh aromas of grapefruit and banana and some oak. The
case of Sauvignon Blanc is more complicated. Much of what was sold as Sauvignon Blanc came from
the Sauvignonasse varietal, which produces wines of less distinction. As new vineyards are planted and
old ones are grafted, the quality of Chilean Sauvignon is improving considerably.

In recent years there have been attempts to expand the selection of grapes grown, and today there are
plantations of Carignan, Malbec, Pinot Noir and Syrah for red wines. The local red grape, País (believed to
be the same as California Mission), is in decline. Overexploitation of Cabernet Sauvignon has resulted in it
being used in bulk in the local wine market. Muscat of Alexandria is widely cultivated, especially in the

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northernmost vineyards bordering the Atacama Desert. It is used for the distillation of the local brandy,
pisco.

Pg. 163, map: Chile; graphic: Chile; photo: Vineyards planted in the cool climate of the Aconcagua Valley.

REGIONS AND CLIMATES

The region's vineyard classification system is based on four levels of hierarchy: regions, subregions,
zones and areas. A wine can name any of these levels as its origin. For example, a wine from Santa Cruz
can say that it comes from Santa Cruz (the area), the Colchagua Valley (the zone), the Rapel Valley (the
subregion) or the Central Valley (the region).

Aconcagua Region
The best Chilean white Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc, and the best Chilean red Pinot Noir are
considered to come from the Casablanca Valley. It is located near the sea, at a point where the coastal
mountain range of the Andes seems to disappear, allowing the maritime influence of the cold Humboldt
current to create a cool climate. Morning mists have the same effect on the area as what happens in
Carneros (California), delaying ripening but allowing the development of complex flavors due to the
prolonged time that the bunches remain on the vine.

Central Valley Region

The most important of the five wine-growing regions is the Central Valley, south of Santiago. It is located
between two Andes mountain ranges that run parallel, from north to south. The proximity of the Pacific,
with the Humboldt Current, helps to create a moderate and maritime climate, with temperatures very
similar to those of Napa and Bordeaux. These conditions are perfect for Bordeaux varietals. More than
90% of the wine exported by Chile is produced in this region. In this region there are also important
subregions, such as the Maipo Valley, which surrounds the capital, Santiago. This is a centre of quality
red wine production, and is home to many old Cabernet Sauvignon vines, some of which have an
unusually warm climate due to being surrounded by the suburbs of Santiago. (Reminiscent of the situation
in Haut Brion, on the outskirts of Bordeaux). The Colchagua Valley, an area found in the Rapel Valley
subregion, is an excellent area for Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Carmenère, which appear as
individual varietals and as Bordeaux-style blends. This area has seen quite a lot of foreign investment,
mainly from the US and France. The best wines are made with the same care as the Cru Classé of
Bordeaux, and show great promise. They are sold at very high prices. Further south, in the Curicó
subregion, conditions are cooler thanks to the effects of latitude and clouds. A wide selection of
international varietals are grown in this area.

Pg.164, photo: Selecting grapes to ensure that only the healthiest and ripest are used for wine production,
Colchagua.

South Valley Region

New and better places to plant vineyards in the country are always being sought. This has led to vineyards
being cultivated on mountain slopes, vineyards closer to the sea, for example in the cool southern
subregions of Bío-Bío and Itata, where irrigation is not necessary. This area is good for aromatic whites
such as Riesling and Gewürztraminer.

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CHAPTER 31
ARGENTINA, URUGUAY AND BRAZIL

Argentina's wine industry has its roots in mass immigration from Europe during the second half of the 19th
century. Many Italians, Spaniards (especially Basques and Catalans) and Swiss came to Argentina and
planted vineyards in the foothills of the Andes, particularly around the cities of Mendoza and San Juan.
Initially the consumer market was local, but with the opening of the Buenos Aires-Pacific Railway to
Mendoza in 1885 (with a line to San Juan a year later), the much larger Buenos Aires market opened up.
In 1977, at the height of its boom, the country had more than 350,000 hectares of vineyards. Today they
have a little over 200,000. Similarly, per capita wine consumption is half that of its peak of 91.75 litres per
year in 1970. Since an open economy was not established until 1990, there was no money available to
invest in wineries or vineyards. However, since then there has been considerable investment, led by
Chileans. The fall of the peso in 2001 led to a small decline in sales, but also provided incentives for
additional investment from abroad.

ARGENTINA
The vineyards are mostly located near the Andes, in a series of irrigated oases in what would otherwise be
a desert. These green areas extend for more than 1,000 km. from the province of Salta in the subtropical
north, to the Río Negro in the south on the border of Patagonia.

CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE AND VITICULTURE

With the exception of the vineyards in Rio Negro, most are located 500 meters or more above sea level;
and in Salta, near the city of Cafayate, they extend to 2,000 meters or more, allowing for cool spots close
to the equator. In the past, due to the heat, most vineyards were planted in the trellis or pergola system.
This raised the grapes from the extreme heat of the ground. New vineyards, which focus on improving
quality, commonly use a low-yield conduction system.

In the Andes, rainfall is scarce, but water can be extracted from rivers that flow in the mountains or from
groundwater. Flood irrigation is used in 90% of the vineyards. In areas where drip irrigation is used, vines
tend to be grafted because of the risk of nematode damage (phylloxera, although present, is not
considered a serious problem).

Spring frosts are an occasional problem, but summer hail is a constant danger. It has been estimated that
it has the potential to destroy 10% of the crop in a typical year, which is why vines are increasingly being
protected with nets. Due to its dry climate, there are some problems with rot and mold, and Argentina is a
major producer of organic wines.

WINE PRODUCTION
The combination of high-yielding vineyards, low labor costs and dry, sunny conditions makes it possible to
select large quantities of ripe, healthy grapes at low costs. Many modern wineries have invested in state-
of-the-art machinery allowing fermentation to take place in hygienic stainless steel vessels under
controlled temperatures. Some wineries are using oak barrels for high-end wines, although some of the
best Argentine reds are still made in the traditional way, with long periods of aging in oak before being
bottled.

GRAPE VARIETIES
For marketing purposes, Argentina promotes two specialties: Malbec, used for reds, and Torrontés,
which produces full-bodied, dry whites with aromas similar to those of Moscatel. However, there are many
other varieties introduced by immigrants, such as Bonarda, Barbera and Sangiovese from Italy and
Tempranillo from Spain, which produce distinguished wines, whether as single varietals or as blends.
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah are planted for red wines and Chardonnay and, increasingly,
Viognier, for whites.

Almost half of the vineyard area is cultivated with low-quality historical varietals such as Criolla and
Cereza, but which are used in the production of basic and local table wine, or to convert it into grape
concentrate. They are losing importance as they are being replaced by international varieties.

Pg.166, graphic: Argentina; Photo: Vineyards covered with nets to protect them from hail, Mendoza.

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REGIONS
The country's main production centers are located in the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan. Both
account for more than 90% of production. Only in Mendoza is there a hierarchy of appeals. These are
divided into five regions and a larger number of departments followed by subregions. A wine can have any
of these as its origin. Of these regions, the Upper Zone of the Mendoza River is considered the best for
red wines, while the slightly cooler Uco Valley is more suitable for whites and for cooler climate grapes,
such as Pinot Noir. Argentina was the first country in South America to have a DOC system, Controlled
Designation of Origin. This was introduced for the 1992 harvest and applies to two departments, San
Rafael and Luján de Cuyo, both in Mendoza. In San Rafael any of six grape varieties can be used, but in
Luján only Malbec is permitted. Sadly, very few wines are sold with DOC on the label, and there doesn't
seem to be a clear idea of what it really means.

Most of the varietal-labeled wines in Argentina come from this region, along with many blends of
international varietals (e.g. Bonarda-Tempranillo). Although there are very good examples of Chardonnay
and Cabernet Sauvignon, without a doubt the best wines are made with Malbec. The wines differ greatly in
style from those of Cahors, exhibiting intense plum fruit and softer tannins, often with peppery and spicy
finishes. What they do have in common with Cahors is the dark purple colour, powerful tannins and
intense body.

The second most important province in terms of production is San Juan. Here the climate is warmer and
in addition to still wines there is a large production of vermouths and grape concentrates.

Further north, and even hotter, is the province of La Rioja, where 80% of production comes from a group
of cooperative wineries. To avoid problems with Spain, the wine that is exported is labeled as coming from
the Famatina Valley.

In the far north, Cafayate, in the province of Salta, is the bastion of the Torrontés grape. Vineyards at high
altitude suffer from large temperature differences between day and night, allowing for the development of
flavours and aromas whilst retaining acidity levels. Cabernet Sauvignon also grows very well in this area,
exhibiting an intense black cherry character.

Finally, in the far south, is the relatively cool region of Río Negro. Most of the production is red wine made
from Malbec grapes although there is great potential for quality white wines. Malbec from Río Negro has
much higher acidity levels, and drier, chewier tannins than Malbec from the warmer vineyards of Mendoza.
It has a much more elegant and traditional “Old World” style, and the tannins, acidity and intense fruit allow
it to develop smoky and tobacco notes as it ages in the bottle.

URUGUAY
Uruguay plays a small role in the world of wine, with an annual production similar to that of New Zealand.
The climate is temperate, with maritime influences reminiscent of Bordeaux. There are four distinct
seasons, with an average annual temperature of 18º C and rainfall of 1,000 mm. Rain falls year round and
mildew and “black spot” are common. To combat the humid climate, the vines are trained in a lyre pattern.

Uruguay's history of wine production begins with the immigration of Basque settlers in 1870, who brought
with them a range of Basque grape varietals. The most important is Tannat, which has become a
Uruguayan specialty. It is used for everything from fortified wines and sweet rosés to elegant, tannic
Bordeaux-style reds. The latter are the most important for the export market, and many of them use Merlot
components to soften the strong tannins. Most of the vineyards are planted around the capital,
Montevideo, on rolling hills. The soils range from thick clay to sandy.

Due to the scarcity of red wines in Brazil, this country has become a sales point for much of Uruguay's
production.

BRAZIL
Despite having a landmass almost as large as China's, Brazil does not have anywhere in the country the
climate suitable for producing quality wine. Most regions are too hot and lack the annual seasons
necessary to guide the growth cycle of grapes. Due to the hot and humid climate, almost 80% of the
grapes grown are American varietals or hybrids.

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Per capita wine consumption is very low, since sugarcane spirits have a more favorable tax regime.
Despite this, it has a significant wine industry and is the third largest wine producing country in South
America.

The production of the best quality wines is concentrated in Serra Gaucho, in the state of Rio Grande do
Sul. Vineyards in this hilly region benefit from the cooling effects of altitude and their relatively southern
___location, although humid conditions make rot and mould a problem. In this part of the country, it is often
Italian immigrants who produce wines and grape juice, and much of the wine is sparkling, aromatic and
sweet, very similar to Asti. This region contributes more than 80% of the country's wine. There is even an
Appelation Contrôlée Vale Dos Vinhedos, although it is little more than a geographical classification.

There are two other regions of less importance. In the south of the country along the border with Uruguay,
vineyards have been cultivated on sandy, well-drained soils. In the tropical north of the country there have
been recent and extensive cultivations in the Sao Francisco River valley. Here river water is used to
irrigate what would otherwise be a desert. There are two annual harvests. Syrah is proving to be
surprisingly successful.

Pg. 167, photo, Vines trained on high cordons to raise them from the heat reflected from the ground,
Mendoza.

CHAPTER 32
SPARKLING WINES

It's no surprise that Champagne and folklore go hand in hand, and this begins with its creation as a
sparkling wine. Legend would have us believe that Champagne was invented by Don Perignon, a monk
who was a cellar master in Hautvillers in 1668. However, six years earlier, Dr. Christopher Merret had
described how English coopers added sugar to still wines to make them sparkling. By the mid-1660s, there
was a strong demand in London for “strong and sparkling” wines. At the same time, the refugee Marquis
de Saint Evremont had made still Champagne wines popular at court. Fashion dictated that the two should
be combined, and only in London were the components necessary for the sale of sparkling wines, solid
glass bottles and cork stoppers, found. These did not arrive in France until 25 years later. Bubble induction
takes place in a separate process, so any wine can be transformed into sparkling wine. During the 19th
century, products such as Clos de Vougeot Mousseaux and sparkling Sauternes could be found.

Today there are three basic ways to add bubbles to a wine: through a secondary fermentation in the bottle;
a secondary fermentation in the tank; and carbonation.

BOTTLE FERMENTATION

The Traditional Method

This is the classic method in the production of Champagne and the best sparkling wines in the world,
where they are sold under different names. These include Crémant in France and Luxembourg, Cava in
Spain, Cap Classique in South Africa and traditional method. The historical description was méthode
champenoise, or Champagne method, but the EU banned this description because it was considered likely
to cause confusion.

The winemaker's goal during the first fermentation is to produce a still wine, normally with fresh to high
acidity and moderate alcohol. Some producers ferment part or all of their base wines in old oak barrels,
although temperature-controlled stainless steel containers are more common. Some wines undergo
malolactic fermentation, while others avoid this practice. It all depends on the style of wine the winemaker
wants to make.

It is then time for the mixing expert to practice the art of assemblage. In the case of a non-vintage wine,
the objective is to produce a wine of a certain quality and a defined style over the years. The winemaker
may have a range of wines from different varietals, different vineyards and even different years. To
achieve consistency and take advantage of the intense flavours that aged wines provide, each year a
proportion of the production is saved and reserved for use in future blends. Many New World sparkling
wines specify the vintage, but a small percentage of reserve wines can still legally be used. Storage of
reserve wines can be expensive, and in regions where vintage conditions make storage unnecessary,

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reserve wines are rarely used. When a vintage is specified on a bottle of Champagne, 100% of the base
wine must come from that year. Considering that over 100 different wines from a single vintage may be
available in the large Champagne companies, the number of permutations can be astronomical.
Laboratory analysis of wines can be of some help, but blending must be achieved by tasting. It is essential
for every company to have a blending expert, as the company's reputation depends on the quality of its
blend.

In the case of rosés, all producers outside Champagne make their cuvées using the saignée method,
which involves removing the must after a short period of contact with the skins. Most Champagne
producers make their wines

mixing red and white wine bases, as it is permitted at any stage of the process until the liqueur de tirage is
added. Rosé Champagne is the only quality rosé wine produced in this way in the EU.

Another term often found on a sparkling wine label is Blanc de Blancs, which is a wine made exclusively
from white grapes. In Champagne, it has to be Chardonnay, and the style is usually very fresh and light-
bodied, with fresh citrus and apple. There is also Blanc de Noirs, a white wine made from only red
grapes, although in the US there may be traces of pink in the wine. Champagne and other sparkling wines
made exclusively from Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier grapes tend to be full-bodied, with intense fruit and a
long finish. The term crémant used to refer to wines with little foaming pressure and therefore were
creamier. It has not been permitted to be used in Champagne since 1994, when the champagne
producers agreed to allow the term to be used for other sparkling wines from France and Luxembourg on
the condition that they would not use the term méthode champenoise.

Before bottling, a small proportion of liqueur de tirage is added. This is a combination of wine, sugar, yeast
nutrients and fining agents. This is what causes the second fermentation in the bottle and creates the
bubbles. The bottle is closed with a temporary stopper. This is usually a metal stopper, sometimes with a
plastic container inserted to collect the dead yeast. The bottles are then placed horizontally in the cellar.
The temperature at which the wine is stored is another factor that affects the final quality of the product. At
lower temperatures, secondary fermentation and yeast autolysis are slower, but more complex flavors
develop. When the yeasts start working on the sugar, causing the second fermentation, they create three
things: alcohol, CO2, and when they die after completing their first task, a deposit on the side of the bottle.
As the wine slowly ferments, the gas cannot escape and dissolves into the wine.

During subsequent bottle maturation, the dead yeasts eventually decompose and their enzymes interact
with the wine. This process is known as yeast autolysis (self-digestion) and is a vital part of the traditional
method and the transfer process of sparkling wines. This process releases compounds that contribute to
the flavor of the wine, especially the yeasty, bready, biscuity and toasted notes that are characteristic of
sparkling wines made using this procedure. Autolysis usually lasts between four and five years, but has
been known to last up to ten years. The time a wine remains on its lees greatly influences the final quality.
For non-vintage Champagne it must be a minimum of 15 months, and for vintage Champagne, at least
three years. For other quality sparkling wines, such as Cava and quality New World sparkling wines, nine
months are required, although these minimum periods are often exceeded.

The next two stages in the traditional method are designed to facilitate the removal of sediment from the
bottle. In this phase the bottle is stored and placed horizontally (sur latte), with the reservoir on one side of
the bottle. Remuage moves this deposit towards the neck of the bottle, against the cork. This is followed
by disgorging (dégorgement), the removal of the sediment.

Pg. 169, photo: The traditional Champagne press carries four tons of grapes, which produce 2,550 liters of
juice. Shallow pressing reduces damage to the grapes.

The stirring is achieved over a period of time by altering the position of the bottle from a horizontal plane,
where it has been for a time, to a vertical upside-down position. This will result in the reservoir sliding
smoothly from the bottle into the plastic container in the neck of the bottle. The traditional technique was
developed in the early 19th century by the widow “Veuve” Clicquot and her chef de cave Antoine Müller.
The neck of the bottle is placed at an angle into a hole in what is known as a pupitre. This consists of two
boards joined by hinges, and each side can hold 60 bottles. The holes are at a 45º angle so that the
bottles can be placed at any angle between horizontal or vertical. The bottle starts in a horizontal position,

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and is gently shaken and turned each day. Then it leans more and more towards the inverted vertical. The
work is done by hand. An experienced remueur can handle up to 30,000 bottles per day. Gradually, the
more solid yeast particles sink towards the neck of the bottle, pushing the lighter yeasts with them. Finally,
the bottle will be taken to storage with the corks facing down. This is a very labor intensive and expensive
process. Therefore, in recent years different mechanical and semi-mechanical systems have been
developed so that the work can be done in rough form. Not only is there a significant saving in labour
costs, but also in time. Perhaps the most effective tool is the gyropalette, a cage that holds 504 bottles on
a hydraulic arm. A computer can control many of these at once, rotating and tilting the bottles, simulating
the work of the remueurs. Now, most producers use them, although they often keep a few racks for
tourists to admire, and for bottles of unusual shape or size.

Pg.170, graphic: Removed

Whatever method is used, bottles that have completed the process are usually given an additional period
of aging while standing on their necks. This is described as being sur pointe. With only a small surface
area in contact with the wine, and with autolysis already complete, the lees in the bottle do not contribute
any additional flavor to the wine. The wine is in a state of suspension, although the presence of the lees
can keep the wine fresh for years, even decades. However, the longer the wine remains on its lees, the
more quickly it will age when disgorged. It is therefore necessary to find the ideal balance for the time that
a wine should remain on the lees. Certain vintage Champagne is described as dégorgement tardive or RD
(récemment dégorgé). These are old wines that have been disgorged just before transport to retain their
freshness.

Since the sediment is now sitting on top of the cork, the pressure inside the bottle will force it out once it is
opened. To make the disgorging process less cumbersome, the neck of the bottle is frozen in a saline
solution. When bottles are placed upright on the conveyor belt, the ice holds the frozen sediment in place,
keeping the wine clear. The metal cap is then removed and the ice is expelled by pressure, along with the
sediment and the plastic container. The final process from here to the insertion of the cork is automated
and takes a short time, thus avoiding loss of pressure and the possibility of oxidation.

Inevitably, a small amount of wine is lost during disgorging. The bottle is filled to the correct level and then
a mixture of wine and sugar cane, called liqueur d'expedition, is added. The amount of sugar used will
depend on the sweetness you want to give to the final product. This part of the traditional method is known
as dosage. An important trait of each winemaker's style is the sweetness, or dryness, of the wine. This
stylistic element is determined by the composition of the dose, which varies depending on the winery. Most
sparkling wines tend to be very dry, however as with any wine, even the driest will have a minimum of
unfermented or residual sugar. The list below describes the total sugar content of the finished wine, rather
than the amount added in the serving. These are the terms commonly used to describe the sweetness or
dryness of sparkling wines.

Brut Nature/ Brut Zero/ Ultra Brut = extremely dry 0-2g/l

Extra Brut = very dry 0-6 g/l

Brut = very dry to dry 0- 15 g/l

Extra- Sec/ Extra Dry = less dry to medium dry 12-20 g/l

Sec/Dry/Secco/Seco/ Trocken = medium dry 17- 35 g/l

Demi- Sec/ Riche/ halbtrocken/ Semi- Sweet/ Abbocato = sweet 33- 50 g/l

Doux/ Sweet/ Dolce/ Doce/ Dulce = very sweet 50+ g/l

It should be noted that since the grades overlap, winemakers (or merchants) have some flexibility in how
they decide to describe their product. For example, one producer's Brut may be the equivalent of another
producer's Extra-Sec.

To maintain a perfect seal, the cork of a sparkling wine must be considerably compressed before being

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inserted into the neck of the bottle. In its original state, it is shaped like a cylinder with an area three times
larger than that of the neck of the bottle; the mushroom shape we are used to is acquired once the cork is
inserted into the bottle. Even with this degree of compression, a wire “muzzle” is added to ensure further
safety. Cork is made up of two sections, and the combination of both has been shown to have the most
effective seal. The part that is in contact with the wine consists of two or three pieces of whole cork; the
rest is made of composite cork. Quality-conscious winemakers will age the wine for a period of a few
months to allow the expedition liqueur to integrate into the wine, and for the wine to recover from the
violent process of disgorging.

Finally, before reaching the consumer, the bottle is dressed. The aluminium that appears on the neck of
many sparkling wine bottles has been there since ancient times, when bottles were not refilled after
disgorging and aluminium was used to hide the gap left between the wine and the cork.

Whether the wine receives more aging is a matter of taste. The best traditional method sparkling wines are
able to evolve in the bottle: the bubbles become creamier and less aggressive, and the sugar in the
expedition liqueur allows the development of honey and toasted notes. The compounds remaining from
autolysis can develop bready, biscuity and toasty aromas; and fruit can grow alongside the aromas, often
resulting in a fabulously complex cocktail of flavours.

Pg. 17, photo: Gyropallets are much more efficient for remuage, but represent a considerable investment
for the producer; photo: Sediment on the neck of a Champagne bottle before disgorging. This bottle is
sealed with a cork and a staple, most wineries use a metal stopper.

Transfer Method
This method attempts to take advantage of the secondary fermentation in the bottle without having the
disadvantages and costs of the complicated sediment removal process required by the traditional method.
Until the removal stage, the process is the same as the traditional method. As with this method, yeast
autolysis occurs during bottle maturation, provided the wine is matured for a sufficient time. However, in
this case, the entire contents of the bottle are disgorged inside a pressure tank, which is filtered in bulk
and rebottled in a clean bottle.

This can give good sparkling wines at cheaper prices than those using the traditional method. With large
quantities that can be easily examined, it is easier to ensure consistent quality. It is accepted, however,
that the quality of the bubbles may be affected, especially with manual and semi-automatic methods.
These can reduce pressure by a small amount or increase oxidation, although always within acceptable
limits. A distinction can be made on the label between the two processes; the one using the transfer
method may state that the wine has been “fermented in the bottle”, while wines using the traditional
method may state “fermented in this bottle”, although it will most likely say traditional method or méthode
traditionelle.

The transfer method is used mainly in the New World, particularly in Australia, where it accounts for 80%
of sparkling wine production. Although it is not unknown in Europe, no one makes it a specialty. It should
be noted that in Champagne only half bottles, decanters, magnums and rarely jeroboams, go through the
full Champagne process, all other sizes are decanted so can be said to have gone through the transfer
method.

CHAMPAGNE

The Champagne Region

The Champagne region is the northernmost region of France and is located northeast of Paris. The three
main vineyard concentrations are Vallée de la Marne, Montagne de Reims and Côte des Blancs. In the
Marne Valley, many of the major companies are based in the town of Epernay. To the north is Montagne
de Reims, at the bottom of which is Reims Cathedral, another important centre of trade. To the south is
the Côte des Blancs. All these vineyards are located in the Marne department. About 90 km. South of the
Côte des Blancs, but still part of the appellation, there are three separate areas: Around Sézanne in the
Marne and Bar-Sur-Seine and Bar-Sur-Aube, in the département. Recently, to meet demand, there has
been an expansion of vineyards further north, in the Aisne department.

Pg. 172, Map: Champagne.

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Climate and Soils
Because these vineyards are so far north, it is not at all easy to make a drinkable wine. The winters are
cold and the summers are warm rather than hot. The average temperature during the growing season is
16 ºC. In this climate it is difficult for the grapes to reach full ripeness, and they may not have more than
8.5% natural alcohol potential. For a vintage wine, 9.5% abv is required. In the New World, grapes would
never achieve flavour ripeness at such low levels of alcohol potential. Consequently, the typical product is
a light and fresh wine, with high acidity and low alcohol content. It is ideal for a wine base since the high
acidity contributes to the final product being well balanced. A small quantity of this still wine is put on sale,
but it cannot be called Champagne. It has the separate appellation of Côteaux Champenois.

The subsoil in the Champagne region is mostly calcareous, except in Aube, where it is Kimmeridgean
marl. The calcareous soil plays an important role, as it retains water very well. Annual rainfall averages
650 mm. (Bordeaux has more than 800 mm.), but the calcareous soil ensures that there is always water
when it is needed. The different soil characteristics of the villages contribute to the characteristics of the
fruit they produce. Each Champagne village is graded for quality on a percentage scale, under a system
known as echelle des crus. Seventeen villages have the maximum rating of 100% and are known as
Grand Cru; 43 are Premier Cru with a rating of 90-99%; the lowest rating is 80% and applies to some
villages outside the Marne département. Unlike Burgundy or Alsace, the entire people are included.
Inevitably, there will be prominent locations within some towns that will have a lower rating. Likewise, not
all land within a 100% rated town will offer the same level of potential. The winegrower and the annual
weather conditions play a role in this marginal climate. An experienced or lucky winegrower can grow
exceptional grapes on less than ideal soil, just as grapes from outstanding soil can be spoiled by the
winegrower's incompetence or bad weather. However, for a wine to be at the highest level, everything
must work together: good soil, an experienced winemaker and a good harvest.

In the past, winegrowers were paid according to the echelle des crus. A base price per kilogram of grapes
was agreed upon during the harvest and then a percentage of the base price depending on the rating of
the town where the grapes were grown. A winegrower in a Grand Cru village might receive the top price,
while another in a lower-rated village might receive four-fifths of the base price. Since the EU prohibits this
price fixing, winegrowers and traders negotiate individual contracts.

Viticulture and Grape Varieties

Three grape varieties are mainly used in the production of Champagne: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and the
humbler Pinot Meunier. In the Meunier Valley, all three varieties are found, although Pinot Meunier is the
preferred one. Its late budding and early ripening make this grape grow better in this Nordic climate with
spring frosts and summer rainfall. It gives an easy-drinking fruitiness, and is especially important for wines
that are to be enjoyed when young. The Montagne de Reims part is widely planted with red varieties,
especially Pinot Noir. This varietal produces full-bodied, long-lasting wines and provides a base for most
blends. In the Côte des Blancs, Chardonnay is the most common. It produces a much lighter wine than
Burgundy and is counted on to impart acidity, floral and citrus characters, light body and very fine-textured
bubbles.

The vineyards are arranged in rows with a maximum separation distance of 1.5 metres. Individual
vineyards are planted at a distance of 0.9-1.5 metres apart. Different pruning methods are permitted,
although the best-category vineyards use Taille Chablis (for Chardonnay) or Cordon de Royat (for Pinot
Noir and Pinot Meunier). Both methods leave large amounts of old wood, which increases frost resistance,
and makes it easier to grow a second crop in years when frost has destroyed the first shoots. In both
cases, the vines are trained on low wires that are thumb pruned.

Winemaking
In Champagne, mechanical harvesting is prohibited, so all grapes are picked by hand and placed in small
plastic boxes to minimize any damage. With red grapes in particular, great care must be taken.
Immediately after harvesting, the grapes must be taken to the pressing area to be weighed. They are then
quickly pressed to prevent oxidation, or to prevent the juice from the red grapes from receiving the colour
of their skins. (It may seem odd that while most Champagne is white, it is mostly made from red grapes.)
Each village will usually have at least one pressing area to ensure that the grapes are pressed as quickly
as possible.

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The harder the grapes are pressed, the more undesirable attributes are found in the wine, for example
harsh tannins, while the softer early pressings are rich in sugar and palatable acids. Don Pérignon was the
first to document this. He designed a large diameter vertical pressing for the specific production of white
wines from red grapes. This type of pressing, known as Coquard Press, typically carries a load of four tons
of grapes, although the size can vary considerably. Today, more modern horizontal tire presses are used,
which apply a gentler, more controlled pressure. Whatever pressing process is used, the amount of juice
that can be extracted is strictly controlled. The law says that 160 Kg. Only 102 liters of juice can be
extracted from grapes. As the grapes are pressed, the juice is divided into two classes, the first 80 liters
out of every 100 will be classified as cuvée and the rest will be classified as taille. The finest Champagne
will be made exclusively from the cuvée juice. Any juice that comes after taille will be sent to distillation.

The cuvée and taille juice of each varietal and each village will be stored and fermented separately.
Typically this will take place in stainless steel vessels under controlled temperatures, but many
winemakers are returning to the tradition of having the first fermentation of at least some of the wine take
place in new oak barrels. The production of the wine then follows the stages of the traditional method.
Storage during the secondary fermentation, autolysis, sur-pointe and ageing after disgorging takes place
in cellars that are often dug into the limestone rock, many of which extend for kilometres beneath Reims
and Epernay. The advantage they have is that they are at a constant temperature of 10-12 ºC.

The fact that the climate is marginal favors the production of non-vintage blends to balance the
differences between the wines made in different years. This practice allows the winemaker to consistently
create and maintain the winery's individual style. It is often said that the ideal wine for Champagne is non-
vintage, but most years wineries produce vintage wine. These have an individual characteristic and will
vary each year in style. Even in the best years, no more than 80% of the harvest can be sold as vintage
wine. The remainder is used as reserve wine for future blends. In general, vintage wine remains the
exception rather than the rule. Vintage wines should have a fuller body and more fruit intensity than non-
vintage wines, as well as exhibiting more toasty and biscuity notes due to the longer autolysis period.
Many producers will also prefer a Prestige Cuvée. Most, but not all, are vintage wines; all are produced
from the highest quality base wines and are blended with great care. They will often be aged for longer
before being removed, and will be designed to be able to be aged for longer if necessary.

The Champagne Trade

Although the process of making Champagne requires a considerable investment of time and money,
approximately 3,750 growers in the highest classification villages sell their own Champagne, although in
many cases it has been vinified in a cooperative winery. Since their grapes typically come from a single
___location, the terms Grand Cru and Premier Cru often appear on their labels (although some of the larger
wineries are putting more emphasis on the classification of their base wines). Most growers sell their
grapes to cooperative wineries or to some of the Champagne houses.

Cooperative wineries play an important role in Champagne, processing, at one stage or another, more
than half of the wine produced. However, only 7% of total sales are under a cooperative label; the
remainder is sold either as a cuvée to one of the négociant houses, or as the buyer's own brand. Of all the
wines appearing on the world's markets, 70% bear on the label one of the 264 négociant houses.
However, between them they only own 12% of the vineyard area. This shows how dependent they are on
farmers and cooperatives for their raw materials. They will collaborate with her throughout the year,
especially in the pressing area and during the harvest. Within the classification of Champagne houses,
there once existed an internal group called the Syndicat de Grandes Marques de Champagne. Although it
no longer exists, the big brands are often called Grande Marque Champagnes. The small number at the
bottom of a Champagne label can indicate whether it was made by a grower (RM), a cooperative winery
(CM), or a Champagne house (NM); or whether it is a brand that does not belong to the producer (MA).

By law, the word Champagne must be marked on the part of the cork that protrudes into the bottle.
Champagne is also the only AC wine in France that must bear the words Appellation Contrôlée on the
label.

OTHER BOTTLE-FERMENTED SPARKLING WINES

While climate and soil have a paternal effect on wine, there are many other regions in the world that have
adopted the method of secondary fermentation and bottle maturation to produce sparkling wine.

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Champagne houses themselves have been quick to establish wineries in places as diverse as the Loire
Valley, Brazil, India, Australia, New Zealand, California and even Korea. There are two reasons: firstly,
due to the geographical limitations of the vineyards, Champagne production is limited and, in boom years,
prices can rise very quickly. Secondly, Champagne has the image of a luxury product (in a well-known
brand, more than 10% of the sales price is due to promotional costs). This results in many governments
strictly limiting their import, especially if there is a wine industry to protect.

Pg.175, chart: Other Bottle-Fermented Sparkling Wines.

France
It is not surprising that many other French sparkling wines are made using what is known as the traditional
method. One of them, the Crémant wine, raised the status of a number of old AC wines. The name and
tighter controls were introduced in 1975. Controls include matters such as the proportion of grape varietals
in the blend, juice yields and the length of time the wine remains on the lees (minimum 9 months). Wines
in this group include Crémant d'Alsace, Crémant de Bourgogne, Crémant de Limoux, and Crémant de
Loire. Generally sparkling, each of these wines is made from the same grapes used in the production of
the region's finest still wines. However, a proportion of lower quality varieties is permitted, such as Aligoté
in Burgundy. Crémant d'Alsace is made primarily from Pinot Blanc and Riesling, although the aromatic
varietals of Gewürztraminer and Muscat are prohibited, and Chardonnay is permitted.

There are also a number of additional AC sparkling wines in France that are made using the traditional
method. These include Chenin-Blanc cuvées from Saumur and Vouvray in the Loire.

Spain
The second European producer of sparkling wines using the traditional system is Spain, which is known as
Cava. The word Cava is a DO (currently in the process of promotion to DOC), and covers the method and
area of production. The trade is centered in the town of Sant Sadurni d'Anoia, where the wineries compete
with those of Champagne. While the majority of wine is produced in the Catalan vineyards of Penedés,
production can also take place in other DO regions: These include Rioja, Navarra and Utiel-Requena. The
wines must be made using the traditional method and must remain in the bottle for a minimum of nine
months before being disgorged. The cork should have a four-pointed star at the base.

Most Cava tends to be dry and low in acidity, with some character from the autolysis of the yeasts. The
flavor will vary considerably depending on the grapes used. In Penedés, the most commonly used
varieties are those usually planted locally for white wines. Macabeo (the Viura from Rioja) produces fairly
neutral wines. Xarel-lo can have an intense, earthy flavor. Parellada exhibits apple notes. Many producers
are beginning to use Chardonnay, which can provide the necessary fruit and acidity. Unlike Champagne,
few wines are made for aging.

Pg. 176, chart: Sparkling Wine Tank Method.

The New World

It is mainly to the countries of the New World that Champagne houses have gone to diversify. Under
several joint and independent initiatives, good quality sparkling wines are being produced using not only
the traditional method. Most good New World sparkling wines are made from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay,
so they require vineyards in cooler climates in regions such as Tasmania and the Yarra Valley in Australia,
Marlborough in New Zealand, Carneros in California and Oregon. Although Champagne varietals and
methods are used, the wines tend to have richer, riper fruit. However, the variety of vineyards, and the
different philosophies about wine production and commercial objectives, result in a diversity of styles when
it comes to matters such as degrees of autolysis, fruit character, and the balance between fruit and
oxidative flavors and/or acidity. There is often considerable investment in the vineyards and production
mechanics, and quality can be exceptional. Many of the major brands are produced using labor-saving
techniques, such as the transfer method, which reduces costs and increases profitability.

Sparkling Reds are made with different varietal grapes from Australia, although Shiraz is undoubtedly the
most important. Some use a proportion of reserve wines and/or barrel aging to add intensity and
complexity.

There are also large quantities of very cheap sparkling wines made in New World regions that do not use

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Champagne varietals. They use the tank method.

TANK METHOD
It is likely that the majority of sparkling wine consumed in the world is made by this method. In France, this
method is known as cuve close, or the Charmat method, named after the Frenchman who invented it in
the early 20th century. According to this method, the second fermentation takes place in a sealed tank
instead of in a bottle. Dry base wine is introduced into the tank, along with sugar, yeast nutrients and
clarifying agents. After the second fermentation, the remaining sediment is removed by filtration under
pressure, before the wine is bottled.

The most important advantage of the tank method is that it considerably reduces production costs. It does,
however, tend to produce larger, more irregular bubbles that do not last as long as those from bottle-
fermented wine. It is also true that most wines that undergo this method do not show any of the subtle
flavors left by the autolysis of the yeasts, as this does not usually occur. For the production of sparkling
wines that display the character of the base wines, without the alteration and masking that occurs with
autolysis, this method may prove to be ideal. It is particularly useful for aromatic varietals such as Muscat
and Riesling, and fruity-style sparkling wines such as Prosecco from northeastern Italy. Recent studies
have shown that autolysis can be induced by, for example, using shovels to stir up the sediment and bring
it into more direct contact with the wine during the second fermentation. The quality of the base wine and
the care taken during production have a great influence on the final product. It may happen that when
trying to keep the price low, the best wine can be produced by making concessions in production methods
and investment in base wines. However, under French law, no sparkling wine that has used the tank
method can be classified AC.

Sekt
Sekt from Germany is mostly tank-fermented, although a small number of the more expensive brands
have been bottle-fermented. Germany is a huge market for sparkling wines and has the highest per capita
consumption in the world. Most of the sparkling wine consumed is Sekt.

In legal terms, Sekt is not necessarily a German wine, but it is a wine that has been made sparkling in
Germany. Base wines usually come from France or Italy. On the other hand, Deutscher Sekt, in addition
to being made sparkling in Germany, must only use grapes grown in Germany. The best is made from
Riesling grapes, although the higher-yielding Müller-Thurgau is more commonly used. Recently there has
been an increase in varietals such as Chardonnay, Auxerrois, Pinot Blanc, and most successfully, Pinot
Noir. If all the grapes in the wine come from one of the 13 Anbaugebiete, then the wine can carry the
superior appellation of Deutscher Sekt bA. Some of the larger wineries will produce individual Einzellage
wines, although these quality Sekts are most likely to be produced using the traditional method.

Asti
The Asti Method is often considered a variation of the tank method, but differs in that it does not use the
original dry still wine production. Using the Asti method, the sweet juice from the pressed grapes is
fermented to approximately 6% vol., then cooled and filtered to stop the fermentation. At this stage, the
partially fermented must is still, not foamy. Sugar and yeast are then added and the must is placed in
sealed tanks to continue its fermentation. When the desired alcohol content is achieved, the wine is cooled
and filtered through a membrane filter to remove live yeasts, and bottled under pressure. This results in a
sparkling wine, quite low in alcohol, between 7 and 7.5% vol., but with a high residual sugar content. In the
case of Asti DOCG, the grape used is Muscat, with a typical intense grape aroma and flavour. The finest
wines tend to have a much longer finish and a distinctive peach and tangerine flavor. Asti is best
consumed when very young, and is usually fermented only when necessary. Meanwhile, the unfermented
must is stored under refrigeration. If it spends too much time in storage before being consumed, it loses its
fruit appeal, and develops unpleasant vegetal flavors, reminiscent of geraniums.

Pg.177, photo: Ice forming on the outside of tanks used for the fermentation of Asti.

CARBON INJECTION
The third way to make sparkling wine is through carbonation. This is the only method that does not use the
CO2 that results from alcoholic fermentation, but instead extracts it from a cylinder. It adds bubbles, but
does not alter the wine. This method is the cheapest of all, and it shows. The bubbles are large and
disappear quickly. For this reason this method is not used in any quality wine. In France, a sparkling wine

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using this method must indicate vin gazéfie on the label; such wines seem to find their natural market as
prizes at fairs. In the UK, these wines are only seen as Sparkling Light British Wines.

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CHAPTER 33
PORT

There is no other wine that is more British than Port, because it was created by the British for the British.
While the British have always preferred French wine, on occasion, sometimes for political reasons, they
have had to try wines from elsewhere, such as Spain and Portugal, largely due to ease of transport. For
eight years, from 1678, the importation of wines from France to the United Kingdom was prohibited, and in
1703 the Treaty of Methuen was signed with Portugal, which immediately increased trade between the two
countries. During that season, the red wines of Portugal were light and acidic, unable to withstand the
rigors of a journey across the Bay of Biscay and were unappealing to the consumer. However, two English
merchants on a wine-buying trip seemed to have found a possible solution to these problems around
1678. In the Monastery of Lamego, about 90 km away. High up in the Douro Valley, they had tasted a
smooth, slightly sweet red wine that they thought might be very attractive to their customers. The abbot
confessed to them that his secret was to add some brandy to the wine before finishing its fermentation. If
this story is true, it happened some 50 years before these wines were commercially shipped to London.
Although Port is considered a typically British drink, the main export market is France, where the lighter
wines are mainly used as an aperitif. In Britain, sales are well below their known peak, but a revival is
underway, led by strong demand for quality wines both there and in the United States.

Port is the classic example of a fortified wine made by adding alcohol to stop fermentation before it ends
naturally. All wines have some residual sugar. Many are sweet; others are extremely sweet.

SOIL AND TOPOGRAPHY

For thousands of years the Douro has carved a deep ravine through a rock of schist and granite. When
the first vines were planted hundreds of years ago, there was no soil at all, just precarious slopes of slate
and granite, and the scorching heat of the sun. These conditions may seem unlikely for any type of
cultivation to be carried out, however this region was the first region in the world to be officially delimited in
1756. The delimited region extends about 60 km. from the Spanish border downriver to the town of Régua.
However, the heart of the region is centred around the town of Pinhao, about 20 km away. upriver from
Régua. This is where most of the properties, or quintas, are located. The vineyards are planted on
terraces carved into the schist rock on the sloping slopes. Funds from the European Union have
contributed to the modernisation of vineyards.

Porto's trade is centred in Porto, at the mouth of the Douro River. This is the second largest city in
Portugal and is located approximately 70 km away. downriver from the nearest Douro vineyards. The
offices of the trade organisations are located here, although the warehouses, or ármazens, of the various
exporters are on the other side of the river, in the town of Vila Nova da Gaia.

CLIMATE
The Douro vineyards are protected from the rainy winds by the Serra de Marao, which is about 1,400
metres high. The climate is dry and continental, with temperatures reaching 40ºC during the summer, and
30ºC during the harvest season. In winter there can be severe frosts. Upstream there is a dramatic decline
in rainfall. While Porto is the second rainiest city in Europe, with an annual rainfall of 1,200 mm, in Régua
it is 900 mm, in Pinhao 700 mm. and in Barca d'Alva on the Spanish border it is only 400 mm. annual.
Rain generally falls during spring and autumn, often in the form of violent downpours.

Pg. 179, map: The Douro Valley.

VINEYARD CLASSIFICATION
Port production is strictly controlled and each year each quinta is given a quota specifying the volume it
can produce (any extra wine can be sold under the Douro DO light wine, and as this is becoming more
common, the quota restriction system presents fewer problems, even if the final price of the grapes is
significantly lower). The theory behind all this is to ensure that no more wine is produced than can be sold
at a profit. Many factors must be taken into account when calculating vineyard quotas. The grower can
control some, but not all. In descending order of importance, these factors are:

• Low yields
• Altitude
• Soil composition

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 • Vineyard management
• Cultivated varietals
• Slope grade
• Sun exposure
• Space between vines
• Protection from strong winds
• Age of the vines

After these factors are considered, vineyards are given scores from A to E, with three-quarters receiving
scores between C and D. The classification affects not only the quantity of Port that can be produced, but
also the price it can fetch on the open market, and the style of Port in which it will be used.

VINIFICATION
Traditionally, the extraction of colour and tannins from grapes was carried out by treading the grapes in
granite enclosures or winepresses. The grapes, crushed or not, were placed inside these enclosures, and
groups of workers trampled them for about 12 hours. Workers could alternate periods of treading with
other activities such as dancing. The fermenting must was then introduced into open containers and the
caps were regularly dipped to extract more colour. This method may still be practiced in some traditional
estates, whose wines will be sold at high prices and the labour costs will be absorbed, but robotic
winepresses and mechanised punching down are becoming more common. For less prestigious wines,
autovinifiers can be used. Using this method, the crushed grapes are placed in tightly sealed containers
and the CO2 pressure resulting from fermentation is used to force the juice through pipes so that it
continually sprays onto the skins, seeds and stems. This process is much more economical. One
disadvantage is that the installation of specialized containers requires a high investment. An alternative is
the traditional pumping-over method, which is very common in all wine regions, although this leads to a
less vigorous extraction of colour, flavours and tannins.

Pg. 179, photo: Terraced vineyards at Quinta do Seixo.

FORTIFICATION
When the sugar in the fermented wines has become between 6% and 9% vol., spirits are added at 77%
vol. in a proportion of one part spirit to four parts wine. This kills the yeast and stops fermentation. The
spirit must have a grape base, although it will most likely come from France, Italy or Spain rather than
Portugal. The timing of fortification depends on the degree of sweetness required in the final product.
Once fortification has been carried out, the wine is placed in barrels, as there is a danger that the high
alcohol content will release more strong tannins.

Pg.180, Autovinification.

Autovinification
The grapes are placed in the lowest sealed section of the container. As fermentation occurs, pressure
increases and forces the wort up the A column, into the open space at the top. When a certain pressure is
reached, the water valve, B, releases the gas pressure and the weight of the must forces it down the
central column, C, and over the bung, submerging it and extracting color and tannins. The cycle is
repeated every twenty minutes throughout the fermentation period, which takes one and a half to two
days.

GRAPE VARIETIES
More than 80 grape varieties are permitted in Port production, and there may be even more varieties in the
vineyards. Traditionally, in older vineyards a number of different species were planted at the same time
and growers were not aware of what they had. However, with the modernization of vineyards, major
producers tend to plant blocks of individual varietals that best respond to the soil and climate of the
___location. Port is always a blend, and the varietal character is rarely identified, so one could argue that the
varietals used are unimportant. Currently, five red varieties are preferred:

• Tinta Roriz (Tempranillo), has low yields, but adds finesse to the blend. By Portuguese
standards, this is a light grape.
• Touriga Nacional is considered the finest grape of the Douro. It produces very small berries and
extremely low yields. The wines are full-bodied and concentrated. Due to its rarity, cost and

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 quality, it will be used only in quality wines.
• Touriga Franca (formerly called Touriga Francesa) is also a quality grape, although it is not at the
same level as Touriga Nacional. Their wines are robust and have an excellent perfume.
• Tinta Cao had almost disappeared, but with funding from the EU, it has experienced a
renaissance. Its bunches are small and the grapes even smaller; it adds tannins to the wine.
• Tinta Barroca is a dense-skinned variety that produces soft, fruity wines. Ripens early.

The comparatively small amount of white port produced is made from white grapes.

MATURATION AND WINE STYLES

In the spring following the harvest, the wine is transferred to the winemaker's warehouse, or ármazen.
Tankers have replaced the picturesque sailing boats, barcos rabelos, that used to bring wine downstream.
They are still used, but for advertising purposes, and can be seen anchored at the docks. Many of the
shops are located in the narrow streets of Vila Nova da Gaia, which is located on the opposite bank of the
Douro to Porto. The climate here is milder and more humid, which favors better ripening. Very little wine is
stored in the Douro, where extreme summer temperatures tend to produce more powerful wines. In the
port wine trade, the traditional barrel used for storage is the “pipa”, which holds 550 litres. There are a
variety of styles on the market and this is due to several factors. These may include the quality of the base
wine, whether it comes from a single year (vintage) or is a blend of several; the length of time it has been
in barrel; and whether it has been filtered before bottling.

White Port is made from white grapes. It typically has a golden color, low acidity, and some of the honey
and toasted aromas that are present in intentional oxidation. They can range from almost dry to sweet (the
style should be mentioned on the label). They are non-vintage, matured in wood and generally sold at the
age of two or three years.

Ruby Port is a style that has traditionally been popular in the British market. It is young, non-vintage, full-
bodied and intensely colored. It is generally sold before the age of three. Many are sweet, simple and with
quite potent alcohol. The best are labeled as Ruby Reserve Ports. These are a blend of the best quality
wines, from one or more vintages, matured for up to 5 years in barrel before being bottled. They are full-
bodied, very rich in fruit, and with better integrated alcohol. Like many wood-aged and filtered Ports, they
are ready to drink as soon as they are bottled.

Tawny Port is the style preferred by the French. There are two types. Blending ruby and white ports will
result in cheaper, lower quality wines. These wines are recognized by their pink rim. On the other hand,
Reserve Tawny Port is the result of at least seven years of maturation in barrels. They are very soft and
can be recognized by their golden brown, ochre border. They are a blend of different vintages. Tawny
Port with Indication of Age can be labeled as only 10, 20, 30, or 40+ years old. For a label to qualify as
such, the winemaker must demonstrate that he has enough wine of that age in his warehouses and that
the wine is consistent with the typical characteristics of a wine of that age. The age on the label is usually
the average age and not the minimum age. The label should mention the year of bottling, which is
important, as these wines lose their freshness once they are bottled. They are the finest of all Tawny
Ports, and are exceptionally complex and concentrated. They do not have any sediment once they are
bottled and therefore do not need to be decanted. Once opened, they should last in the bottle for a few
weeks. Oxidative ageing in barrels results in a brownish colour and a loss of colour, as well as a
development of aromas and flavours of nuts, coffee, chocolate and caramel, which accompany the
colourless versions and berry notes that are often present in younger Ports.

Crusted Port is a British speciality and until recently used to occur only with wines bottled in England. As
the bottling of Port in England is now banned, bottling is carried out by some Portuguese winemakers.
These are high quality ruby wines, from one or more vintages, bottled young and unfiltered. As they
release a thick sediment, or crust, they need to be decanted.

Pg. 181, photo: Touriga Nacional vineyards overlooking the Douro at Quinta do Canais. Chart: Porto.

Late Bottled Vintage Port (LBV) is a wine that comes from a specific vintage, but not necessarily a
“declared” vintage (see Vintage Port below), that has been barrel-aged for an average of four to six years
before being bottled. In the traditional LBV style, the wine is bottled, unfiltered, after four years and

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continues to improve in the bottle. It needs to be decanted. Most LBVs are made in the most modern
style. They mature in barrels for six years and are filtered before being bottled, making them ready for
consumption without the need to be decanted. These Ports tend to have more intense and complex fruit
than Ruby Ports, and may have a detectable tannic flavor. In the past LBV Ports never came from the
same year as Vintage Port, but some wineries now produce both styles in the same year. The label of an
LBV wine must include not only the year of the harvest, but also the year of bottling. A bottle of LBV Port
can be stored for up to two weeks after opening, regardless of the style.

Colheita Ports (Colheita Ports) are particularly popular in Portugal. These are wines from an individual
harvest that have been aged in barrels until just before being sold. The minimum period is 8 years,
although in most cases this period is longer. There are Tawny Ports that are very fine and old and do not
need to be decanted. In addition to mentioning the vintage, the label must mention that the wine has been
aged in barrels and the date on which it was bottled.

Vintage Ports are among the longest-lived wines produced in the world. They are exceptional products
from a particular year, typically from the best vineyards, which are bottled when they are two years old.
When young they are complex, rich and tannic. They are slow to mature and may not reach their peak
until they are 20 years or older. They will leave a thick deposit and should be decanted and consumed
within a few days of opening the bottle. Each winery can determine whether it wants to declare a “vintage.”
There is not always a common agreement on what a harvest year is. For example, some wineries
declared 1991 as one vintage, others 1992, and others both. However, there was unanimity in declaring
the 2000 harvest.

Single Quinta Vintage Ports are vintage Ports, which are the product of a single estate. Like Vintage
Port, they are not made every year, but fall into two main categories. On the one hand there are vineyards
that will declare a vintage in every good year and that have an individual reputation that they have built up
over time. On the other hand, there are some winemakers who, in the best years, will use wines as
important constituents in their own blends. They will then declare a vintage for their fifth wine in the “not so
good” years when they have not declared a vintage for the winery’s brand. Ports from individual quintas
are usually aged in Porto by the winemakers, and once matured they go on sale.

Pg. 182, photo: View of the Douro River with the warehouses of the port of Vila Nova de Gaia on the left
and the riverside area of Porto, Cais da Ribeira, on the right.

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CAPITULO 34
MADEIRA

The island of Madeira is located in the North Atlantic Ocean about 500 km. from the Moroccan port of
Casablanca and 1,100 km. from Lisbon. It is an autonomous region within Portugal and, as such, is within
the EU. The island is extremely fertile, partly due to its volcanic soils, but also because, during the 15th
century, the dense forests that covered it were burned to create pastures. This has given an exceptionally
high potassium content to the soil. Its geographical position made the island a very important supply port
for voyages from Europe to the Americas, South Africa and the Indies. As a result, their wines became
known throughout the world and were sold mainly through British companies. Also, historically wines were
often sent on long voyages as part of their aging process. Today, France is the most important export
market, although much of the wine sold there is used only for culinary purposes.

CLIMATE, SOILS AND VITICULTURE

The island is very mountainous and the vineyards are mainly located on the slopes of the north and south
coasts. Vines are often planted with pergolas, allowing other plants to grow underneath. Rain falls mainly
in the highlands and irrigation is carried out through a network of small canals called levadas. The island's
climate is warm and humid, with a rainfall of 640 mm. Fungal diseases are a big problem.

GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINE STYLES

During the second half of the 19th century, mildew and phylloxera virtually wiped out the island's wine
trade. American hybrid varieties dominated the new plantings, replacing the four traditional varietals,
Sercial, Verdelho, Bual and Malvasia (Malmsey). Today, more than 80% of the vinifera plantations are of
the minor grape Tinta Negra Mole. Entry into the EU has meant a dramatic revolution in the way Madeira
wines are produced and labelled. First, the use of hybrid varieties is totally prohibited. Second, specific
grape names, such as Verdelho and Bual, can only be used for wines made from a minimum of 85% of
the mentioned grape. Since these names had been used to describe styles of wine rather than content,
and since noble grapes account for less than 10% of those used in Madeira, this changed the labels
overnight.

Tinta Negra Mole is the most widely planted grape in Madeira. It gives high yields of a pale, sweet red
wine. This colour gives even the youngest wines some appearance of age. It is credited with having the
chameleon-like ability to adapt to different styles required, but it is not used for the highest quality wines
such as Special Reserve or Vintage wines. Sercial is planted mainly in the highest vineyards on the island
on north-facing slopes. It produces the driest and palest wines, with very high acidity. Verdelho is planted
in lower vineyards on north-facing slopes, producing semi-dry style wines with aromas of stone fruits. Boal
(often anglicized as Bual) grows mainly around Camara de Lobos, in the south of the island, and
produces a semi-sweet wine with a dry finish. Malvasia (usually sold under the name Malmsey) produces
the sweetest Madeira wines. The two common characteristics of all these wines are their high acidity and
the smoky aromas of burnt sugar.

With restrictions on the use of traditional grape names, Madeiras are now described primarily in two ways:
by sugar level and/or by age. A wine that was recently sold as Sercial will now have to be labelled as Dry
if it is not actually made from Sercial and, similarly, former Verdelhos, Buals and Malmseys are now sold
respectively as Medium Dry, Medium Sweet and Rich, if they are not made from the noble varietals.

P. 183, painting: Madeira.

VINIFICATION AND AGING

One advantage of joining the EU has been access to aid for the modernisation of wineries. This is
reflected in the fact that stainless steel fermentation and temperature control are used almost entirely. You
can let the fermentation come to an end and then give the final touch of sweetness by adding vinho surdo
(intensely sweet must fortified to 20%). Alternatively, fermentation can be stopped before all the sugar has
been consumed by adding grape spirit. This depends on the producer and the style of wine they want to
make.

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Two techniques have been developed to reproduce the accelerated ageing of wine that was achieved by
sending it as ballast in barrels on long sea voyages. The highest quality wines are left in barrels on the
shelves (canteiros) of the merchants' warehouses. Most commonly, wine will spend a minimum of three
months in an oven. These are of two types, the most industrial is a large concrete tank with a hot water
coil that heats the wine to 40-50 ºC. The alternative is to place the barrels in a room with a temperature of
40 ºC. The latter is considered the best for wine, although it is more expensive both in space and time.

Regarding age, the rules allow wine to be labeled as 3, 5, 10 or 15 years old. Alternatively, a wine labeled
Finest must be 3 years old, Reserve 5, Special Reserve 10 and Extra Reserve 15. A wine indicating a
specific vintage must be made only from one of the noble grapes, from the same year, and must have
been aged in oak for a minimum of 20 years. Some of the older wines may bear the year of solera,
although the solera system (see chapter 35) no longer exists on the island.

Great Madeiras are wines with no ageing limit. They are virtually indestructible and the bottles, once
opened, can be left indefinitely without the wine deteriorating.

P. 184, photo: Terraced cliffs near Funchal. Irrigation is achieved through a system of small aqueducts
called “levadas”.

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CAPITULO 35
JEREZ AND MONTILLA-MORILES

The name Sherry originates from the city of Jerez, located in the south of Spain, in the province of Cádiz,
in Andalusia. This wine was popular in England during the Tudor Era, and English merchants were already
well established in the region by this time. Around 1850, 40% of production was exported to England.
While sherry, like other fortified wines, has lost some popularity, the UK remains the most important
market. After a period of declining sales in England, the Sherry market appears to have stabilised. It is
dominated by sweet wines, Cream and Pale Cream, sold mainly at Christmas. However, there is a slow
rise in sales of quality wines, including Finos and Manzanillas, as well as premium old wines. Sales of
Amontillados, Olorosos and Palo Cortado are minimal.

SHERRY WINES

Its image throughout the world was seriously damaged in the 1970s and early 1980s with the appearance
on the market of low-quality wines as a result of overproduction.

Consequently, with financial support from the EU, a considerable area of vineyards has been cleared to
achieve a balance between demand and supply. There has also been an increase in the production of
white table wines to use all the grapes produced. Three important steps have also been taken to enhance
the image of Sherry. The first was a decree restricting the amount of stock each company has for sale
each year. This is usually about a third, which ensures that, indeed, most Sherry wines are at least 3 years
old.

Secondly, there was a voluntary decision by the wineries to prohibit the export of bulk sherry. The two
exceptions to this rule are state monopolies and catering, but Sherry wines used in sauces, chocolates,
etc.
The third, and most recent, is the introduction of Old Sherry Wines, which has been a hit in the premium
wine market.

THE JEREZ WINE MARKET

The market is dominated by brands from large wineries. These companies have their wineries in Jerez
itself and in the two small coastal towns of Sanlúcar de Barrameda and El Puerto de Santa María. Most of
them own their own vineyards, but they also buy grapes and musts from other winegrowers, some of
whom are grouped into cooperatives. They can also buy wine from small wineries (small winegrowers who
make and age their wines but do not bottle or distribute them on the market). Typically, the sherry wine
warehouse contributes to the flavour of the blends, but they are also bottled in their purest form, and are
among the most classic and characteristic of all sherry wines.

SOILS AND VINEYARDS

The soils in this area are divided into three different types: albariza, sand and clay, although the most
important are the albariza. Albariza dominates the soils of the Jerez vineyards. They are compact soils
with a high chalk content, which facilitates drainage while retaining a lot of moisture. Muddy and slippery
when wet, when dry they create a hard layer that inhibits evaporation. There are three subtypes of soil
recognized in the area depending on the amount of limestone, which ranges from a maximum of 80% to a
minimum of 30%. Under the sun the floors appear white, due to the reflection of the chalk.

Albariza soils are found mainly in the heart of the Sherry Wines region, between the Jerez Hills and the
Guadalquivir River. This is where the best grapes are grown.
The second type of soil is sand (compacted sand is 70% and 10% or less limestone). The sand contains
a proportion of iron oxide, which gives it a reddish brown colour, although the subsoil is often calcareous.
This type of soil is now mainly planted with Muscat grapes, and much of the land that used to be vineyards
is now used to grow vegetables and set up greenhouses.

The third type is mud. This is the richest soil, located in the lowest areas, mainly in the southeast of the
region. It gives high yields of wine with more body but less quality than those with albariza. Many of these
vineyards now produce oats.

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P. 186, photo. Contrast between the bright white of the albariza with the brown of the clay.

CLIMATE

The climate here can be described as subtropical, with average winter temperatures of 10.7 ºC and
summer temperatures of 23.7 ºC. With 300 days of sunshine a year. And the average rainfall is 650 mm,
quite high for Spain, but most of this rain is concentrated between the months of October and May. During
the summer, water is scarce and must be carefully controlled. For this reason, aerpias are dug between
the rows of vines. The ripening season is very long, but drought can be a problem.

GRAPE VARIETIES

Palomino, represents 90% of the planted area. It is one of those varietals that seems to exist only for a
single wine, in this case Sherry. Anywhere else he seems incapable of making good wine. The albariza
soil of Jerez must be its lifeblood, because here it is the basis for almost all wines. The grape has a very
thin skin and this can lead to grape breakage, causing rot in the period before harvest. There is always a
conflict over when it should be harvested: early to maintain the acidity, or later to give it more alcohol and
reduce the fortification, which means that less taxes are paid. In either case, it is collected by hand due to
its delicate constitution and susceptibility to damage. The grape pickers have to carefully place the cut
bunches in plastic boxes containing 15/17 kg. of grape.

Pedro Ximénez (PX) is generally planted in the lower parts of vineyards with sandy or clay soils. After
being picked, the grapes are usually left to dry in the sun on mats. This concentrates the sugar levels. The
result is a wine often used for sweetening. In recent years, the PX area has decreased considerably within
the Jerez wine region, and grapes are brought from Montilla or Malaga. This is allowed in the DO Jerez.

VITICULTURE

Yields in Jerez vary considerably and are directly related to rainfall during autumn and winter. The average
is about 65 hl/ha, with a maximum of 80 hl/ha allowed for the best vineyards, and 100 hl/ha in the most
peripheral vineyards. Soils are fertilized with compost every 3-5 years, to maintain but not increase yields.
Traditionally, it is planted every 1.5 x 1.5 m. Now, however, to make the use of tractors more effective,
they are planted 1 meter and 2 meters apart from each other. Vines used to be trained in bushes and with
supports holding the branches, but the trellis system is becoming more and more common. The
conduction system used in Jerez is the simple Guyot, called in Spanish vara y pecho. The main problems
in vineyards can be mildew due to early summer rains and chlorosis due to the high limestone content in
the soil.

P. 187, photo. Foreman using the venencia to fill small glasses with sherry.

VINIFICATION

The harvest begins during the first week of September. When the grapes are harvested, the PX are left
exposed to the sun to increase their sugar content. To speed up this process, they are now placed in
plastic tunnels that are replacing the old mats. Palomino grapes are pressed quickly. As the temperature
during the harvest is very high, there is a real risk of oxidation, which is why the presses are usually
located in the vineyard itself. Pressing is now generally carried out in horizontal presses (Vaslin or
Wilmes). The first 70% obtained is for the Finos, the remaining 20% up to a maximum of 72.5 l per 100 kg.
of grapes, for Olorosos and other finos. Any excess should be used for distillation.

After pressing, acidification with tartaric acid takes place. The must is sulphated with SO2 for 24 hours to
clarify it. It is then usually pumped into stainless steel tanks where temperature-controlled fermentation
begins. Natural yeasts are generally suitable. Some traditionalists use 600 litre wooden boots. Generally,
the fermentation temperature is between 25ºC and 30ºC, much higher than that considered normal for
white wines. It should be noted that at lower temperatures, the aldehydes and other constituents that give
Sherry wines their traditional and characteristic flavour do not develop. It is important to know that all
Sherry wines, except PX and Moscatel wines, are fermented as dry wines. Any sweetness is added in
subsequent processes.

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There are two basic styles of sherry wines, Finos and Olorosos. Its development was due both to nature
and to the good work of the winemakers. Now, however, the controls that can be applied to the
fermentation of these wines play a very important role. The future of a wine can be recognized from a very
young age. The first classification is done after fermentation has finished. In December or January after
the harvest, each barrel or tank is tasted by the foreman, who will take samples to determine the future of
each wine. The most delicate wines are those destined to be Finos and are marked with a line (I). The
most complex and strongest will become Olorosos and are marked with two lines (II). At this early stage,
natural yeast known as flor will begin to grow on the surface of the wine. It must not be disturbed or
broken, which causes the foreman to use his venencia. (In Sanlúcar, the foreman uses a very flexible tool
made of bamboo.)

The flower has an important effect on the wines as they age under its veil. To feed itself it needs oxygen,
alcohol and glycerin and in this process it reduces the total acidity of the wine. As it develops a layer on
the surface, it also prevents oxidation, which is, on the contrary, necessary for Oloroso Sherry wines. It
also increases the level of acetaldehydes, which gives sherry wines their characteristic flavour. The
optimal alcohol level for the flower is between 14.5% and 15.5%. The heat of summer and the cold of
winter also affect the action of the flower, which works best between 15 and 20 ºC. Therefore in Jerez it is
active in spring and autumn and rests in summer and winter. However, in Sanlúcar de Barrameda, where
the Atlantic provides a more balanced climate, the flower is active all year round. Its sensitivity to the
environment is such that the temperature and humidity of each winery influences the maturation styles of
Jerez wines. For optimal effect, the flor needs to be refreshed periodically, and this is achieved naturally
by the solera system, by periodically refilling the barrels.

P. 188, graph. The system of soleras; Photo. Sherry barrel with a veil of flor.

Once the style selection has been made, fortification takes place using the half-and-half method, a
mixture of high-proof alcohol and old wine, a recipe that varies from winery to winery. Until this fortification,
both the must and the young wines were known as must. Finos are fortified between 14.5 and 15.5% vol.,
which is optimal for the flor to develop, and Olorosos are fortified to 18% vol., which prevents its existence.

Sherry wines are rarely sold as vintage wines, but rather as a style or brand, so continuity of style and
quality over the years is important for sales. Jerez has developed the fractional blend known as the solera
system. Following their fortification, the wines are put into clean barrels and filled 5/6 full. In the Finos the
flower will naturally go with the wine. All wines enter the preliminary solera process without blending,
which is known as vintage wines (a term that also refers to a young wine before maturation and blending).
After 6 months, the Finos are separated to give Finos and more full-bodied wines, which are the
Amontillados. The latter have a finer flower. Temperature control is important through the hearth system.
The wineries are designed with very high roofs to maintain the temperature as best as possible and are
oriented to benefit from the breezes. Earthen soils are irrigated to increase humidity. On the other hand,
young Olorosos can be stored outside, in the heat of the sun, so that oxidation increases naturally.

Each style of wine has its own solera, which comprises a number of criaderas. The oldest criadera is
known as the solera. When a quantity of wine is required to be bottled, it is removed from the solera casks
and replaced with the same quantity from the previous criadera and so on until the youngest cask is
refilled with the vintage. The operation is known as “running,” and was originally done by hand with
buckets, but now pumps are used. It can be somewhat complex and endless, because you have to mix
both horizontally and vertically. No barrel should be filled with just one barrel, but rather with several
different ones. In this way a stable style is maintained.

You cannot withdraw more than a third at a time and, if you withdraw the maximum, you can only do so
three times a year. Indeed, for Olorosos and Amontillados it is extracted three times a year, while for Finos
and Manzanillas, to maintain freshness, less quantity is extracted more frequently. This means that in any
solera there should always remain a certain amount, even if it is decreasing, of the original wine. In the old
wineries of Jerez, the original solera can be more than 200 years old. Due to this fractional blending
system, very few sherries carry the vintage, although some carry the year in which the solera was created.

P. 189, photo. Running the screed; Graphic. Sherry.

Once the wine has finished aging in the solera, an average of 3 to 5 years for a quality Fino, up to 10

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years for Amontillados and Olorosos, and 25 years or more for the best wines, they are bottled and put on
sale. Traditionally, much wine was re-fortified before transport, as each market expected its Sherries with
different alcohol content. Now, and particularly within the EU, it is becoming the norm for wines to be
released with the alcohol content of the solera. For the United Kingdom, most Finos and Manzanillas
come at 15%, providing significant tax benefits. It is also at this stage that wines can be sweetened and
coloured, although the latter has all but disappeared with the decline in demand for Brown Sherries.
Cream Sherries and Sweet Olorosos are sweetened with PX. Concentrated grape syrup is used for Pale
Cream. Sherry is naturally high in tartrates and may precipitate into crystals. To minimise this risk, almost
all sherry wines are exposed to –8ºC, and this temperature is maintained for 8 days to precipitate tartrates.
They are usually filtered to make them shiny. Finos and Manzanillas are generally microfiltered to remove
any traces of flor that could cloud the wine.

STYLES OF JEREZ

Over the years, a wide range of Sherries has been offered on the market. These have basically evolved
into two styles, Fino and Oloroso, and in between the Palo Cortado.

The Finos are pale and bright, dry and clean on the palate. For Jerez, they are low in alcohol and should
be consumed young, as they tend to lose freshness in the bottle. The essential influence on the style
comes from the flower of all the solera stages. A Fino that has aged in a winery next to the sea, in
Sanlúcar de Barrameda, is called Manzanilla. Due to the cooler climate, the flower remains active all year
round, which gives the wine a special, more delicate and slightly salty character. In Spain, this is the most
fashionable Sherry and, surprisingly, it far exceeds the sales of Fino. When a chamomile is young it is
known as Manzanilla Fina. Manzanilla has a separate DO (Manzanilla de Sanlúcar de Barrameda).

A true Amontillado is an aged Fino or Manzanilla whose flower has died. This happens naturally after a
period of 7 years of aging, when the flower will have consumed all the nutrients that feed it. Amontillados
are fortified to a slightly higher alcohol content than a classic Fino. They are brownish and dry, with an
intense almond flavour from the oxidative process of ageing under flor. The name comes from the Montilla
region, exactly it is a wine made in the Montilla style. This complicated double aging process means that
these wines are never cheap. Commercial Amontillados are generally a blend of pure Amontillados and
other young Finos and/or Oloroso wines and are sweetened to become Medium and Medium Dry. The
latter is the most common style on the UK market.

Palo Cortado is a very rare style of Sherry, it occurs when an elegant wine that has been selected for
Fino loses its flor. The result is a wine similar in aromas and flavors to an Amontillado, but on the palate it
has the body of a dry Oloroso.

Pure Oloroso is a wine with much more body and a dark color because it has been oxidized from the
beginning. It will have robust aromas and flavors and can be savory, raw and nutty. Many Olorosos are
sweetened with PX, which even in small amounts provides detectable flavors of raisins and dried plums.
Some olorosos that are sweetened with PX (or other sweetening agents such as grape juice and brandy
mixtures), are labeled as Cream. Some Cream Sherry may have components of Fino, Manzanilla and
Amontillado in the blend.

Pedro Ximénez (PX), is the best dessert wine from Jerez and is produced from sun-dried grapes. It has a
concentrated flavor of grapes, raisins and dried figs. It is very dark, almost black and extremely sweet, it
can reach a sugar content of 400 g/l.

With the exceptions of Fino, Manzanilla and PX, all of these wines can be sweetened with a small amount
of PX, said to balance extremely dry wines. This doesn't have to appear on the label, but the powerful
influence of PX is detectable on the nose and palate. The latest addition to the Sherry family is a Fino that
has been sweetened with grape syrup, known as Pale Cream. Commercially speaking, these are
successful wines, with soft colors, medium body and sweet grape flavors.

OLD SHERRY

As a product with no vintage on the label, in the past it was very difficult to tell the difference between the
very old and complex wines from Jerez and those that were a blend to create a certain style at the

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cheapest price. To help consumers recognize this, there are several categories:

VOS (Vinum Optimum Signatum) and VORS (Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum) were created to indicate
solera wines where the bottled product is on average 20 years old and 30 years old respectively. More
recently, age categories have been created for 15-year-old and 12-year-old wines. This applies to
Amontillado, Palo Cortado, Oloroso and PX.

MONTILLA – MORILES
In Spain, fortified wines are known as vinos generouses and some are produced in regions other than
Jerez. These are Huelva, Gandia in Valencia and Rueda near Valladolid. However, international markets
only recognise the Montilla region as the only important one. It is located in the province of Córdoba,
northeast of the Sherry production area. In fact, Montilla was long considered part of the Jerez region, and
remains the largest supplier of PX to the wineries. It also gave rise to the word Amontillado. Commercially,
Montilla found its place on the shelves of the British market because its wines did not exceed 15% alcohol,
and this gave them a tax advantage over Sherry, an advantage they have now lost as Finos and
Manzanillas are exported at 15%. An unpleasant effect of the above is that Montilla wines are thought to
be cheap substitutes for those from Jerez, when many of them deserve the greatness they have on their
own merits.

Many of the large wineries are located in the city of Montilla, which is in the centre of the wine-producing
area. Being inland, the climate is more extreme than that of Jerez, with summer temperatures of 40 ºC. It
rains quite a bit more, but almost all of it falls during the winter. There are two types of soil, the limestone
albero, very similar to the albarizas of Jerez and the reddish ruedos, which are found in the center and
west of the region.

During the harvest there are 3 categories of must: the tear for the Finos, the first pressing for the Olorosos
and the second pressing for distillation. Fermentation usually takes place in traditional concrete vats.
Consequently, the flower will develop in some casks and Finos will be produced. Olorosos are kept in
casks and the flower is prevented from developing. Aging is like in Jerez, with the solera system. In terms
of production, the main difference is that the wines naturally acquire a higher alcohol content than in Jerez,
so fortification is the exception rather than the rule. They are included in this chapter because they have a
style much more similar to Sherry than to any still wine. Many of the styles of Sherry are found here:
Finos, Amontillados and Olorosos. Laws governing minimum alcohol levels restrict the use of these terms:
15% for Fino, 16% for Amontillado and Oloroso. Because of this, the British market rarely sees these
terms on Montilla labels, but rather the more generic ones such as dry, medium or cream. The most
prestigious Montilla-Moriles wines are the exceptionally good PX. They are made in the same way as in
Jerez, but due to the hotter, drier climate in summer, the conditions in Montilla-Moriles are particularly
favourable for this fine-skinned variety, and it is here that it finds its maximum expression.

P. 191, graph. Montilla-Moriles.

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CAPITULO 36
OTHER FORTIFIED WINES

Fortified wines are produced all over the world. Their robustness makes them very attractive for
producers, importers and consumers alike. This category includes wines such as Málaga, Commandaria
and the recently resurrected Vin de Constance. Classic styles such as Port and Sherry have been imitated
in many regions, with some success. There is a profusion of fortified Muscats in Australia, California,
Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece and southern France.

NATURAL SWEET WINES (VINS DOUX NATURELS - VDNS)

A high-alcohol spirit (95% vol.) is added to the partially fermented must to obtain a stronger (15/20% vol.)
and sweeter wine, the Natural Sweet Wines (NSWs). Most are bottled young, for immediate consumption,
and are full of the flavors of the grape. Moscatel is the perfect example of this style, resulting in wines that
are unabashedly perfumed and intensely sweet. Appellations include the Muscat de Beaunes de Venise
in the Rhône, and the Muscat de Saint Jean de Minervois, Muscat de Frontignan, Muscat de Mireval,
Muscat de Lunel and Muscat de Rivesaltes in Languedoc. The latter is the only one that allows the
minor variety Muscat of Alexandria. As this variety is easy to grow, it dominates in Muscat de Rivesalte
wines with the result that they are usually the cheapest Muscat VDNs, and also the least fragrant and with
the least character.

Grenache is also used for VDNs, at Rasteau in the Rhône and Banyuls, Maury and Riversaltes in the
Languedoc. Some are bottled young and fresh; others are aged in oak, and in some cases, they produce
deliberately oxidative wines with aromas of caramel, coffee and nuts. The word rancio may appear on the
label to indicate this type of wine.

P. 192, box: Vins Doux Naturels.

FORTIFIED NEW WORLD

In new wine-growing areas, fortified wines have often dominated early production, mainly because they
are easy to make, store and ship to foreign markets. It is therefore not surprising that Australia, New
Zealand and South Africa have had fortified wine industries dominated by Sherry and Port style wines. In
all these markets, the importance of these wines has been surpassed by the demand for “still” wines.

Sherry and port style wines are still made in South Africa, California and Australia. Some are of
exceptional quality. Although the names “Sherry” and “Port” are now protected, the terms Fino, Oloroso,
Amontillado and Tawny are still used in Australia for these styles. Where flor has not appeared naturally, it
is cultivated and injected to make Fino style wines.

Australia's most surprising contribution to the fortified world is its Muscat Liqueur and Tokay Liqueur, made
respectively from small-grain white Muscat and Muscadelle. The most famous of these comes from the hot
Rutherglen region of north-east Victoria. The dense, sweet must is gently extracted from the grapes that
have begun to dry out on the vine. (Dry breezes prevent the appearance of botrytis.) As with VDNs,
alcohol is added before fermentation is complete. Sweet wines are aged in a version of the solera system
in warm sheds. Oxidative aging occurs and the evaporation of the wine makes it even more concentrated.
The final product is an intense, full-bodied and cloying wine, with a battery of flavours including dried fruit
(raisins, citrus peel, dried apricots), candied fruit (jam), caramel, toffee, almonds and coffee.

MARSALA

Marsala, which takes its name from the town of the same name on the westernmost promontory of Sicily,
is a fortified wine that owes its creation to a Liverpool merchant, John Woodhouse in 1773. 20 years later,
he caught the attention of Lord Nelson, and as a result gained worldwide fame. Nelson's quartermasters
bought it as an alternative to rum before the Battle of the Nile in 1798. More recently, Marsala's reputation
has suffered as a result of poor production processes, which included the addition of elements such as
egg whites or coffee. The DOC has been reviewed and has excluded such practices. These products are
still produced by some brands, although the word Marsala may not appear on the label.

Marsala is made from a fermented wine produced from Cataratto (bulk wines), Grillo (quality wines) and

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Inzolia grapes, fortified with grape spirit and sweetened with syrup (mosto cotto) or with must whose
fermentation has been stopped with a spirit (mistela). Older wines are then aged using a solera system.
The DOC allows the following qualities:

- Fine: 1 year of aging (most).

- Superiore: 2 years of aging.
- Superiore Riserva: 4 years of aging.
- Vergine or Solera: 5 years of aging.
- Vergine Stravecchio or Vergine Riserva: more than 10 years of aging.

Marsala can also be classified by color:

- Ambra: The amber color can give the impression of aging, but it is obtained with syrup.
- Gold: No tucking allowed.
- Rubino: ruby wine made from red grapes. It is a recently created style.

At its best, Marsala is a pleasant, complex drink; most often found at its best in the kitchen.

VERMOUTHS AND FLAVORFED WINES

The history of Vermouth is similar to that of many other liqueurs. It dates back to medieval times when the
goodness of wild herbs was preserved by storing them in wine, as in the case of vermouths, or in a spirit,
as in the case of liqueurs. Monasteries often prepared both for medicinal purposes. There is no reason
why vermouths cannot be produced anywhere where there is a large quantity of white wine and herbs.
Major production centres have traditionally included Turin in Italy and Chambéry in the Savoy region of
France.

Vermouth takes its name from the German Wermut, which means wormwood (the herb that gives absinthe
its characteristics). This was once an important ingredient in intestinal worm cures, although today many
other herbs also contribute to the various final products that reach the market. Each producer has his own
formula for each style. This can include roots, spices, fruits, as well as herbs. They are macerated in wine
and then sweetened with sugar or mistela. If necessary, caramel is added to achieve a consistent color.

For the best French Vermouths, the wine is aged for 2 years, one of them in a barrel exposed to the sun.
Chambéry vermouth is generally more delicate than other French vermouths. The base wine usually
comes from elsewhere (usually southern Italy) but the process of becoming Vermouth must take place in
Chambéry to have that designation.

Once opened, bottles of vermouth begin to oxidize and lose freshness quickly.

P. 193, photo: Small-grained muscatel grapes that are beginning to turn raisin. Ideally, to make Rutherglen
Muscat Liqueur they should be harvested when they have decreased by a quarter of their volume.

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CAPITULO 37 DISTILLATION

Spirits are beverages that have been produced by concentrating the alcohol present in a fermented liquid
through distillation. They are typically sold at 37-43% ABV, compared with wines at 7-15% ABV and beers
at 38% ABV, although some liqueurs and spirits in bulk may have much more, and some liquors much
less. Distillation had been carried out as far back as 3,500 BC in Mesopotamia for the creation of
perfumes, but it was not until around 1,100 AD that the first wine was distilled to make a spirit. It was
considered to have magical properties and was known as the “water of life”, aqua vitae in Latin, eau de vie
in French and uisge beatha in Gaelic, which gave rise to the wishiky we know today.

THE PRINCIPLES OF DISTILLATION

Alcohol concentration is achieved by separating the different components or fractions that form the
fermented liquid, called the alcoholic base. This separation is possible because each of these fractions
boils and turns into steam at different temperatures. It is therefore possible to heat the liquid to a specific
temperature, collect the vapors produced and convert them back into a liquid by cooling or condensation.

When it comes to spirits for human consumption, the most important factor is that ethanol, or potable
alcohol, boils at 78.5ºC and water at 100ºC. Therefore, if the alcohol base is heated to 78.5ºC, the alcohol
vaporizes leaving behind the other components, most of which is water. The more vapors that are
condensed, the more variety of flavors we will have in the spirit, but the greater the risk of dangerous
components in the condensed liquid.

THE STILLS

There are two basic types of stills, the traditional pot still and the analyzer-rectifier columns (continuous
still – continuous distillation). A still is like a large kettle, and is heated by direct heat. The vapours are
collected in the head and directed from the top through the so-called swan neck towards the condenser,
where they are liquefied. The still is not very efficient at harnessing heat, although it produces spirits with
character. In addition, it has to be refilled every time it is used and this is a very expensive task in terms of
time and labour. Most spirits made using this method are double distilled; they have to go through the
distillation process twice.

The most commonly used system is continuous distillation (continuous still or patent still), also called
Cofftey still after its inventor, Aeneas Coffey. It consists of two vertical columns called analyzer and
rectifier. The steam enters the lower part of the analyzer, rises and meets the base liquid, which has been
heated in the rectifier, and then descends through the column. The alcohol in the alcohol base vaporizes
in contact with the hot steam, rises and passes to the bottom of the rectifier. As the steam rises, it cools
through the conduit carrying the cold alcohol base and condenses. This distillation is a continuous
process, with the different vapors condensing and being removed at different alcohol levels, depending on
where the collecting plate is placed for each individual alcohol. The spirit can have a high alcohol content
and purity, so only one distillation is needed. The result is a more neutral spirit than with the still. If the
collector plate is set to obtain a low alcohol spirit, it will have more flavour and character, but will be much
rougher.

P. 194, chart: Continuous distillation.

In all cases where a drinkable spirit is sought, the distillate will be divided into three different parts. These
are the head, which contains the most volatile parts (including methanol, which has to be removed), the
heart, or potable part (mainly ethanol, and other flavoring compounds), and the tails (unwanted heavy
alcohols, and an increasing amount of water). The first and last parts will not be included in the final spirit
because they contain toxic components.

When they leave the still, all spirits are colorless. Any color in the final product has been obtained during
the aging process, or by the addition of coloring materials during blending and bottling.

RAW MATERIALS

Anything that can be fermented can be used as a raw material for a spirit, be it fruit, grain or vegetable.

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When sugar is present in the raw material, as in molasses or fruit, fermentation can begin directly. For
grain spirits, fermentation can only begin once the starch that is naturally present has been converted into
sugar. Some spirits can be made from a particular raw material, as is the case with grape brandy. Others,
such as Vodka, can be made from a wide range of raw materials, including various grains, potatoes, and
even sugar cane and grapes.

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CAPITULO 38
BRANDY AND OTHER FRUIT SPIRITS

The spirit distilled from grape wine is commonly known as Brandy and is made throughout the world. The
two most prestigious regions for brandies are in France. They are Cognac and Armagnac and both have
AC status. Spirits are also made from the distillation of pressed grape skins, such as grappa in Italy. And
they can also be distilled from the lees, the residue that a wine leaves in the barrel.

COGNAC

The Cognac region is located in the Charente and Charente-Maritime departments in the north and
continues into the Bordeaux vineyards. Due to its proximity to the sea and navigable rivers, Charentes
wines easily found consumers in England and the Netherlands. However, their lightness caused them to
spoil on the journey, and they found a better market once they were distilled. The first mention of the
“water of life” dates back to 1549, although distillation did not become popular until the 17th century. It was
not until the 18th century that different families settled in the region and controlled the market: the Martells
of Jersey, the Hennessys and Hardys of Ireland, the Hines of Dorset and the Otards of Scotland.

VITICULTURE AND WINEMAKING

Cognac is the third largest vineyard in France and the vines are cultivated by small winegrowers who sell
their product to distilleries. The ideal wine for distillation must be high in acidity, so most grapes grown in
the region produce wines that could be considered drinkable. They are also low in alcohol, and if the wine
is intended for distillation, Chaptalization is prohibited. Eight grape varieties are permitted, but the most
important is Ugni Blanc (Trebbiano), which accounts for 80% of the plantations. After phylloxera, the Folle
Blanche (which was historically the most important) proved to be unsuitable for grafting.

REGIONS AND SOILS

The region is divided into 6 districts: Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Fins Bois,
Bons Bois and Bois Ordinaires/ Bois Communs. The term Champagne has nothing to do with the
Champagne region. What they do have in common are soils with a limestone content. It is believed that
the more limestone it has, the better the wine will be for distillation. The two districts of Champagne and
the Borderies are located around the city of Cognac and produce the best spirits. Fin Bois is the largest
area and accounts for 40% of total production. The Bois Ordinaries area is the least important, with
vineyards on sandy soils on the Atlantic coast. Sometimes the region appears on the label, and in those
cases the Cognac must have been distilled only with wine from that region. The term Fine Champagne is
used for blends from the two best areas, Grande Champagne and Petite Champagne, with the former
contributing at least half of the blend.

P. 196, photo: The white variety Ugni Blanc, used for most Cognac, is neutral in character and high in
acidity, making it susceptible to distillation.

DISTILLATION

The distillation period for Cognac is from November after the harvest until the following March. Cognac is
a double distilled spirit and is only permitted to be distilled in the Charentais copper still. This has a
capacity of 30 hl, but only 25 hl is allowed to be distilled at a time to allow for expansion of the liquid as it
boils. The wine is heated by direct heat to 80ºC; traditionally coal was used but nowadays gas is used.
The vapours are concentrated in the head and pass to the swan neck through a pipe that can pass
through the next batch of wine to heat it, before entering the condenser. The result of this first distillation,
the brouillis, has a graduation of between 26 and 30% vol. and the volume will be one third of the original
wine.

For the second distillation, the brouillis from three batches are combined and distilled again to produce a
72% abv spirit. This time, the heads and tails are removed, although as this method of distilling is not very
precise, they still contain ethanol, so they are added to the next batch of brouillis. The style and quality of
the spirit depends on the characteristics of the original wine; whether or not a heater is used; the
proportion of the core that is collected; and the subsequent maturation.

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P. 197, map: Cognac and Armagnac.

MATURATION

Cognac is aged in Tronçais or Limousin oak barrels for a minimum of two years, but usually much longer.
During this process, the alcohol content is naturally reduced to 60% vol., while it is softened and takes on
the colour and aromas of the wood. What evaporates is known as “the angels’ share.” This causes a black
fungus to grow around the site, giving the place a very industrial appearance. Before bottling, the final
house blend is made and reduced to 40% vol. with distilled water. The color can also be adjusted by
adding caramel. Authorities only guarantee the age of Cognac for its first six years of life, and the following
definitions support this guarantee, although in practice they are often older than the labels indicate.

*** or VS aged two years (count 2)

VSOP aged four years (compte 4)
XO Aged six years (count 6)

In the Cognac industry, there is a system of age certification, known as comptes, and each batch of spirit
must have its documentation in order. The certificates are based on the time it has been in oak. When the
spirit leaves the still it is classified as compte 00, a classification it maintains until the end of the season on
March 31 of the year following the harvest. During the 1st year in oak it is account 0 changing on March
31st when it becomes account 1. At the end of the second year it becomes compte 2, and so on, up to a
maximum of compte 6, when it can be sold as XO.

There comes a point when it is estimated that Cognac no longer benefits from being in oak. At this point it
is transferred to glass carafes for storage. Older Cognacs are usually stored in separate warehouses
known as paradises. Due to the climate in Cognac, the cellars are relatively warm and the spirits mature
quickly. For this reason Cognac is sometimes exported to Britain while young and aged more slowly there
in cool, damp cellars. Over the years, a milder spirit is produced, known as early Cognac. The label must
indicate the date of distillation, the date of export, and the date of bottling, because the most important
thing is the aging in the barrel. Today, the French market does not allow Vintage Cognac, but it can be
exported young in barrel to Great Britain for ageing under government supervision in sealed warehouses.
In these circumstances, and provided that the distillation is from the same year, it can also bear the year of
the harvest.

P. 198, graphic: Cognac still.

ARMAGNAC

The second major AC of grape spirits from France is Armagnac. It is also produced in the southwest of
France, but southeast of Bordeaux, west of the Gers River, further inland than Cognac so it does not have
maritime influence and has a drier climate and

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hotter summers. Armagnac claims a longer history than Cognac, probably having first been produced by
the Moors in the 12th century. For a long time it was practically not consumed outside its production area,
due to the difficulty of distribution. It is not a region of large wineries, but rather of individual producers.
DISTRICTS AND SOILS

It is a mixed farming area, where vineyards are of relative importance to the local economy. The vineyards
are spread across three areas, with the best reputation for spirits being Bas Armagnac in the west. It has a
rich soil with a subsoil of sand and clay. The wines of this area, which are low in alcohol and high in
acidity, make the best spirits, which are often distilled and sold under the name of a vineyard and a
vintage. The Ténarèze area has a mix of fertile soil and limestone, which gives a spirit full of aromas. The
last area is Haut Armagnac, which has limestone soils and produces the worst wines for distillation.
Ironically, this is because the wines are of better quality and can be sold as wine, usually Vin de Pays des
Cotes de Gascogne, and not to be distilled.

GRAPE VARIETIES

The grape varieties planted to make Armgnac are Ugny Blanc and a few others, including the archaic
Folle Blanchet and the hybrid Baco Blanc 22A, created because it was very difficult to graft Folle Blanchet
onto American roots. It is the only hybrid grape permitted under the French AC system, but replanting it is
prohibited. The most important is Ugny Blanc but it is not as dominant as in Cognac.

DISTILLATION

It is much more artisanal than Cognac, and is generally obtained by the single distillation method in the
Armagnac still, a rather primitive form of continuous distillation. The wine is heated by steam in the
condensation tube and then enters the top of a second column, where it meets the hot air rising from the
boiler. The alcohol is vaporized and passes to the condenser to be liquefied. The heads and tails are
separated during distillation, the former in the form of vapor and the latter as a liquid residue. The spirit
comes out with a lower alcohol content than if it had been distilled in a still (60%) and retains a greater
proportion of flavours. Since 1972, the use of stills has also been permitted, although these produce a
stronger but less penetrating spirit.

P. 199, photo and graphic: Armagnac still

MATURATION

The other big factor that contributes to Armagnac's individual style is the wood used for the barrels in
which it is stored. Most of it is made from the “resinous” Monlezun oak from the local forests of Bas
Armagnac, although the use of Tronçais oak is also permitted. As with Cognac, the wood imparts most of
the color, although this can be adjusted by adding caramel. Due to its more primitive distillation and the
difference in the oak in which it ages, Armagnac is generally more rustic than Cognac. Cognacs can be
more floral, grapey and fragrant, but retain the sensation of alcohol; Armagnacs are more full-bodied, with
a character of dried apricots and fruit.

The Armagnac classification has lower minimum aging requirements than Cognac. These are:

*** aged one year (count 1)

VSOP Aged four years (count 4)

XO Aged five years (compte 5)

Many producers age individual barrels of Armagnac from a single distillation and sell them with a vintage
date.

OTHER GRAPE SPIRITS

Apart from the distillation method, by still or by continuous distillation, two other types of grape spirits are
produced in the world. As we have seen, Cognac and Armagnac are distilled from wine and, almost
without exception, where wine is made, brandy is distilled. French grape brandy, which has a place in the
British market, is produced in a few government-controlled distilleries. The raw material does not

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necessarily have to come from France, and is produced by continuous distillation. Although it will be
labeled with terms similar to those of Cognac, such as VSOP or Napoleon, they have little legal value for
these products without AC.

SPANISH BRANDY

In Spain there are two DO-controlled regions with Brandy production, Jerez and Penedés. Here the base
wine comes from La Mancha. To qualify as a DO, the spirit must be aged in Jerez or Penedés. In Jerez,
aging is done using the solera system. A Gran Reserva brandy guarantees that the youngest spirit in the
blend is at least 3 years old, although it is much more likely to be between 10 or 15 years old. These
brandies are usually dark in colour and very smooth and sweet, although styles and qualities can vary
widely.

PISCO

This is a grape spirit often made from Muscat wines. The 2 countries with the highest production are Peru
and Chile. In the first it is almost a field product, produced mainly on a small scale with primitive stills. In
Chile there are two large producers who make it on an industrial scale. It is usually white, unaged and has
the distinctive aromas of Moscatel.

Italian brandies are generally distilled from Trebbiano wine (Ugni Blanc) by continuous distillation. They
are generally light in character, but quite rustic. Other major brandy producing countries include South
Africa and Australia. It must be recognized that brandy is produced industrially in many countries around
the world, with the lowest qualities generally made by continuous distillation and the best qualities with
stills. The largest still distillery in the world is in South Africa. Often the base wine used for distillation is not
originally from the country in which it is distilled, but is a wine purchased on the market. With the current
global overproduction, it is very easy to obtain. For example, the world's best-selling brandy, Presidente,
comes from Mexico, but Mexican wineries are currently unable to produce wine at sufficiently low prices,
so Mexican brandies are mostly distilled from surplus Australian wines. Similarly, most German brandy is
produced from imported wine, mostly Italian.

MARC, GRAPPA AND ORUJOS

The second type of grape spirit is the distillate from the skins, residues of the skins, seeds and juice that
remains after pressing. Generally all of this is sealed in barrels or tanks and left to ferment before distilling.
Probably the most famous brandy is Italian grappa, which is distilled from individual varietals. Similar
spirits are produced in Galicia, Spain and Portugal. In France they are known generically as eaux de vie
de marc and are produced in most wine regions. Marc de Bourgogne is particularly well known. While the
latter is aged in oak barrels, most members of this family are not aged at all, or are stored in carboys.
They are colourless spirits and are usually sold with quite high alcohol content, sometimes over 50% vol.

CALVADOS

It is the best known of the world's apple spirits. It comes from Normandy and Brittany in northwestern
France, and is within the AC system. There are 11 producing districts with the Appellation Calvados, but
the best come from Pays d'Auge, just east of the city of Caen. It has the AC Calvados du pays d'auge
and has to be distilled twice in copper stills and aged for at least 2 years. The lower quality Eau-de-vie de
Cidré de Normandie can be made by continuous distillation and has much less flavour and character.
Apple spirits known as “applejack” are also made in North America.

FRUIT WATERS OF LIFE

They are the result of the distillation of fermented fruit and generally aged in carafes. Therefore, they have
no color and are usually served very cold to accentuate the pure fruit flavor. They are widely distilled
throughout Europe (and elsewhere in the world), but the best are considered to come from both sides of
the Rhine: Alsace and the Vosges in France, the Black Forest in Germany and northern Switzerland. In
Germany these spirits are described as Wasser. Popular fruits include cherries (eau-de-vie de
Kirsch/Kirschwasser), pears (poire Williams), raspberries (eau-de-vie de framboise), etc. However,
unusual fruits such as hawthorns can also be used. The amount of fruit needed to produce a bottle of

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these spirits is about 3 kilos, so prices are never cheap.

A cheaper alternative is called Geist in German, where some of the original fruit is macerated with the
distillate. These spirits are widely produced in the Balkans, where Slivivic is the best-known example.

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CHAPTER 39
WHISKIES

An essential stage in the production of any spirit is the fermentation of raw material to form an alcoholic
base that can be distilled. For fruits this is a simple process, since they contain sugar. For grain spirits, the
starch they contain must be converted to sugar before they can be fermented. The most important grain
spirit is whisk(e)y, which was probably distilled by Irish monks back in the 15th century. Considered to be
the oldest working distillery in County Antrim, Northern Ireland, it was granted this licence in 1608. Note
that while in Scotland and Canada whisky is written without an “e”, in Ireland and the USA it is normally
written whiskey, with an “e” before the final “y”. However, there is no rule.

SCOTCH

The main difference between Scotch and other whisky is that while most whiskies are the product of a
single distillery, Scotch whisky, for over 150 years, has been the result of blending the products of several
distilleries. To make matters a little more complicated, there are two distinct styles within Scotch whisky,
single malt and grain whisky. Single malt whisky is the product of pot still distillation using malted barley as
raw material; grain whisky is produced by continuous distillation mainly from corn. Single malt whisky
provides almost all the flavour, even though it only makes up half of the blend. Grain whisky fills out the
mix and contributes to the flavour. It is possible to buy unblended whiskies, usually single malt, although
occasionally grain whiskies as well.

P. 201, photo: Stills for Scotch Whisky are usually much larger than their Cognac equivalents.

Single Malt Whisky

The original whisky of Scotland was single malt whisky, produced from barley in a pot still. The first stage
of production is the conversion of barley starch into sugar. This is carried out through controlled
germination. Barley grains are seeds that under the right conditions grow into new plants. The grain is first
soaked in water, which is periodically changed every 48 hours, this releases the enzymes that convert the
energy required by the seeds to grow, accumulated in the form of starch, into sugar. The wet barley is
spread out on the drying shed and stirred regularly. Here germination begins and the barley becomes
“green malt”. Once the conversion has begun but before the leaves and roots are formed, the dough is
placed in the oven. The heat of the kiln dries the grain and, if peat is used, adds a smoky flavor to the
barley, which is now called malt.

The malt is ground and mixed with hot water in a vessel, known as a masher. Here it is regularly stirred
with trowels. This completes the process of converting and extracting the sugar; the resulting sweet liquid
is known as “must.” This liquid is deposited in large fermentation vats. This is where the base material for
distillation is produced, a beer-like liquid called “wash.” All Scotch single malt whisky is produced in a pot
still, usually with a double distillation and occasionally with a triple distillation. Two different stills are used,
the first is the “wort still” which turns the 13% abv “wine” into a 30% abv “wine”. The “wine” is redistilled in
the smaller “spirit still” where the base whisky known as “British Plain Spirits” is produced, at around 70%
abv. This comes from the middle part of the distillation, the foreshots and feints are removed. As in
Cognac, they contain harmful substances, such as ethanol, so they are added to the next batch for
redistillation. It is up to each individual distiller to decide what proportions are discarded as heads and
tails, as the ultimate flavour of the spirit will depend on this decision, which is under the control of
government and customs authorities, and which from that moment remains under their supervision until
the tax is paid or it is exported.

A large number of factors affect the individual style of single malt whisky, these include the barley and the
way it is malted, the yeast, the water, the design and height of the still and, most importantly, the
maturation. The distillation can only be called British Plain Spirits until it has been aged in oak barrels for
at least three years.

Traditionally, casks used to mature Scotch whisky were those that had previously contained sherry.
However, as sherry is now sold almost entirely bottled in the production area, they are no longer easy to
obtain. This has led to experimentation with all kinds of wines, and even beer. Since the legislation
concerning the production of bourbon whiskey insists on the use of new barrels, the ones already used are

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mainly used for the aging of grain whiskey. First-use sherry casks impart strong sultanas and pastry
aromas to the whisky which can mask the character of the original distillation. First-use bourbon barrels
tend to have a more delicate effect. Second-fill barrels result in slower maturation and fewer flavors are
absorbed from the barrel.

While each malt distillery has its own individual style, geographically they are all grouped into four regional
styles. Within these regions, single malt whiskies tend to share some common characteristics. The
Highland and Island distilleries are located north of the line from Greenock to Dundee. They produce
malts with very intense flavours, with a distinctive peat flavour, but also floral and honey characteristics.
Within the Scottish Highlands, distilleries in the Speyside area produce particularly elegant whiskies that
are popular both neat and in mixed drinks. The distilleries on the island of Islay, off the west coast of
Scotland, produce the most peaty and flavourful whiskies, with aromas and flavours of smoke, seaweed,
iodine and tar, due to the peat used for malting, originally created from decaying plant and marine matter.
Lowland malts come from the south of the previous line; they produce the lightest style of Scotch whisky,
generally used for blending.

P. 202, map: Scotch Whisky Distilleries.

Grain Whisky

It is usually produced industrially by continuous distillation rather than batchwise in a still. The base raw
material is imported corn, which is ground to form a flour that is steamed under pressure to release the
starch. A small amount of malted barley is added and the enzymes it contains convert the starch into
sugar. The wort produced is lower in strength than that of single malt whisky. Grain whisky is distilled more
intensely than malt whisky, but not as much as gin or vodka, which can however be distilled using the
same stills. Grain spirits are white and quite spicy, with aromas of spiced liquor. It is much milder than malt
and could be consumed directly. However, it is governed by the same laws as other Scotch whiskies, and
must be aged for a minimum period of three years and benefits considerably from the softening effects of
oak. This spirit matures quickly. Almost all production is used for blended whiskies, but single and vatted
grain whiskies also exist.

P. 203, photo: Dalwhinnie's 'spirits vault'; photo: By law, Scotch whisky must be aged in Scotland in oak
casks for a minimum of three years.

Blended Whisky

Both malt and grain whisky are available as “single” whiskies, that is, the product of a single distillery. Most
whisky, however, is sold as “blended” whisky, a mixture of different malt and grain whiskies from different
distilleries. Standard blends rarely put the age on the label, although the youngest spirit must have been
aged for a minimum of 3 years. The quality of the blend will owe much to the nature of the single malt
whisky it contains, as it is the one that imparts the most flavour although it is a more expensive
component. Deluxe blends will contain both grain and malt whisky, but it will generally be the latter that
will give it more personality. Most deluxe blends will have an age on the label of 8, 12 and 17 years. Again,
this means that all components are at least of the stated age. In practice, this often means that grain
whiskies will be of the minimum age, while single malts will be considerably older.

Single Malt Whisky

A single malt is the product of a single distillery, often aged for a considerable time before release to the
market. Generally, the whisky will be a blend of different casks and ages to give it greater consistency, but
all the whiskies have to be from the same distillery. Occasionally, particularly with very old whiskies, there
may be batches of bottles from a single cask. Each malt has a distinctive flavour and style, which the
expert can recognise in blind tasting. Single malt whiskies are gaining in popularity in some export
markets, such as Italy and Spain. Vatted or blended malts are mixtures of whiskies from different single
malt whisky distilleries. It may have a more specific geographical description, such as Speyside or Islay.
Own label single malt whiskies are, by their very nature, vatted.

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IRISH WHISKY

There are currently three distilleries left in Ireland. Bushmills in Northern Ireland produces single malt and
blended whiskies using grain whisky from Middleton in the Republic of Ireland. Most brands of Irish
whiskey are produced at the Middleton Distillery. Stills interconnected with continuous distillers, a variety
of malted and unmalted grains and the choice of different casks result in a wide variety of whisky styles,
which different brands benefit from for their blended whiskies. The key characteristics of Bushmills and
Middleton whiskies are that the malt is produced entirely without peat, and that they use triple distillation
(although, as a result of the system of interconnected distillers at Middleton, it is possible that some spirit
has been distilled four, five or even more times). The result is a smooth, honeyed whisky. The Cooley
distillery produces different brands of the same smooth styles. But it also uses peat at times, and one of its
brands is similar in style to Islay Single Malt.

AMERICAN WHISKIES

A straight whiskey must contain a minimum of 51% and a maximum of 80% of one grain in its content. It
must be distilled to a maximum of 80% abv, and must be aged for a minimum of 2 years in charred oak
barrels; whiskies less than 4 years old must indicate this on the label. A blended whiskey must have at
least 20% straight whiskey. The rest will be cheap, neutral bulk grain spirit. Sour mash is a method to
ensure consistency between fermentations and prevent microbial infection of the fermenting beer. A
portion of the acid residue from a distillation is added to the next batch about to ferment. Most American
whiskeys are produced using various versions of continuous distillation. However, because they are
distilled to a lower proof than gin, vodka or even grain whiskey, they emerge from the still with many
characteristic flavour components, but with a rough alcohol content. The warm environment of the ageing
rooms and the use of new barrels means that the spirit can be ready after just a couple of years, unlike
other whiskies, which are aged for much longer.

Bourbon

Bourbon is a straight whiskey that must be at least 51% corn. Although it gets its name from Bourbon
County, Kentucky, where most of it is produced, it can be produced anywhere in the United States. The
whiskies are stored in very warm warehouses, which results in an accelerated ageing process and rapid
absorption of the tannins, sugars, colours and coconut and vanilla flavours from the wood. Although only a
few premium brands use stills, most use continuous distillation. Unlike Scotch, which can use caramel to
adjust the color, all of Bourbon's color must come from the aging process.

Within the giant warehouses, different locations result in different aging processes. A producer may
introduce a barrel rotation regime to ensure consistency between barrels. Alternatively, consistency can
be achieved by blending barrels with different properties. Barrels in the centre of the warehouse tend to
age more slowly as they are exposed to lower temperatures. They produce whiskies with more finesse
and complexity. Barrels that have particular desirable characteristics may be bottled separately as Small
Batch Bourbons. Other Small Batch Bourbons are, literally, Bourbons that have been distilled and aged
in small batches. There is no legal definition for small.

Rye Whiskey

Rye whiskey in the US is a straight whiskey that must be produced with a rye content of no less than 51%,
which gives it a spicy and fiery character.

Tennessee Whiskey

A Tennessee whiskey must meet all the regulations for a straight whiskey, but must also be distilled in
Tennessee and filtered through maple charcoal before aging. The latter, also known as the Lincoln
County Process, was probably introduced by Russian or Polish settlers who had experience in vodka
production. While the charcoal used to filter vodka is of a very high purity and removes color and flavor as
well as harshness, the charcoal used in the Lincoln County Process is much less pure and imparts a very
smoky flavor to the whiskey.

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Canadian Whisky

In Canada there are no restrictions regarding the proportion of grains in the content. The distilling industry
in Canada received a major boost from Prohibition in the United States, which established a significant,
yet clandestine, market for its whiskies. Although sometimes labeled as Canadian Rye, Canadian whiskies
do not have the spicy personality of true rye whiskies. Canadian law dictates that “Canadian Whisky”
(Canadian Rye Whisky, Rye Whisky) must be a whisky distilled in Canada, and must possess the aroma,
flavour and character generally attributed to “Canadian Whisky”. This gives the opportunity to include
significant proportions of neutral grain spirits, and even sherry and other grape wines.

Other Whiskies

Whisky is produced in other countries around the world, although a distinction should be made between
whiskies that are blends of local spirits and Scottish malts and those countries where both grain and malt
are genuinely distilled. Among the latter are countries such as India and Japan. The latter has the largest
malt distillery in the world. In any case, a lot of Scotch whisky is imported into both countries. As far as
international sales are concerned, these locally blended whiskies have very little significance outside their
home markets.

CHAPTER 40
RUM

Sugar cane is native to the monsoon areas of Asia, but arrived in Spain in the 14th century. Christopher
Columbus brought the plant to the island of Hispaniola and subsequent Spanish expeditions spread it
throughout the West Indies. Although Puerto Rico was, commercially speaking, the first rum-producing
country in the mid-19th century, there are documents that show that there was already a product made by
distilling fermented cane sugar 300 years before this.

FERMENTATION AND DISTILLATION

The must for rum is made from molasses and is a waste product of the sugar industry. When using
molasses, it must be diluted in water before fermentation. Distillation is done in a still, although most rums
are distilled by the continuous distillation method. The alcohol content at which they are distilled says a lot
about the final character. Low-alcohol distillations add complexity, but lose a lot of smoothness. Some
rums are made directly from the fermentation of sugarcane juice, and have a very different flavour, with a
fresher, more herbaceous character. Rums flavoured with spices or lemon are becoming increasingly
popular.

AGING

Color is not indicative of aging. White rums may be bottled after fermentation or may be aged in oak for a
few years to develop softer flavors, then have their color (and some flavor) removed by charcoal filtering.
Dark rums may have developed their sweet character and deep color through an extended aging period,
or they may simply have had caramel or sugar added. For this reason, it is preferable not to refer to rums
as “white”, “gold” and “dark”. Rums aged in tropical climates tend to age very quickly, because heat
accelerates the aging process. Oak is commonly used, and the process can be the classic static aging or
solera system.

RUM STYLES

The main influences on style are the base product (molasses or sugar cane juice), the way it is distilled
(still or continuous distillation; the higher the alcohol content, the more purity but less character), the aging
and the sweetening. Although many of the major rum brands are blends, it is important to know that, as is
the case with single malt whisky, traditionally different styles emerge from the different Caribbean islands.

Cuba

It is the original home of white rums distilled to make them almost neutral. Some are aged in oak barrels to
soften the alcohol and then filtered through charcoal to remove color. This style, which differs from vodka

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only in a subtle flavor, is widely imitated, and most “Cuban-style” rum is produced in Puerto Rico, the
Bahamas, or Brazil.

Jamaica

The color of Jamaican rums ranges from white to deep gold. Due to the fermentation process and the low
alcohol content of the distillation, even seemingly harmless white rums are full of aromas and flavours.
These penetrating rums typically have a strong, exotic fruity character (banana, mango), and with aging
the golden rums can be accompanied by toasted and hazelnut notes.

P. 205, photo: Sugar cane fields, the raw material for rum.

Barbados

Barbados produces white, gold and dark rums, all generally characterized by an elegant and fruity style.

Guiana

Also known as Demerara rums. The tropical climate accelerates aging, and the rums quickly gain in
complexity, sweetness and spicy flavors. Most are golden in color, both as a result of the use of caramel
and from aging. Guyana is the largest exporter of molasses for distillation.

Martinique and Guadeloupe

These islands specialize in rums distilled from fermented sugarcane juice. Many of these rums are white
and have aromas of fresh apple and grass from the sugar cane base. They also produce old rum. These
have a milder alcohol and some oak flavor, while the sugar cane flavor begins to disappear. While
sugarcane rums are labeled as Rhum Agricole (Agricultural Rum), there are some rums distilled from
molasses, usually imported. These are commonly known by the unromantic name of Rhum Industriel
(Industrial Rum).

Brazil

Cachaça is a colorless spirit distilled mainly from sugar cane in Brazil, where, mainly due to its low price, it
is very popular. In fact, its success in this country alone makes it one of the largest-volume spirits in the
world.

Other Regions

Large quantities of rum, in a variety of styles, are also made in Trinidad Tobago, Venezuela and Puerto
Rico. One of the few regulations for rum production is that the country must grow some sugar cane.
Consequently, they are also manufactured in the Philippines and Australia. South Africa, Central America,
South America and the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

P. 206, photo: Bacardi's continuous distillation columns produce light white rums; photo: Rum that matures
in the tropics in oak barrels will mature more quickly than those that mature in colder, more northern
countries.

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CAPITULO 41
TEQUILA AND MEZCAL

In pre-Columbian times, Native Americans fermented the sap of various species of yuca (agave) to produce
pulque. The Spanish conquerors brought the technology to distill this pulque and produce the first mezcal.
Production was refined from the 17th century onwards in the area surrounding the city of Tequila in Mexico.
The Blue Agave was identified as the agave species that produced the most refined mezcals and the
process of converting starch into sugar, as well as distillation and aging, were improved. It was not until the
late 19th century that significant quantities began to be exported to the USA, which has remained the most
important export market to this day.

PRODUCTION

The base material for Tequila is the Blue Agave. It is not a cactus, but it is a plant related to yucca. It takes
a minimum of eight years for the first harvest, making it very difficult for the tequila industry to adapt to
short-term changes in demand. Long maturation also increases the costs of the production process. After
the long, sharp, prickly leaves have been removed from the piña (heart) of the harvested agave, it is slowly
cooked to convert the starch into fermented sugars. The sweet juice is extracted and other fermentable
sugars, usually cane sugar, may be added before fermentation. After distillation, the spirit is reduced in
alcohol content and may be aged for a time in oak barrels before bottling.

Mezcal is a generic term for this category of spirits. Any species of Agave can be used for this and the
planting area includes different regions outside the Tequila region and the methods of converting the starch
from the pineapples into sugar can vary greatly. Those who use traditional underground smokehouses
retain strong smoky flavors.

TEQUILA STYLES

Plata, Blanco and Joven tequilas are not typically aged, and if they are, any color is removed by charcoal
filtration. Some are very rustic, but for the most purists these tequilas are the ones that best express the
character of the base material. They can be very intense, with vegetal and peppery notes.

Young Lawyer.
Tequilas that are not aged; caramel is used to change the smell and taste.

Restful
They require a minimum of 2 months in oak barrels. In hot climates, it softens noticeably during this time,
although some of the penetrating character may be lost. The color comes more from the caramel than the
wood.

Old
They are aged in oak barrels for at least 1 year, whether new or old barrels. They can develop considerable
complexity and the best vintages approach the best Cognacs in style (and price). However, the flavors of
Agave are lost over time and whether the complexity it develops through aging compensates for this is a
point of debate.

By law, at least 51% of the alcohol in tequila must come from the distillation of Blue Agave juice. The
remainder can come from any other sugar distillate, and these tequilas can be labeled as mixtos. Tequilas
made from 100% Agave usually put it on the label.

CAPITULO 42
GIN AND OTHER FLAVOURED SPIRITS

The origins of these products lie in attempts to avoid undesirable flavours in the base spirit by means of
flavouring herbs and spices. Those that used juniper, which was thought to be good for the kidneys,
evolved into Gin; those that used mainly caraway became Aquavit; and those that used anise or liquorice
became Arrack/Raki, Ouzo or Absinthe and Pastis.

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GENEVA
Gin is made from a neutral spirit flavoured with botanical plants, the most important of which is juniper. The
origin of this spirit is varied; it can be molasses, or sugar beet, or, more commonly, grain spirit.

Botanical
Although Juniper is always the dominant flavour, followed by Coriander, a wide range of botanicals can be
used, including citrus peel, licorice, angelica and star anise. With the exception of some Dutch gins, these
do not undergo any aging before bottling. Its alcohol content is reduced before bottling with demineralized
or spring water.

P. 208, photo: Juniper is the most important of the different botanicals used to flavour gin.

Cold-made gins
Cheaper gins use cold components to flavour the spirit. This is done simply by adding flavors to the spirit
in the form of essential oils. The resulting product may be quite penetrating at first, but as the flavours are
not well fixed, they quickly disappear and the aromas will be weak.

Distilled Gins
Gins labelled as London Gin, Distilled Gin or Plymouth Gin use a higher category of distillation
techniques to extract the aromas of botanical plants. Either the botanicals are added to the spirit to
macerate until the next distillation, or steam is passed through the botanicals during distillation.

AQUAVIT
This is the national spirit of many Scandinavian countries. It can be distilled from grain or potatoes, and is
often flavored with caraway, citrus peel, anise, and/or other herbs and spices. Some are aged in oak before
bottling.

ANIS, ARRACK/RAKI, OUZO, SAMBUCA, ABSINTH AND PASTIS

They are flavored spirits produced all over the world. Every country has its favorites. Anise is popular in
France and many other Mediterranean countries. In France and Spain these drinks are called Anís, in
Greece Ouzo, in Türkiye and in the Middle East Raki or Arrak. Absinthe, which has recently been revived,
is a member of this same family. It is flavoured with wormwood and anise. French absinthes tend to be
sweeter, with dominant anise flavors. Eastern absinthes tend to be more bitter, with a balance between the
flavors of the components. French Pastis is flavoured with a combination of herbs, the dominant of which is
liquorice. The production centre is located in the port of Marseille. All of these unsweetened spirits are
generally consumed as aperitifs, with water and sometimes with sugar. They all turn cloudy if water is
added to them.

P. 209, photo: The spirit base for London Dry Gin is redistilled in a still in the presence of botanicals.

CAPITULO 43
VODKA

The name comes from Slavic words that translate as “Small Water”. This is probably the spirit with the
oldest name, with documents proving Russian production in the 9th century and similar wine distillates
produced in Poland in the 18th century. The oldest vodkas were flavoured with fruit, spices and herbs to
mask undesirable flavours. Charcoal filtration techniques for purification were developed in the 18th
century.

Vodka is a white spirit, with a more or less neutral taste. It will usually be distilled to give it a high proof
(usually by continuous distillation) and then filtered through charcoal to remove impurities before bottling.
As it is distilled to achieve a high alcohol content, very little of the character of the original base remains. A
wide variety of basic materials can be used, including cereals, grains, potatoes and even grapes. It would
be too much to say that vodkas are completely neutral. Some flavour traces of the base always remain, and
can be an important part of the spirit's character, particularly in the Eastern style and with some Western
premium vodkas. Just as there is a slight difference in their taste, vodkas also differ in the quality and
texture of the spirit. Some are very smooth and creamy; others can be very rustic, with a noticeable
bitterness, which can be part of the vodka's character, and does not always indicate a low-quality spirit.

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Generally speaking, there are 3 styles:

1 .- Vodkas with an Eastern style.

Vodkas with an Eastern style, such as those from Russia and Poland, tend to have more of the character of
the base material. They have distinctive flavors, but the alcohol seems very crude. Potato-based vodkas
have an elegant, creamy texture, although they are expensive to produce. Rye-based vodkas have a subtle
but recognizable spicy aroma. Barley and oats are also used.

2 .- Vodkas with a Western style.

In contrast, Western-style vodkas tend to be neutral, often at the cost of a lack of character. The best ones
have a creamy texture. They are the perfect harmless spirits, and are often used in cocktails, where the
main flavours do not come from the spirit base.

3 .- Flavored vodkas.

This third style is a flavoured vodka, they can be made with modern flavours such as orange, vanilla,
blackberry or they can follow traditional recipes that use cherries, grass, plum or honey.

CHAPTER 44
LIQUORS

The origins of liqueurs are medicinal. In the Middle Ages, monastic orders were focused on learning and
healing. Most monasteries had their own herbs in their gardens, plants they needed for their remedies, and
which they could not find in the countryside. These remedies were usually applied in the form of an
infusion. Although many of these herbs could be dried, it was realized that their benefits were better
preserved if they were macerated in alcohol. In this way, the treatment would be available all year round.
Like most medicines, the taste was unpalatable. Sugar had been known in Europe since the Crusades,
although it was not available until the late 16th century. A spoonful of this helped the medicine go down
better. Even today, many liquors maintain this monastic relationship (e.g. Chartreuse) or are produced in
ports where the ingredients, and the most important of them, sugar, were available. Bordeaux and
Amsterdam, for example, remain important centres of liquor production.

Liqueur is a spirit that has been sweetened and flavored. The purpose of many liqueurs seems to be the
production of cocktails, and the base is usually a neutral spirit. Many traditional liqueurs are designed to be
drunk neat. These are generally based on specific aged spirits, such as Grand Marnier, which has a cognac
base, and Drambuie, based on Scotch whisky. Many others are simply made by infusing or macerating the
aromatic ingredients in the spirit and adding sugar. Ideally, if the flavor is fruity, fresh fruit will be added. As
this can restrict the production period, to maintain freshness throughout the year, the producer must store
the fruit in cold chambers. The cheapest, inferior liqueurs are made by mixing aromatic essences and
artificial colouring with the spirit and sugar.

It is important to distinguish between a liqueur, such as cherry liqueur, and its equivalent distilled fruit
liqueur. The first is sweeter, usually has a lower alcohol content and is colored. It should be considered
cheaper, not only because it pays less taxes and has less alcohol, but also because the amount of fruit
needed is much smaller.
The aromatization of liqueurs is divided into four categories:

FRUIT
- Blackberry - Cassis Cream.
- Sloes – Gin.
- Apricot – Apricot Brandy.
- Cherry – Cherry brandy, Moraschino Cherry.
- Orange – Curaçao, Cointreau, Grand Marnier, Mandarine Napoleon.
- Peach – Southern Comfort.

HERBS
- Various herbs – Galiano, Bénédictine, Chartreuse.

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 - Seeds – Kummel.
- Mint – Crème de Menthe.

LEGUMES, SEEDS, GRAINS

- Coffee – Kahlua, Aunt Maria.
- Chocolate – Crème de Cacao.
- Nuts – Amaretto, Malibu.

FARM
- Egg – Advocaat.
- Cream – Bailey's Irish Cream.

APPENDIX 1.
SERVICE AND STORAGE

WINE STORAGE
If a wine is stored incorrectly, the flavor can be affected and, in severe cases, the wine will spoil.

The following general rules should be observed when storing wine:

• For long-term storage, the temperature should be constant and cool for all wines, preferably between
10 and 15 ºC. Excessive heat or cold will cause the wine to deteriorate.
• Bottles should be stored lying down, with the label facing up. This way the corks stay moist through
contact with the wine. If a cork dries out it will shrink and allow air to pass through which will oxidize
the wine.
• The storage site should not be exposed to strong light. Both the sun and artificial light can warm wine
and cause it to age prematurely.
• The storage place must be free of any vibration so that the wine can rest without disturbance.

SERVICE TEMPERATURES

White, Rosé and Sparkling Wines

WINE STYLE EXAMPLE OF WINE STYLE SERVICE TEMPERATURE
White with oak, full/medium body White Burgundy, White Fumé Fresh, 12 ºC
White with medium/light body Muscadet, Pinot Grigio, New Zealand Cold, 10 ºC
Sauvignon Blanc, Fino Sherry
Sweet Wines Sauternes, sweet muscatels Very cold, 6-8 ºC
Sparkling wines Champagne, Cava, Asti Very cold, 6-8 ºC
Note that white wines lose their flavor when cooled further.

Red Wines
WINE STYLE EXAMPLE OF WINE STYLE SERVICE TEMPERATURE
Light bodied red wine Beaujolais, Bardolino, Valpolicella Fresh, 12 ºC
Medium/full bodied red Ambient temperature, 17-18 ºC
Claret, Burgundy, Rioja, Australian Shiraz,
Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Barolo, Amarone
della Valpolicella, Vintage Port
Please note that average ambient temperature will vary with time of year, heating and air conditioning. Make sure
that red wines are neither too cold nor too hot.

Ice buckets or chilling sleeves are often used to keep white, rosé and sparkling wines cold. The ice bucket
will be filled three-quarters with a mixture of ice and water in equal parts, so that the bottle is completely
surrounded by ice water.

CUPS
There is a huge variety of glasses of different shapes and sizes for serving wine, each one is designed to
highlight a particular characteristic of the wine. Using the right glass will help you enjoy the wine drinking
experience more.

Red wines
Red wines should be served in large glasses, which will allow air to come into contact with a large surface
area of wine to develop aromas and flavors.

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White and rosé wines
White wines need medium-sized glasses so that the fresh fruit characters can concentrate and rise to the
edge of the glass.

Sparkling wines
Sparkling wines are served in flute glasses. This shape increases the effect of the bubbles (and therefore
the aroma of the wine) allowing them to travel longer through the wine before bursting at the edge of the
glass. For this reason, the old mushroom glasses are totally unsuitable, as the bubbles are lost very
quickly.

Fortified wines
Fortified wines should be served in small glasses that highlight the fruity characteristics rather than the
alcohol. In any case, the glass should be large enough to allow you to move and smell the wine.

Preparing the glasses

Cleaning glasses is very important, as the slightest dirt can ruin the flavor of a wine. This also happens with
glasses that have been “cleaned” from the dishwasher; they must be checked to make sure that no
detergent or salt residue remains on the glass, because they can impart strange flavours to the wine and, in
the case of sparkling wines, cause them to lose their bubbles more quickly. To polish glasses, it is best to
use a linen cloth, which does not leave lint on the glass.

OPENING A BOTTLE OF WINE

• Remove the top of the capsule by cutting around it below the lip of the bottle. This can be done with a
capsule cutter or a knife.
• Wipe the neck of the bottle with a clean cloth.
• Remove the cork as gently and cleanly as possible using your preferred corkscrew.
• Clean the neck of the bottle once more, inside and out.
• Pour a little of the wine into the host's glass for approval.

OPENING A BOTTLE OF SPARKLING WINE

It is important to remember that there is considerable pressure in a bottle of sparkling wine. Cooling it to the
correct temperature helps reduce this pressure. Even when the wine is cold, it is possible for the cork to
violently eject from the bottle and injure someone.

• First remove the aluminum foil and then the wire.

• The cork should be held in place by hand from the moment the wire is removed.
• Tilt the bottle at an angle of about 30 degrees, holding the cork, and use your other hand to grasp the
base of the bottle.
• Twist the bottle, not the cork.
• Grasp the cork firmly, resisting its tendency to pop out, and slowly pull it out of the bottle.
The gas pressure should be released with a quiet “boom” and not with an explosion and flying corks.

DECANTING WINE
Some wines with a lot of sediment need to be decanted. This sediment is natural and forms during the
aging process of many good red wines.

• First, remove the bottle horizontally from its rack and place it in a decanting basket. Alternatively, hold it
carefully so that the tank does not shake.
• Remove the top of the capsule and clean the neck of the bottle.
• Very carefully remove the cork and clean the inside of the bottle rim.
• Remove the bottle from the basket, taking care not to disturb the grounds container. Holding the bottle
up to a light, carefully pour the wine into the decanter until the sediment can be seen near the neck. At
this point, stop pouring.

CAPABILITIES

It is important to know how many glasses can be served from a standard 75cl bottle. This will help you
know how many bottles you will need.

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125 ml glasses = 6 glasses
175 ml glasses = 4 glasses
250 ml glasses = 3 glasses

RESPONSIBLE ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

The beverage industry is placing increasing emphasis on responsible consumption of alcoholic beverages.
Alcohol consumption can be dangerous in two main ways. Mild alcohol intoxication may impair the ability to
perform potentially hazardous tasks such as driving a motor vehicle or operating machinery.

Excessive regular alcohol consumption can lead to chronic diseases, as well as behavioral, emotional and
financial problems.

Controlling alcohol consumption

In order to avoid these problems, consumers need to be able to monitor how much alcohol they have
consumed. There is a simple relationship between different drinks in terms of the amount of alcohol they
contain. In standard measurements, each type of drink contains a similar amount of alcohol, known as one
unit.

One unit = 10 ml of pure alcohol =

half a pint (1/4 l) of ordinary beer with 3.5% vol. or
a 25 ml measure of spirits (whisky, gin, brandy) of 40% vol. or a 125 ml glass of wine with
8% vol. (a 175 ml glass = 2.1 units) or a 50 ml glass of Port with 20% vol.

The cumulative effects of regular alcohol consumption are difficult to pinpoint. However, few would dispute
the strong correlation between regular excessive alcohol consumption and the onset of cirrhosis of the liver.
UK health authorities report that health damage is almost unknown in:

• Men who consume no more than 21 units per week, or

• Women who consume no more than 14 units per week.

Regular moderate drinking is less harmful than drinking large amounts at once. Health authorities
recommend limits of 3 to 4 units per day for men and 2 to 3 for women. These lower amounts for women
are because, in most women, the percentage of water in their body weight is lower than in men, so the
alcohol is concentrated in the tissues in greater quantities and because they have lower levels of digestive
enzymes that metabolize alcohol.

Although excessive alcohol consumption is likely to cause health problems, recent research indicates that
moderate alcohol consumption may be beneficial to health.

APPENDIX 2.

PRINCIPLES OF PAIRING

Most wines are produced as an accompaniment to food, and there are many established recommendations
for successfully pairing food and wine. Originally, wine styles were developed to complement a region's
cuisine, so this is a good way to start looking for a good wine and food pairing.

There is no one wine that should be drunk with a certain meal, but some are definitely a better choice than
others. To achieve the best combination, it is necessary to analyze the basic elements of flavor, both in
wine and in food. The main thing is to try to balance them, so that neither the food nor the wine cancels out
the flavor of the other.

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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
The main elements to consider are:

Flavors and textures of food

• the heaviness or seasoning of the food.
• the intensity of the flavor
• the main flavors of food

Flavors and textures of wine

• the body of the wine
• flavour intensity and characteristics
• acidity
• tannin
• sweetness

Weight
The first, and most important, factor is to consider how the “weight” of the food should be combined with
that of the wine.

Heavy, heavily seasoned meals, such as game and red meat stews, require a full-bodied wine. Powerful
red wines may be the choice, although it is the body of the wine rather than the color that is important.
Many times, a full-bodied white pairs better with meat than a light red.

Light food, such as fish or white meat, is complemented with a more delicate wine. Although white wines
are usually the choice, light reds may also be acceptable.

Intensity of Flavor and Character

After weight, the next most important element to consider is flavor and how intense it is. Although it is
similar to weight, it is not the same. Think of a meal that is heavy but has little flavor, such as a plate of
boiled potatoes or plain boiled rice, both of which are heavy but have little flavor. At the other end of the
scale, think of a plate of finely sliced green or red peppers; they are very flavorful but very light. The wines
can be the same. For example, Riesling makes a light wine with intense flavor, while Chardonnay makes
full-bodied, heavy wines that may have little flavor. Delicate wines do not pair well with heavy, strong-
flavored foods.

Extracting the dominant flavor from a meal is not as easy as it seems, often that flavor is in the sauce. In a
chicken curry, the dominant flavor is not that of the chicken, but that of the sauce. You have to think about
body and intensity of flavor when choosing the appropriate wine. A creamy, seasoned sauce will need a
wine with enough body to balance the food and complement the creamy flavors of the sauce.

It is also worth considering the way the food has been cooked. If it has been cooked gently, such as
steamed, it will require lighter wines than for roasted foods, which will require more robust wines, as the
cooking method has added intensity to the flavours of the food. Fried foods require wines with good acidity,
since the cooking method has increased the fat content. A dish that has been cooked slowly, such as a
stew, will be more consistent and need fuller-bodied wines, as the flavours have intensified whilst cooking.

The flavor and character of a wine can sometimes be paired with a meal. For example:

• The grape and floral flavour of wines such as fruity Moscatel.

• Spicy flavours such as Gewürztraminer with spicy foods (the term “spicy” when referring to a wine can
mean different aromas and flavours such as white pepper, black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg
and ginger).

• Wines aged in oak with smoked foods, the stronger the smokiness, the more oak the wine may have.

• More neutral wines, such as Muscadet or Soave, complement delicate dishes such as seafood, and
would be overpowered by stronger flavours.

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Acidity

The acidity of the food must match the acidity of the wines that accompany it.

Tomatoes, a common ingredient in many dishes, are extremely acidic. One of the characteristics of Italian
red wines is their remarkable acidity. This is because Italian cuisine is dominated by two ingredients,
tomatoes and olive oil, and so the wines that go with that food need to have a lot of acidity. Vinaigrette is a
good example of how to add acidity to a dish. You need the freshness of the acidity to cut through the oil,
so to make vinaigrettes you need to mix olive oil and vinegar together.

Dishes dominated by acidic tartaric flavours, such as lemon, lime or vinegar, can be difficult to pair and
great care must be taken to ensure that they do not overpower most wines.

Tannins

The tannins in wine react with protein molecules. Foods high in protein, red meat in particular, will soften
the effect of tannin on the palate. This is why wines made from tannic grape varieties, such as Cabernet
Sauvignon or Syrah/Shiraz, pair well with roasted or stewed meat.

Light, fruity, low-tannin red wines such as Beaujolais and Bardolino complement white meat well because
they are low in protein and lighter than other meats such as lamb or beef.

Tannins in combination with fatty fish can result in a metallic taste, so the general recommendation is to
avoid red wine with fish. However, red wines with few tannins are good with lean fish. Wines with a high
tannin content can also taste bitter with salty foods.

Sweetness

Dry wines can seem tart and overly acidic when drunk with any food with a degree of sweetness. Sweet
food is best paired with a wine that has a similar or higher degree of sweetness; the sweeter the food, the
sweeter the wine should be. Late harvest wines, especially wines affected by botrytis, and sweet wines
based on sweet Muscat are the ideal choice for desserts.

Fat and Oil

Wines with a good amount of acidity can also be splendid with heavy, fatty foods such as pâté. For
example, a Sauternes pairs well with foie gras. Here the weight of the wine and the food are similar, and
the acidity of the wine helps cut the fat in the food. This is also an example of how to pair a sweet wine with
a salty meal. Fresh wines such as Riesling and unaoaked Barberas can pair well with fatty meats such as
duck or goose.

Spices

Hot spices, such as chili, reduce the sweetness of wine and can make red wines seem more astringent.
Spices can also accentuate oak flavors. A good pairing for spicy foods can be wines made from very ripe
and juicy fruit, with no or very little oak. Wines like New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc can pair well with spicy
foods, as can ripe Chilean Merlot.

Smoked

Smoked foods require wines with enough character to stand up to the strength of the smoke. Lightly
smoked salmon is a classic pairing with Brut Champagne; smoked meats, such as pork, can benefit from
some sweetness in the wine, such as that found in some German Rieslings; smoky barbecue flavours go
well with powerful, oaky wines, such as Australian Shiraz.

Salty

Savory foods are enhanced with a touch of sweetness. Think of the classic combination of prosciutto and
figs. The same goes for wines. Roquefort and Sauternes cheeses and Stilton and Port are famous
combinations. Savory people also appreciate a bit of acidity. Avoid tannic wines, as salt seems to bring out
the bitterness of the tannin. Salty foods such as olives, oysters and other shellfish go best with fresh, dry,

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light white wines. Manzanilla or Fino de Jerez are classic accompaniments to olives and nuts.

These tips and recommendations should prevent disastrous combinations, but individual taste is the final
consideration. Experimenting can produce surprising results.

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APPENDIX 3.
THE LABEL

Since ancient times, wines have been known by their geographical origin. Specific wines are
mentioned by name in the Bible, and classical Greece and Rome had classifications for their wines
based on their qualities. The oldest labels carried minimal detail, perhaps nothing more than the
name of the town from which the wine came. Over the past few years, two different trends have led
to more information appearing on labels: one led by consumers and the other by authorities. The
rapid growth in wine consumption, particularly in those countries where it was not a tradition, has
led consumers to want to know more about what they are drinking. In the United States, for
example, many back labels carry a short exposition about the origin of the wine, how it was made
and what it should be drunk with. At the same time, authorities have sought greater consumer
protection. When it comes to wine, this means that each bottle carries certain guarantees, which
may be on the cork, the bottle, the capsule, the label or the back label.

This chapter concerns the legal aspects of labelling and focuses on EU legislation. This is because a large
part of the world's wine is made in the EU, or consumed there, and must comply with its legal requirements.
EU law is varied and guidelines governing labelling are mostly contained in Community Standards, which
are translated into the main EU languages and published in the Official Journal of the EU. These Standards
are legally binding and are of higher rank than national standards covering the same areas. EU law now
applies to all alcoholic beverages in all EU countries. The EU rules on spirits and liqueur wines have
already been published, but for now they only refer to general principles. Until the details of the law are
published, national laws, which have already been amended to comply with the current EU Guidelines, will
apply. Note that Fortified Wines is the legally correct term for what we generally call fortified wines, which
are wines to which alcohol in the form of grape spirit has been added before, during, or after fermentation.

As the definition of wine in the EU requires it to be a minimum of 8.5% vol. (with the exception of Germany
where it is 6.5% vol.) the term non-alcoholic wine is prohibited. The term dealcoholised wine is permitted
if the product is obtained from a base wine that meets the EU definition of wine. It is essential to
differentiate clearly between these categories. If a consumer orders a non-alcoholic drink, they cannot be
offered a low-alcohol one.

EU RULES FOR WINE LABELLING

Still Wines Produced in the EU

All still wines sold in the EU must be labelled according to EU Standards, even if they have been produced
outside the EU. Anything that is not explicitly permitted is prohibited. These Standards allow five different
categories of still wines:

1. Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (VCPRD - QWPSR)

This is a category for wines made from grapes grown within a specific EU region and therefore does not
apply to wines made outside the EU. The region must be registered in the EU and the legislation of each
country must implement the EU criteria for this category. This legislation will provide for:

• authorized or recommended varieties of grapes.

• viticultural practices, especially pruning systems.
• maximum yields per hectare.
• controls on vinification, acidification, enrichment, aging, etc.

• minimum (and sometimes maximum) alcohol content.

• analysis of the finished wine and sometimes tasting it.

Pg. 218, VCPRD label:

THE QUARRY. Brand.
CARIGAINE. VCPRD region registered in the EU.
DENOMINATION OF ORIGIN. VCPRD category in Spanish wine law.
San Valero Wineries. CARIÑENA – SPAIN REN 2637/Z. Name and address of the producer and bottler.
AGEING 1997. Vintage 1997. Crianza indicates that the wine has been aged in barrel and bottle for a
minimum time, specified in Spanish law.

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PRODUCT OF SPAIN. Country of origin.
13% vol. Alcohol content (by volume at 20º C).
750ml e. Volume and “e” mark.

Many countries have two categories of VCPRD. France has Appelation Contrôlée (AC) and the lower
category vin de qualité supérieure (VDQS). Similarly, Italian quality wines are divided into DOC and the
superior DOCG and Germany into QbA and the superior QmP. Details of these different classifications are
provided in the country chapters.

2. Table Wine with Geographical Description

This is a wine, other than a quality wine, from an EU country, which mentions a specific origin within the
EU, and which has been produced in compliance with the laws of that country. There should be no
confusion between the geographical description of a table wine and that of any VCPRD region. These
wines include Vino de la Tierra (Spain) and Vin de Pays (France). The label can include the vintage and up
to two grape varieties.

Still Wines Produced Within the EU

MAIN EU VCPRD – QWPSR WITH TABLE WINE TABLE WINE
COUNTRIES DESCRIPTION
GEOGRAPHICAL
France AC/AOC, VDQS Country wine Table Wine
Germany QmP, QbA Landwein German Table Wine
Italy DOC, DOCG IGT Tavola Wine
Spain DO, DOC Wine of the Earth Table Wine
Portugal DOC IPR Table Wine

3. Still Wines Produced Outside the EU

The term “table wine” may be expressed on the label in any of the main EU languages, but Vin de Table,
Vino de Tavola, Tafelwein, Vino de Table. As a term, it can only be applied to wines produced within the
EU, so a wine could not be described within the EU as “Australian Table Wine”. These wines may be a
blend of wines from several EU countries, which must be mentioned on the label in the language of the
country of consumption, with a phrase such as “Blend of wines from different countries of the European
Union”. Only very general rules apply to the production of table wines, the most important being that the
alcohol level must be at least 8.5% vol. and at most 15% vol. except in Greece, where wines up to 17% vol.
are accepted. Chaptalization is not permitted. Table wine labels cannot mention either the vintage or the
varietal.

Still Wines Produced Outside the EU

1. Wine with Geographical Description

It is a wine produced outside the EU, officially known as “third country wine”, which names a specific
producing region of the country of origin. They can be Sauvignon Blanc from Marlborough in New Zealand
or Cabernet Sauvignon from Suhindol in Bulgaria. The region must be on a list approved by the EU
authorities and must not be confusing with any Quality Wine name. For example, the province of La Rioja in
Argentina does not

can sell its wines in the EU under that name, if not under the name of Valle de Famatina. The region can be
small, such as Gimblett Gravels, or very large, such as South-Eastern Australia, which potentially includes
more than 90% of that country's production. The label may mention the vintage and (usually) up to two
grape varieties. Many countries outside the EU have their own legal systems for defining quality (such as
AVAs in the United States) and they may appear on bottles sold in the EU, although they have no legal
validity. Where vintages, varietals and regions are listed, most countries legislate that the wine must be
made from a minimum of 85% (75% for California) grapes from the vintages, varietals and regions listed. In
any other case 100% is required.

2. Came
It is a wine made outside the EU that does not fall into the previous category. Varietals and vintages cannot
be mentioned. Blending wines from two non-EU countries is prohibited, as is blending wines from within

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and outside the EU.

For each category, the Standards specify what must appear on the label and what is allowed to appear.
Anything not specified on either list is prohibited. For example, the style of the wine can be described (e.g.
sweet), but the health warnings that are required in the US are banned in the EU.

Sparkling Wines
There are four different categories of sparkling wines which, with the exception of the first, have no
equivalent to still wines. As with these, only what is specifically permitted can appear on the label: the
higher the category of the sparkling wine, the more information must appear.

1. Quality Sparkling Wine Produced in a Specific Region

Can only be produced within the EU, with an AC level or similar. Examples include Crémant de Bourgogne,
Moscato d'Asti and Cava. They have to obtain the bubbles in a second fermentation, in a tank or in a bottle,
according to local legislation.

2. Quality Sparkling Wine

Produced by fermentation in bottles or tanks. For bottle-fermented wines, a minimum of nine months must
pass from the start of fermentation until it is put on sale, and six months for those fermented in tanks.
During this time, wines fermented in bottles must spend a minimum of 60 days on their lees, while those
fermented in tanks must do so for a minimum of 80 days, except if the tank is equipped with pallets, where
the number is reduced to 30. Although it is a category primarily for EU wines, it has been extended to wines
from other countries.

For these first two categories, the word “aromatic” may appear on the label if the wine is made from grapes
such as Muscat or Gewürztraminer.

3. Sparkling wine
It can be from inside or outside the EU. The only stipulation is that the bubble originates from fermentation.
One cannot mention an origin smaller than that of the country of origin.

4. Carbonated Sparkling Wine

It is used for carbonated wines and the production method must be clearly stated as “Obtained by Addition
of Carbon Dioxide”. One cannot mention an origin smaller than that of the country of origin.

Pg. 219, table wine label

Villa Mare. Brand.
White Table Wine. White table wine.
PRODUCT IN ITALY. Country of origin.
75cl e. Volume and “e” mark.

12.5% vol. Alcohol content (by volume at 20º C).

IMBOTTIGLIATO BY MGM MONDO DEL VINO SRL Name and address of the producer and bottler.

GENERAL LABELLING RULES IN THE EU

Tagged with varietal

Any wine produced in the EU that mentions a grape variety must contain at least 85% of that variety. For
most countries outside the EU (and for some within) the wine must contain 100% of that variety, although
there are exceptions for countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Argentina and Chile, where it will be
85%, and the United States with 75%. A limited number of non-EU countries can name 2 or 3 varieties on
the label and, exceptionally and peculiarly, Australia can name up to 5, provided each represents at least
5% of the blend. For the EU, as many varietals as you like can be mentioned as part of a “descriptive text”,
but only a maximum of 2 can be highlighted.

Pg. 220, third country label

viottolo. Brand.
McLaren Vale. Region (Australia GI).
Shiraz. Grape variety.

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2001. Harvest.
Wine of Australia. Country of origin.
14.5% vol. Alcohol content (by volume at 20º C).
Produced by Viottolo 8 St. Johns Terrace Willunga South Australia. Name and address of the
producer.
Selected and shipped by the exclusive importer Direct Wines Limited RG7 4PL UK. Name and
address of the EU (UK) importer.
750ml. Volume.
34431. Lot.

Vintages
The mention of the vintage is optional for VCPRD wines and Table Wine with Geographical Description
from the EU and for wines from outside the EU with Geographical Description. For most wines, particularly
those from big brands that take advantage of blends between regions and varietals, the vintage is not
important; it is just an indication of age. It allows us to monitor the evolution of the wine in the bottle. Some
wines do not bear the vintage on the bottle, either because it is prohibited (such as EU Table Wines and
wines from outside without Geographical Description), or because they are made from a mixture of vintages
(such as most Champagnes and Sherries). This can be a problem, as even the longest-lived Champagnes
evolve in the bottle, and it can be impossible for the consumer to know how long the wine has been sitting
on the shelf or in the warehouse. Some producers add the disgorging date on the back label. For wines
such as Finos de Jerez, which lose their freshness very quickly once bottled, it can be a very useful guide
for the retailer (helping with stock rotation) and the buyer.

Batch registration
Finally, according to EU rules, in the event of a complaint, the consumer must be able to recognise a clear
reference on the label with which the producer can check a bottling batch and, if necessary, withdraw the
entire batch. Normally this reference is a code of numbers and letters. Historical methods, such as serration
of the label edge, are no longer allowed. A batch number is not required if the entire production of a wine is
bottled at the same time. This may be the case for the Burgundies bottled on the property. It is also not
required for wines bottled before July 1, 1992.

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