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Travels in the United States etc during 1849 and 1850 1st
Edition Emmeline Stuart-Wortley Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Emmeline Stuart-Wortley
ISBN(s): 9781108003377, 1108003370
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 8.12 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 Cambridge Library CoLLeCtion
Books of enduring scholarly value

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The books reissued in this series include accounts of historical events and
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Travels in the United States, etc. During 1849 and 1850

Published in 1851, Lady Emmeline Stuart Wortley’s account of her travels through
the Americas during the mid nineteenth century represents an early example of
the travel writing genre. The United States was becoming an increasingly popular
tourist destination for Europeans at this time, and Lady Emmeline’s writings present
a quintessentially British impression of America and its people. This third and
final volume records her journeys through Panama to Lima, describing in detail
the architecture, climate, people and scenery of Peru, and her onward journey to
Kingston, Jamaica. Written in an engaging and conversational tone, the volumes are
both informative and entertaining, fulfilling the author’s aim to ‘amuse’ with ‘the
gossip of travel’.
Cambridge University Press has long been a pioneer in the reissuing of out-of-
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Travels in the United
States, etc. During
1849 and 1850
Volume 3

E mmeline Stuart-Wortley
 C A m B r i D g E U n i V E r Si T y P r E S S

Cambridge, new york, melbourne, madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,

São Paolo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, new york

www.cambridge.org
information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108003377

© in this compilation Cambridge University Press 2009

This edition first published 1851

This digitally printed version 2009

iSBn 978-1-108-00337-7 Paperback

This book reproduces the text of the original edition. The content and language reflect
the beliefs, practices and terminology of their time, and have not been updated.

Cambridge University Press wishes to make clear that the book, unless originally published
by Cambridge, is not being republished by, in association or collaboration with, or
with the endorsement or approval of, the original publisher or its successors in title.
 TRAVELS

THE UNITED STATES,

ETC.

DURING 1849 AND 1850.

BY THE

LADY EMMELLNE STITAKT WORTLEY.

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. III.

LONDON:
RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,
in ©tttmatg to Ifatx Jtflafestg.
1851.
 CONTENTS TO VOL. III.

CHAPTER I.
i

Monarchy and democracy.—England's treatment of her

colonies.—The greatness of America.—Her tendency to
propagandism.—Anecdote of a paroquet.—The pearl-
fishery at Panama.—The captain and his crew.—General
Rosas.—Beautifully scented woods in Panama.—The rose
fever.—Theatricals in Panama.—Hostility between Ame-
ricans and the natives of Panama.— Fair children in
Panama.—The would-be Englishwoman

CHAPTER II.

Intention to go to Lima.—Dinner to ex-cannibals.—

Theatricals in Panama.—Taboga.—The French tailoress.
—The "happy ship."—Roman Catholic procession on
GoodFriday.—Amischievous trick.—California thorough-
ly Americanized.—Californian adventurers and the steam-
boat agent.—The dead Negro.—British subjects buried
in Panama. — Tone of American papers in Panama.—
Spirit of enterprise of the Americans.—Old Panama.—
Reptiles and insects in Panama. — Morgan and his
bucaneers.—The pirates and the Spanish fleet.—Wealth
said to have been buried by the bucaneers.—American
love of intellectual progress . . . . . . 20
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.
PAGE

The probable future of Panama. —South American

railroads projected. — Gold-seekers in Panama.—Large
importation of fruit-trees into California.—American im-
provements in Panama.—Alleged ill-treatment of emi-
grants by ship-owners.—The green mountain Yankee.—
The Indians and the damp gunpowder.—The government
of New Granada.—Its recent policy . . . .64

CHAPTER IV.

Arrival at Lima announced.—Embark on the " Bolivia."

—-View of Panama, from the sea.—Buenaventura.—The
river and city of Guayaquil.— Horses' dread of alliga-
tors.—Native boats and their varied freight.— Parrots,
macaws, and paroquets.—Ponchos.—The Guayaquil ladies.
— Grass hats. — The five productions of Guayaquil.—
Payta. — Its population. — Its salubrity. — Its market —
Scarcity of water at Payta.—Former wealth of that place 77

CHAPTER V.

Cherimoyas. — Lambayeque.— The Balsa.—Its use.—

Numerous reptiles and insects at Lambayeque.—Curious
mound-tombs.—Sepulchral curiosities found in them.—
Alleged imitation of them in Birmingham.—Huanchaco.
— The peremptory lady. — Description of Callao. — Its
destruction a century ago.—The frozen apple . . .99

CHAPTER VI.

Site of old Callao.—The shouting inquirer.—Approach

to Lima. — Absence of rain at that city.— The o-raceful
Peruvian costume. — The Poncho. — Male and female
 CONTENTS. V

PAGE
equestrians. — Arrival at Lima.—The aspect of the city.
—Miradors.—Multitude of asses in Lima.—London and
Lima.—Costumes of Lima ladies.—The bridge over the
Rimac.—Venders of cigars.—The Cordilleras . .113

CHAPTER VII.

The Great Plaza. — The cathedral of Lima. — The

streets of that city. — The silversmiths. — The bells of
Lima.—Charitable institutions.—Churches and convents.
—Handsome houses. — Palaces of the past.— Grotesque
paintings. — Well-appointed carriages. — The Limanian
beggar-woman. — Particularities of Lima ladies' dress.—
Their shoes.—M. and Madame B Their daughter 134

CHAPTER VIII.

Signal instance of the heroism of a lady.—The proces-

sion of the oracion.—A lottery in the Grand Plaza.—How
conducted.—Distinguished visitors.—Chorillos.—The sale
of "almas," or souls—The public museum. — Portraits
of the Spanish viceroys.—Mummies of Peruvian Incas.—
Beautiful stuffed birds.—Manco Capac.—Who were the
first Incas?—The children of the sun.—Progress in civili-
zation of old Peru . . . . . . 147

CHAPTER IX.

Manco Capac and his wife.—Their instruction of the

Peruvians —Old Peruvian roads.—Bull-fights at Lima.—
Mode of conducting them. — Spectators at them. — Li-
manian ladies.—Beautiful specimens of Peruvian art and
ingenuity.—Silver ornamented fruits.—Lima burial places.
—The Amancaes —The fiesta of St. John.—The valley
of Amancaes.—The flower of that name.—The streets of
Lima after the fiesta.—Concerts given by a French lady,
vi CONTENTS.
PAGE

—Fruits of Lima.—The Grenadilla.—-" Italia."—Custom

of washing plates by the lower orders in Lima.—The Gor-
gonian servant.—" Huacos" and other curiosities found in
Peruvian sepulchres.—The "Senorita."—A garden in the
suburbs.—Its numerous trees, shrubs, and flowers.—Ener-
vating climate of Lima . . . • • • .16/

CHAPTER X.
About to leave Lima.—The cathedral. — Fragile but
enduring buildings in Lima.—The reason why they are the
latter.—The town of San Domingo.—The choristers of
the cathedral.—The shrine of Santa Rosa.—The Inqui-
sition at Lima.—The cemetery.—Cemeteries in the United
States.—Lima mode of sepulture.—Remains of the Tem-
ple of the Sun.—Peruvian politics.—Disheartening news
from California.—Verses on Happiness.—Earthquake at
Lima.—The shoes of the ladies . . . . . 200

CHAPTER XL
The voyage from Peru to Panama. —Farewell to Lima.
—Guanacos.—The Rio lady in the omnibus.—The rail-
road begun.—Arrival at Callao.—Rodil's defence of Callao
described.—Polite attention of Captain W .—The
harbour of Callao.—The beauty of the Pacific.—Hand-
some appointments of the steamer.—The musical stewards.
—Mr. Beebe, the hatter, for California.—Arrival at Payta.
—The British Consul there.—Description of Payta.—
Treatment of Peru by the Spanish conquerors.—Insur-
rection of Tupac Amaru.—The Indians beyond Peru . 221

CHAPTER X I I .
Peru.—Her internal communication.—Her forts and
coast.— Peruvian agriculture.— Manufacture of Inland
Peru.— Commerce of Peru.— Her commodities. Her
 CONTENTS. Vll

PAGE
trade.—Her government.—Her religion.—Peruvian fer-
tility.—Mineral resources.—Animals.—Cattle.—The face
of the country.—The Andes.—Rivers and lakes of Peru.
—Her coasts. . . . . . . . . 244

CHAPTER XIII.
Departure from Peru.—On board the "New World."—
The nautical ladies.—Chimborazo and Cotopaxi.—The
volcanoes of the Cordillera.—Crater of Cotopaxi.—A
narrow escape.—Arrival at Panama.—An amateur con-
cert.—Departure from Panama.—Scene occasioned by a
dead mule.—Badness of the roads —Arrival at Cruces . 263

CHAPTER XIV.

The hotel at Cruces.—A felonious cat.—The New

Granadian gentleman. — Progress towards Chagres. —
Lightning, thunder, and rain.—Arrival at Chagres.—
The dead American. — Quarrels between Americans and
the natives of Panama. — Humboldt's estimate of the
Indians.—Incredulity of Californian emigrants.—Melan-
choly case of two returned Californians. — A beautiful
sun-set. — Arrival at Jamaica. — Kingston. —Descent of
General Lopez on Cuba.—Strange effect of it.—Reverses
of Jamaica planters.—The glories of Nature.—Crea-
tion's Praise, a poem 282
 NARRATIVE
or

TRAVELS IN THE UNITED STATES,

&c.

IN 1849-50.

CHAPTER I.
MONARCHY AND DEMOCRACY ENGLAND'S TREATMENT OF HER
COLONIES THE GREATNESS OF AMERICA HER TENDENCY
TO PROPAGANDISM ANECDOTE OF A PAROQUET THE PEARL-
FISHERY AT PANAMA THE CAPTAIN AND HIS CREW—GENE-
RAL ROSAS BEAUTIFULLY SCENTED WOODS IN PANAMA THE
ROSE FEVER THEATRICALS IN PANAMA HOSTILITY BE-
TWEEN AMERICANS AND THE NATIVES OF PANAMA FAIR
CHILDREN IN PANAMA THE WOULD-BE ENGLISHWOMAN.

NEW GRANADA, from accounts I have heard,

would not object much to giving up the Isthmus
to the United States, but France and England,
from various reasons, no doubt would ! Educa-
tion, and many other advantages, doubtless,
VOL. III. B
2 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

would accrue to the people under the enlightened

rule of the Americans; but, after all, it seems
a republican government is not suited to these
South American nations : it becomes a tyranny
or a nullity with them. The genius, character,
and habits of the people tend towards monarchi-
cal institutions in general. Old Spain has left
her mark upon them; she trained all her colo-
nies in her own spirit; she deeply imbued them
with her own principles: this has grown with their
growth, and strengthened with their strength;
and though, when they threw off her yoke, and
asserted their national independence, the ex-
ample of the most flourishing and powerful
nation in this hemisphere was, as it were,
instinctively followed (as if the mere resemblance
in the form of government, without any simi-
larity in character, traditions, or habits of
thought, could effect equal results), yet the
people, it would appear, have generally retained
the impressions that the mother country sought
always consistently to give them.
In vain the letter is altered; the spirit is
still there. A monarchy herself, she educated
and trained her colonies in monarchical prin-
 ENGLAND AND HER COLONIES. 3

ciples, as did Portugal also ; and the consequence

is, that though by the overwhelming influence
of the example of the mightiest people of the
New World they mostly are republics in name,
it is in name only. Look at Mexico; look at
her eminently aristocratical church and army ;
see how in society counts and marquises re-
tain their titles to this very day, and how in a
thousand other things the real tendencies of the
people break forth. How differently does Eng-
land treat her colonies—with what care appa-
rently does she lead them, and teach them, and
tutor them to be republics in time. Monarchy
is a sort of distant vision—a myth to them :
they are seldom reminded of it; it is a shadow
and a name, and democracy seems the substance.
Monarchy is a rare and holiday visitor; demo-
cracy is their every-day comrade and friend: it
comes home to every man's bosom and business
there; it is with him in the market-place, with
him in the street, it is part of his every-day life,
it is with him in all his social intercourse; and
if in the settlers from the old country, habits
previously acquired and sentiments originally
instilled into them should retain some dominion
B 2
4 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

over them, fainter and fainter indeed, but still

not wholly eradicated,—in the next generation,
when no such antecedents have left a shadow
behind, it is entirely annihilated.
It may be objected that, notwithstanding
Spain through all her widely-extended colonies
consistently and perseveringly carried out the
fundamental principles of her laws, and un-
varyingly caused them to participate freely
and fully in all the spirit and forms of her
own institutions, yet these colonies were not
deterred from separating themselves from the
mother-country. That they did so—true ; but
the circumstances under which they asserted
and won their independence had nothing to do
with their being monarchical, or democratical
in their internal policy. Other and more cogent
reasons determined them on their course; and
although the metropolitan country acted wisely
with regard to her dependencies in particular
instances, in a number of important matters she
committed the most flagrant errors. Heaven
knows we manage our colonies ill enough in
most matters, and we have ingeniously super-
added to our shortcomings and weaknesses the
 ENGLAND AND HER COLONIES. 5

great fault of doing all in our power to make

them not only quite indifferent to us now, but
utterly different from ourselves in government
and political organization, whenever in the ful-
ness of time (and that time is probably not far
distant, and will, we must undoubtedly feel,
assuredly come) they sever themselves from us,
as the dependencies of Spain did from her, and
establish themselves as independent nations, for
it will be doubtless as—republics.
Then, instead of having the great tie of a
close resemblance in all political institutions,
and that wide sympathy which must spring from
an identity of all the forms of constitutional
administration and of organization, we must
take leave of them, and lose them indeed! for
they will naturally and spontaneously cling to
those governments which have the greatest simi-
larity to their own, and feel that the same act
which has disjoined them from a state of govern-
ment so little analogous to their own selected
one, has, as it were, connected them with those
that are formed on the same model and estab-
lished on the same foundations.
It is a great compliment to our mighty trans-
atlantic brethren, without doubt, that we should
6 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

be moulding and forming all our colonies to

tread in their footsteps and follow their example ;
but it is a very bad compliment to our own
institutions; and in the course of time will tend,
if persevered in, I am persuaded, very greatly to
endanger them. Two great principles will divide
the world one day or the other: democracy and
monarchy, and one or the other will ultimately
have the ascendancy; and as we should not
think it wise or prudent of our republican
brethren to sow everywhere, from the largest
to the smallest of their states perhaps, the seeds
of absolutism, or of sovereignty, so neither can
it be discreet in us to sow broadcast over
our own vast transmarine territorial possessions,
the seeds of republicanism and democracy. " Qui
se ressemble s'assemble;" and we are actually
training and disciplining troops for the future
Political Warfare of the world, that must and
will necessarily range themselves in hostility
against our professed and declared principles
and sentiments.
It may be that our statesmen care not for the
future—apres moi le deluge : it may be that
they have a secret leaning towards the wholly
popular forms of government themselves ; but
 THE PRESENT STATE OF AUSTRALIA. 7

on this I have nothing to say, neither am I

arguing in the least as to the relative perfec-
tions of this or that form of government.
I only say, if we think our own constitution
and institutions are good—are the best (and if
we do not think so, certainly no time ought to
be lost in changing them, as far as reason and
prudence will permit), then we ought to do our
duty, and consistently act, so as to extend this
system, and these advantages, to those over
whom we have so much influence for evil or
for good.
Surely no one can doubt for a moment what
Australia would become, if she established her
independence now ; and every year that passes
over our heads adds more to the strength and
vigour of her popular principles. As year
after year sees the older settlers more alienated,
by the state of things around them, from the
once-venerated traditions of their fathers and the
character of their ancient relations, associations,
and prepossessions ; and as the accumulation of
democratic elements naturally and necessarily
(without any antagonizing, or at least counte-
racting influences) continues to increase, as hosts
of humble emigrants, and few but humble emi-
8 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

grants, pour down upon the shores of that grand

and promising colony—how can it be otherwise ?
Representatives of all our different classes and
orders should be encouraged to go there by all
legitimate means; another spirit would be quickly
interfused ; and instead of a gradual, but certain
alienation from the forms, character and tone
of our institutions, the reverse would be the
case, and the manners and all the usages of the
society of the older world would be insensibly
introduced, adopted and preferred; and if we
aided the development of those inclinations by
a strict adaptation to the colony of all the
various agencies and accompaniments of a form
of government like ours—those co-operating
circumstances that have proved so instrumental
in our own country in the establishment of a
monarchy, and in securing that monarchy's per-
manency and consolidation—there is no more
reason that, in the event of Australia becoming
independent of England, she should frame a
republican constitution, than that Belgium should
have done when separated from Holland.
We should have a peerage in all our colonies,
whose honours should be distributed with, per-
fect impartiality and justice—orders of knight-
 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE. 9

hood, rewards, distinctions, and everything else

that the mother country herself has ; and it
would soon be found not only that the aristo-
cratic element would be largely infused into the
plebeian, but also that a spirit beyond that of
mere money-making would be more generally
and more preponderatingly introduced.
It may be said, and very truly, that the
people of the United States are as enlightened,
chivalrous, and noble a people as can exist, not-
withstanding that the love of money-making
certainly largely enters into their composition.
Granted, and more than granted; for I have
a most sincere admiration for the true nobility
of nature of the Americans in general; but
their past position was widely different from
that of our colonists at present. The history
and cherished traditions of their race, the exam-
ples of all the mighty countries of the world,
at that time, tended to inspire them with a
deep respect for monarchical constitutions, and
the time-honoured customs and ordinations be-
longing thereto ; and though their own form of
government, chiefly through the decision and
habits of thought of some of their principal
B 3
10 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

men, and the local tendency to republicanism,

that we had encouraged and established
amongst them, became after the separation
a commonwealth ; yet they instinctively turned
for models of greatness and perfection, glory
and grandeur, and success to the Old World
absolutisms, or constitutional sovereignties, and
thus combined much chivalrous sentiment and
hero-magnanimity with other tendencies and
characteristics.
But it is a far other case with the inhabitants
of our present important and noble depen-
dencies; they have shining chiefly before their
eyes the material prosperity, and fast increasing
power, and stupendous greatness of their elder,
but liberated brother. All that can attract,
dazzle, fascinate, and inspire with the deepest
admiration, is to be found in that magnificent
and giant nation; and to follow in their footsteps
well may be the ambition of every young and
independent state. But still Mammon there is
too much worshipped, and in that will their
example probably be most faithfully followed.
Do we, or do we not, wish to counteract the
democratic tendencies of our colonies ? If we
 AMERICAN PROPAGANDISTS. 11

do, no further time is to be wasted; and if

we do not, we are certainly doing all we by
possibility can, short of giving those colonies
the name as well as the nature of republics, to
promote the rapid establishment of such a system
of government in all of them. Surely accord-
ing to the basis of our own constitution—so
should the superstructure be throughout.
Forgive, reader, this digression. Many things
I hear, many circumstances that have transpired
under my own eyes, have led me to think much
on these subjects; subjects that may seem of
little consequence in the present moment, but
that will prove of such enormous importance in
the future. The Americans are the greatest poli-
tical propagandists imaginable, and believing
their own singularly successful and admirably
administered form of government to be the
most perfect in the world, who can censure them
for being so ? They are too clear-sighted, and
too desirous that their own democracy should
ultimately overshadow and control all the
nations of the earth, not to rejoice at the
way in which we are playing into their hands.
# # # # #
But let me now tell, by way of a little variety,
12 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

a curious circumstance relating to natural

history that has lately occurred. I think I
have mentioned a little cross-grained paroquet
that V took under her especial protection
soon after we arrived here. Not being fasci-
nated by its manners, and having an objection
to being sharply bitten whenever I approached
too near the little wretch, I declined as far as
possible the honour of his acquaintance, and
never took the slightest notice of him, nor he
of me, for he found I would not submit to his
biting attacks generally, and therefore he turned
his attention to others, who were either more
afraid of him, or who by such devotion as
V 's won him over by constantly offering
him " dulces" and fruit.
One afternoon I was very busily employed in
writing or reading, and it happened I was quite
absorbed and wrapped up in my occupation, and
hardly knew that my little cross-patch of a paro-
quet had been left to amuse himself on the bal-
cony, as was sometimes the case. Presently he
began making a tremendous and piercing noise,
screaming far louder than I had ever heard
him do. I took no notice at first, but the
sound increased, and I thought was pertina-
 THE PAROQUET. 13

ciously addressed to me—I cannot describe what

a deafening din the little animal contrived to
make, evidently to attract my attention. At
last I looked up, and beheld it to my sur-
prise posting directly towards me, as fast as
it could waddle, for its gait was something
like that of the Turkish or Tunis women, in
their tumble-off slippers. It had to cross a
great part of the immense drawing-room to get
to me; but with its eyes fixed on me in the
most supplicating manner, and almost starting
out of its little poked-forward head, it hurried
on, making right for the place where I was
sitting. Surprised at its unusual conduct, and
compassionating the poor little creature's evident
perturbation and uneasiness—though in what
originating I knew not—I put down my hand
for the bird to mount on the finger, as it com-
monly did; it lost not a quarter of a second in
so doing, fluttering with anxiety, and half dead
with terror. The moment I took it up, it hid
itself, as well as it could, in the folds of a shawl,
I had on.
I felt there must be some enemy at hand,
but what, and where? I glanced round the
room. In a corner near the balcony, which was
14 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

comparatively dark, I perceived a cat, who was

all ready for the fatal spring, but had possibly
been arrested by the same instinct that had
taught the sensible little bird to hurry and
clamour so loudly to me for protection. Puss
was so grievously disappointed at the loss of
her anticipated repast, that she actually seemed
almost inclined to dispute with me the poor
little trembling paroquet, who was, as nearly as
a bird could be, in hysterics of fear. He shook
with terror, and seemed as if he would fall into
a fit.
I drove the cat away ; and after a great deal
of soothing and encouraging, the poor little pa-
roquet was restored to composure, and after a
long time, showed his convalescence and his
gratitude by hints that he began to feel him-
self in biting trim again. However, I think
since this affair he has not bit me, when I have
ventured to approach, quite so savagely or so
often as before.
To turn from this little ex-demon, to a totally
different subject. I was reading in my room the
other day, when I was called to see a pretty
sight. On hurrying out of our suite of rooms,
what should I see but a little winged angel on
 PANAMA PEARL-FISHERY. 15

the stairs ! This was a child of Senora

who was dressed to perform her part in a
religious procession that was going to take
place. The little creature looked lovely, covered
with resplendent diamonds and pearls, and fur-
nished with bright little silvery wings ; but it
had a sad expression of countenance, the effect
of which was very touching. A sort of star,
of magnificent jewels, was gleaming on its
bosom, and it seemed almost oppressed by the
weight of gems it had to carry.
This angel visitant was accompanied by a
nurse, who appeared very proud of the little
glittering thing, and of the profusion of costly
jewels with which it was so superbly adorned.
The pearls were wonderfully splendid; but this
is a native land—or rather native water—of
pearls, for there is a regular pearl-fishery estab-
lished here.
These treasures of the deep are abundantly
found around the adjoining islands, and prove a
profitable source of employment to a consider-
able body of men, who follow the laborious oc-
cupation of divers. It is said, that Messrs.
Rundell and Bridge, some time ago, paid down
a sum of money for the right to monopolize the
 16 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

trade, and they sent out from England a diving-

bell, which it was anticipated would materially
tend to increase the supply of pearls from
these oyster-beds; but the attempt was a vain
one, in consequence of the rocky nature of the
bottom of the bay, together with the very heavy
ground-swell, which is so frequent here. The
trade was, therefore, again transferred to the
natives, who sell all they find to the resident
merchants, for the jewel-cases of the fair Pana-
manians, as it is said not many are exported
to the Old World.
The cook here (who, by the way, is an excel-
lent one) sent up to me, the other day, a number
of lovely pearls, which he had purchased, I be-
lieve, from the divers on speculation. They
looked tempting enough, as they rolled one by
one out of the long tubular case in which they
were deposited, shining with extraordinary lustre
—so fresh from the great Pacific that all the
snowy whiteness of its eternal surf seemed
sparkling on them !
But I would not purchase any; for, while
travelling and voyaging about, it is far preferable
to have nothing that is valuable, as far as it can
be avoided. I had left everything I brought
 THE CAPTAIN AND HIS CREW. 17

with me of any value in the British Consulate

at the Havana, Mr. Kennedy having given me
permission so to do.
A day or two ago, I had a surprise, which
was occasioned by a very different being from
the pretty winged angel, mailed in jewels, and
with a little halo of splendour around it. I was
returning in the afternoon from the drawing-room
to my own apartment, to arrive at which I had to
traverse several rooms; the first a sort of sitting-
room, which opened on one side to a chamber
generally appropriated by Madame Jenny (the
French femme de chambre of Miss P ) for
the safe-keeping of various stores; and on the
other side there was a door, which conducted to
the room which H. and W. inhabited, who were
then both out. When I reached the large gate-
like doors which led to the outer apartment,
I was much astonished to see them shut, and
still more to see them opened suddenly, and a
man in a sailor-like garb rush out in a horrible
condition!
He had evidently been subjected to shocking
bad treatment; his head and face seemed a mass
of bruises and wounds, and he appeared consi-
derably agitated, not to say alarmed. He in-
18 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

formed me, in a hurried manner, that he was

the captain of a merchant-vessel, then at
Panama, and had had a mutiny among his
men; had escaped with difficulty, was pursued
by them, and dreadfully ill-treated; he had rushed
into the Consulate for refuge and safety, and
was watched by the disaffected crew, who had
stationed themselves at the gates of the Con-
sulate, not daring to penetrate farther, but in-
tending to attack him, if he ventured to quit its
sheltering roof.
Mr. P was out at the time, but was
momentarily expected home. A chair was
brought by Madame Jenny, and placed near
the office-door, where the poor man waited till
the Consul arrived, to tell his piteous tale.
Mr. P told me afterwards that such cases
are of very common occurrence here now. The
crews, in general, it appears, are all anxious
to get to California (and when there, to go to
the mines); besides, they have constant oppor-
tunities of getting higher wages, and are con-
tinually in a state of discontent.
We have no Consul, I find, at San Francisco,
which seems very strange, when it is considered
how many English merchant-ships there are
 PARTY COLOURS OF GENERAL ROSAS. 19

now at that port, and what an important place

it has become.
There is a family of distinction here, from
Buenos Ayres, and as it seems General Rosas
makes all his followers, male and female, wear
his colours, red and all red: in whatever part
of the world they may be, they are forced, on
the most broiling day, to go about like land-
lubberized and boiled lobsters. The great
Dictator, it is asserted, has spies in multitudes
in all parts, and no one dare infringe his rules,
as they would certainly be detected. Thus these
Buenos-Ayrean travellers are condemned to
this perpetual blush of " celestial rosy red" from
morning till night, and, for aught I know to
the contrary, from night till morning also, in
the shape of vermillion night-robes.
I believe they do not very often leave their
habitation, but whenever they do—no matter
how sultry or sunshiny the day, so near the
equator—they are necessitated to make their
appearance like locomotive bonfires, or beef-
eaters of private life, or demons (amiable social
ones, however), such as strutted formerly in the
hideous auto-da-fe processions, painted all over
with crimson flames,—or perambulating poppies,
20 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

or peripatetic scarlet-beans, or as if they were

burning themselves in effigy (for red in this
blazing sunshine seems to roast one); in short,
they were, as a French friend of mine once de-
signated a married lady and gentleman of my
acquaintance, who were remarkable for rubi-
cund complexions, a regular menage carotte.
It would be awkward for them to meet a
vaquero driving a herd of bulls accidentally, for
the fury aroused in these animals by the sight of
scarlet is well known.
General Rosas is said to be extremely civil
and obliging just now to the English. We
have had a tremendous thunder-storm here;
it was necessary to close all the windows, and
the crashing of the thunder was terrific. The
rain came down like a temporary deluge, but
the air seemed very sweet and fresh after it,
though I do not think it was made cooler.
Almost every evening we hear fandangoes
going on, al fresco amongst the natives, and
mulattoes and negroes, who seem passionately
fond votaries of Terpsichore. The sound of their
guitars, drums and flageolets, with the accom-
paniment, I believe, of some hollow gourds,
in which they rattle a number of pebbles, is
 SCENTED WOODS- 21

pleasant enough at a distance, mingling with

the chiming, solemn roll of the ocean.
Madame H came to a little soiree here
the other night. She was sitting by me on
the sofa, and as we were conversing together,
I was charmed by a perfume on her hand-
kerchief, the most exquisite it is possible to
imagine. I could not resist asking her the
name of it, and if it was a Panamanian per-
fume. She told me it was the scrapings of
a highly-scented wood that grows in the forests
of the isthmus. These little shavings of wood,
the odour of which I think is incomparably
delicious, are laid among the handkerchiefs,
and give them an intense fragrance.
Madame H was kind enough to say
she would send me some of these scrapings, as
I admired the scent so much, and accordingly
a little packet arrived the following day, but
of another kind of wood, Madame H
finding her stock of the first was exhausted.
This is very sweet, but does not at all equal the
wood that had previously so much charmed me.
A French lady at the Havana, the wife of
a medical gentleman from Paris, begged me,
22 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

when I came here, to ascertain whether there

was any opening for a French physician here,
they having been ruined by the French revo-
lution (not because it improved the general
health though). I consequently made inquiries,
and found there were at least two established
here who are much liked. There are American
doctors here too, and an English one also. The
latter has attended me; he is a clever person,
most highly recommended, and has almost cured
my hay-asthma. By the way, this complaint is
known in the United States, and is called there,
rose-fever.
I am strongly recommended, instead of
returning at once across the isthmus, to
proceed to Lima in one of the English steamers,
that regularly run from hence to Callao and
Valparaiso every month. The sea voyage
would do me a great deal of good, and drive
away, probably, all remains of the indisposition;
and I think Lima would, independently of that,
be well worth a visit, now that we are, com-
paratively speaking, so near it. I have almost
recovered from the attack, but I dare not ven-
ture out at present.
 PANAMA THEATRICALS. 23

Miss P went last evening to the theatre

with Madame H . I believe it is an
enormous building, quite unfinished, and not
originally designed for the purpose it now
serves, it is without any roof whatever, so the
spectators sit there a la belle etoile. happy
indeed if the stars do shine, and no storm
of rain, such as we lately had, comes down
to wash them out of their seats. The per-
formances are said to be very fair. " No toca
a la reina," from the French play, " Ne touchez
pas a la reine," was given the other night,
and, I hear, very nicely acted.
The Americans, many of whom do not un-
derstand Spanish, got up some opposition
theatricals a day or two ago in one of
the hotels, the sola of which was fitted up
as a theatre; but this failed, the company
not meeting altogether with the approbation
of the audience—at least so it was rumoured. It
happened that the evening was oppressively hot,
and I think the actors must have found it
hard work to please a large number of people,
crowded together in-doors, in a comparatively
small room. In such an atmosphere as must
24 TRAVELS IN AMERICA,

have prevailed there, they could not have

attempted much exertion themselves assuredly,
unless they had been salamanders, and applause
too, so necessary to stimulate actors, must
have been wanting. Certainly the cooler roofless
theatre must, under these circumstances, bear
away the palm and win the palms, from the
very fact of its being so.
A sort of riot took place here a little while
ago, I believe in consequence of some suspected
robbery. One man supposed, among others,
to be implicated, was chased a good distance
by the aggrieved parties. Mr. P , re-
turning from a ride he had taken into the
country, met this hunted man running
near the entrance to the town, and he rather
coolly asked Mr. P to lend him his
horse, which proposition was respectfully de-
clined.
It is said there is a great deal of ill-feeling
between the Americans and the Panamanians :
the former accuse the latter of thieving and
cheating, and the natives indignantly retort.
One reason, I believe, why the Americans do
not agree so well with the natives as the Eng-
 HOSTILITIES. 25

lish, is that they are accustomed to look upon

all coloured people with great contempt. They
call all the Indians and half Indians by the
general name of Niggers, and treat them as
such; and that offends these people much, who,
though good-tempered and gentle, are very
high-spirited.
Whatever pilfering goes on is laid to the
natives by the Californian emigrants ; and the
natives say, " No, it is all amongst yourselves "
Then revolvers and knives are very apt to make
their appearance; and as these articles are not
exactly philosophical pacificators, the fray is often
begun in right earnest, and sometimes ends in
bloodshed.
We have tolerably fine weather here now, with
only an occasional deluge; but we hear that in
the interior of the country the rainy season has
rather earlier than usual almost regularly com-
menced. A young lady who has lately arrived
at Panama from England to take the place of
governess in the family of Mr. L , the
Vice-Consul here, said that three times under
the most violently pouring rain her clothes had
c
VOL. III.
26 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

been thoroughly saturated with water in the

course of a few hours, and as often entirely dried
again by the intensely powerful rays of the
burning sun.
Her little pupils are half South American
and half English, as Mr. L married a lady
of New Granada. I saw a pretty little boy of
his the other evening; he brought a message
from his father to the Consul. I spoke to him
in English.
" No hablo Ingles," said the little fellow, with
a half-apologetic shrug of his pretty shoulder.
He looked like a little Anglo-Saxon, however,
being exceedingly fair, with a delicate blonde head.
One of Madame Hurtado's children is also very
fair indeed, which is singular for a Spanish
South American ; but every now and then such
rare instances are seen, and generally are much
admired; as, for example, the famous Mexican
beauty of former days, "La Guera" par excel-
lence, the admired of Humboldt—La Guera
Rodriguez, who bewitched even that paragon of
philosophers. Would that her influence, or any
other influence, could have persuaded him to
 THE WOULD-BE ENGLISHWOMAN. 27

simplify their difficult language of technicalities

and names, and condescend to a little un-
scientificalization of their terms ! not that the
truly great Humboldt, however, sins particularly
in that respect. What a chattering there is in
the outer room, as if an improvised tertulia were
taking place ; let us look in and see what is the
matter.
An amusing scene ! A quantity of things
are just brought in by the washerwomen, and
two or three other native women have lately
come in on divers errands. A few of them
are most gracefully reclined on the floor, being
fatigued by their walk under the burning sun.
It is the height of picturesqueness, their coal-
black hair streaming around them, and their
attitudes most sculpture-like. They are all
talking together, with that slightly metallic-
sounding voice which seems one of their cha-
racteristics. The principal washerwoman claims
me as a countrywoman, and with a patronizing
inclination of her woolly head—she is black as
the blackest raven—informs me graciously she
is an Englishwoman :
c 2
28 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

" I Ingles, tambien; I 'long to England; si."

England ! Did she come out of the Durham
coal-mines, and had she never used soap and
water since ? She quickly solved the mystery,
by saying she was born in Jamaica.
 GOING TO LIMA. 29

CHAPTER II.
INTENTION TO GO TO LIMA—DINNER TO EX-CANNIBALS
THEATRICALS IN PANAMA TABOGA THE FRENCH TAILORESS
THE " HAPPY SHIP " ROMAN CATHOLIC PROCESSION ON
GOOD FRIDAY A MISCHIEVOUS TRICK CALIFORNIA THO-
ROUGHLY AMERICANIZED CALIFORNIAN ADVENTURERS AND
THE STEAM-BOAT AGENT THE DEAD NEGRO BRITISH
SUBJECTS BURIED IN PANAMA TONE OF AMERICAN PAPERS
IN PANAMA SPIRIT OF ENTERPRISE OF THE AMERICANS
OLD PANAMA REPTILES AND INSECTS IN PANAMA MORGAN
AND HIS BUCANEERS THE PIRATES AND THE SPANISH
FLEET WEALTH SAID TO HAVE BEEN BURIED BY THE
BUCANEERS AMERICAN LOVE OF INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS.

I HAVE decided on going to Lima. I find I

shall thus have an opportunity of seeing several
other places,—besides that interesting and famous
city,—on the western coast of South America,
and the steamers are said to be tolerably com-
fortable.
Captain F — , of H.M.S. ' Daphne,' dined
here last night. He is, I believe, just come
from Realejo, and was before that at the Fegee
30 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

Islands. He told me he had invited the king

of these islands, a reclaimed cannibal, to dinner,
with his entire court. The invitation was
accepted, and His Majesty and courtiers behaved
very properly. It must be rather a nervous
affair having a party of ex-cannibals to dinner.
Suppose your viands should not be to their
taste, and in consequence haply a sudden re-
action of old habits should take place, and the
knife and fork should be plunged into the hosts
instead of into the mutton and turkey !
Captain F tells me nothing has tran-
spired that gives any hopes of poor Sir John
Franklin being found.
Mr. Catherwood, the eminent artist, who
executed the splendid drawings which illustrate
Mr. Stephens's celebrated work on Central
America, is daily expected here ; but his non-
appearance for a length of time, during which
he has been "due" at this place, begins to create
some slight uneasiness respecting his safety and
well-being. He is, I understand, surveying the
country—for the American Railroad Company,
I believe.
I have heard a very different account of the
American theatricals here since I last spoke of
 THEATRICALS IN PANAMA. 31

them, and begin to think my informant was over

fastidious. The company are said to display a
high order of talent, and much experience in the
histrionic art. It is said they played " The
Maid of Croissy," and " The Swiss Cottage,"
exceedingly well. Mrs. Thorne is reported to
be a very good actress.
Besides these theatricals, the detained Cali-
fornians have to beguile their time a little with
divers other public amusements; such as tight-
rope dancers, and stilt-waltzers (or still-vaulters),
from Carthagena. What the last are I know
not; but they are supposed to exhibit much
skill and grace.
I am afraid I shall not see Taboga while I am
here; but we shall pass close to it, I believe, in
going to Buonaventura, the first place we shall
stop at on our voyage to Peru.
A Mr. Frique, who lately kept a French hotel
here, has just opened a similar establishment in
the island. He informs the public, in an adver-
tisement in one of the Panama-American pa-
pers (of which there are several—" The Star "
and " The Echo " very good, and well con-
ducted,) that his new hotel is situated on the
Plaza; and that, among other delectable treasures,
32 TRAVELS IN AMERICA.

it will have " Cigars of the most recherche

brands;" but M. Frique will not reign alone
monarch of all that is to be surveyed and pur-
veyed in that place.
A Captain Forbes intends to build a rival
posada there, I see, in the newspapers ; " a
hotel which is now on its way round the Horn.'*
Perhaps they have made a little mistake, and it
is on its way across the Isthmus in that huge
deal case we saw on an Indian's back.
Taboga is said to be a charming place: the
town consists of about a hundred cabins, with a
number of stone houses belonging to the million-
naires of the place; and there is an extremely
picturesque old Spanish church. This town is
built along a beautiful beach, which is said to be
half covered with the remains of former build-
ings, and where a whole fleet of canoes may
often be seen laid up. A lovely mountain stream
comes dashing and sparkling down a gorge of
the hills at the back of the settlement, and crosses
the middle of it, on its course to the bay.
This clear stream furnishes water to all
the ships that visit Panama, in addition to sup-
plying the wants of the residents. The Ameri-
cans, it seems, are going to build a great many
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
recorded in the Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of
Sciences.
The developmental history of zoology in America falls naturally
into four fairly well marked periods, namely:—1, Period of
descriptive natural history, previous to 1847, embracing the early
studies on the classification and habits of animals, characteristic of
the zoological work previous to the arrival of Louis Agassiz in
America. 2, Period of morphology and embryology, 1847–1870,
during which the influence of Agassiz directed the zoological studies
toward problems concerning the relationships of animals as
indicated by their structure and developmental history. 3, Period of
evolution, 1870–1890, when the principle of natural selection
received general recognition and the zoological studies were largely
devoted to the applications of the theory to all groups of animals. 4,
Period of experimental biology, since 1890, during which time have
occurred the remarkable advances in our knowledge of the nature of
organisms through the application of experimental methods in the
various branches of the modern science of biology.
 American Zoology in 1818.
At the beginning of the century which this volume commemorates,
the accumulated biological knowledge of the world consisted mainly
of what is to-day called descriptive natural history. The zoological
treatises of the time were devoted to the names, distinguishing
characters and habits of the species of animals and plants known to
the naturalists of Europe either as native species or as the results of
explorations in other parts of the world. This required little more
than a superficial knowledge of their general anatomical structures.
The naturalists of those days had no conception of the life within
the cell which we now know to form the basis of all the activities of
animals and plants, nor had they even the necessary means of
studying such life. The compound microscope, so necessary for the
study of even the largest of the cells of the body, was not adapted to
such use until 1835, although the instrument was invented in the
seventeenth century. With the perfection of the microscope came a
period of enthusiastic study of microscopic organisms and
microscopic structures of higher animals and plants. It was not until
twenty years after the founding of the Journal that the cell theory of
structure and function in all organisms was established by the
discoveries of Schleiden and Schwann.
The beginning of the nineteenth century saw great zoological
activity in Europe, and particularly in France. Buffon’s great work on
the Natural History of Animals had recently been completed, Cuvier
had only one year before published his classic work in comparative
anatomy, “Le Regne Animal,” and Lamarck’s “Philosophie
Zoologique” had then aroused a new interest in classification and
comparative anatomy from an evolutionary standpoint. E. Geoffroy
St.-Hilaire was at the same time supporting an evolutionary theory
based on embryonic influences resulting in sudden modifications of
adult structure. These epoch-making discoveries and theories gained
a considerable following in France, Germany and England, but seem
to have had little influence on the zoological work of the following
half century in America.
 The science of zoology as understood to-day is commonly said to
have been founded by Linnæus by the publication of the modern
system of classification in the tenth edition of his “Systema Naturæ”
in 1758. The influence of Linnæus aroused an interest in biological
studies throughout Europe and stimulated new investigations in all
groups of organisms. Such studies as related to animals naturally
followed first the classification and relationship of species, that is,
systematic zoology, and then led gradually into the development of
the different branches of the subject, as morphology, comparative
anatomy, physiology, and embryology, which eventually were
recognized as almost independent sciences.
Of these sciences systematic zoology, which has come to mean the
classification, structure, relationship, distribution and habits, or
natural history, is the pioneer in any region. Thus we find in our new
country at the time of the founding of the Journal in 1818, only sixty
years after the publication of Linnæus’ great work, the beginning of
American zoology taking the form of the collection and description of
our native animals.
It is true that many of our more conspicuous and easily collected
animals were described long before the opening of the nineteenth
century, but this is to be credited mainly to the work of European
naturalists who had made expeditions to this country for the purpose
of studying and collecting. These collections were then taken to
Europe and the results published there. We thus find in the 12th
edition of Linnæus descriptions of over 500 American species, about
half of which were birds. As an illustration of the extent to which
some of these works covered the field even in those early days may
be mentioned a monograph in two quarto volumes with many
beautifully colored plates on the “Natural History of the rarer
Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia.” This was published in London in
1797 by J. E. Smith from the notes and drawings of John Abbot, one
of the keenest naturalists of any period.
During the early years of the nineteenth century, however,
economic conditions in our country became such as to give
opportunity for scientific thought. Educated men then formed
themselves into societies for the discussion of scientific matters. This
naturally led to the establishment of publications whereby the papers
presented to the societies could be published and made available to
the advancement of science generally. The most influential of these
was the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science,
which was established in 1817, and was devoted largely to zoological
papers. The Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History date
from 1823, and the Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History
from 1834. The Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
in Philadelphia and the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences in Boston also published many zoological articles.
In these publications and in the Journal, which was founded in
1818, appear the descriptions of newly discovered animal species,
with observations on their habits.
The number of investigators in this field in the first quarter of the
nineteenth century was but few, and most of these were compelled to
take for the work such time as they could spare from their various
occupations.
Gradually the workers became more numerous until about the
middle of the century zoology was taught in all the larger colleges.
The science thereby developed into a profession.
For some years the studies remained largely of a systematic
nature, and embraced all groups of animals, but long before the close
of the century the attention of the majority of the ever increasing
group of zoologists was directed into more promising channels for
research and there came the development of the sciences of
comparative anatomy, physiology, embryology, experimental
zoology, cytology, genetics, and the like, while the systematists
became specialists in the various animal groups.
But the work in systematic zoology remains incomplete and many
native species are still undescribed or imperfectly classified. It is
perhaps fortunate that a few faithful systematists remain at their
tasks and tend to keep the experimentalists from the disaster which
might otherwise result from the confusion of the species under
investigation.
 Period of Descriptive Natural History.—
Previous to 1847.
Of the few American naturalists whose writings were published
toward the end of the eighteenth century and at the beginning of the
nineteenth the names of William Bartram (1739–1823), Benjamin
Barton (1766–1815), Samuel Mitchill (1764–1831), William Peck
(1763–1822), and Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), require special
mention. Bartram’s entertaining volume describing his travels
through the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, published in 1793,
contains a most interesting account of the birds and other animals
which he found.
Barton wrote many charming essays on the natural history of
animals, but was more particularly interested in botany. Mitchill’s
most important works include a history of the fishes of New York
(1814), and additions to an edition of Bewick’s General History of
Quadrupeds. The latter, published in 1804, contains descriptions and
figures of some American species and is the first American work on
mammals.
Peck has the distinction of writing the first paper on systematic
zoology published in America. This was a description of new species
of fishes and was printed in 1794. He is also well known for his work
on insects and fungi.
Jefferson in 1781 published an interesting book describing the
natural history of Virginia, and during his presidency was of
inestimable service to zoology through his support of scientific
expeditions to the western portions of the country.
Previous to Agassiz’s introduction of laboratory methods of study
in comparative anatomy and embryology in 1847, American
naturalists generally confined their attention to the study of the
classification and habits of the multitude of undescribed animals and
plants of the region.
Such studies were naturally begun on the larger and more
generally interesting animals such as the birds and mammals, and
although many of these were fairly well described as to species before
the opening of the nineteenth century, little was known of their
habits. The natural history of our eastern birds first became well
known through the accurate illustrations and exquisitely written
descriptions of Alexander Wilson (in 1808–1813). Bonaparte’s
continuation of Wilson’s work was published in four folio volumes
beginning in 1826.
In 1828 appeared the first of Audubon’s magnificent folio
illustrations of our birds. These were published in England, with
later editions of smaller plates in America. Nuttall’s Manual of the
Ornithology of the United States appeared in 1832–1834.
The second work on American mammals appeared in the second
American edition of Guthrie’s Geography, published in 1815. The
author is supposed to have been George Ord, although his name does
not appear. In 1825 Harlan published his “Fauna Americana:
Descriptions of the Mammiferous Animals inhabiting North
America.” This was largely a compilation from European writers,
particularly from Demarest’s Mammalogie, and had little value.
In 1826 Amos Eaton published a small “Zoological Text-book
comprising Cuvier’s four grand divisions of Animals: also Shaw’s
improved Linnean genera, arranged according to the classes and
orders of Cuvier and Latreille. Short descriptions of some of the most
common species are given for students’ exercises. Prepared for
Rensselaer school and the popular class room.” “Four hundred and
sixty-one genera are described in this text-book. They embrace every
known species of the Animal Kingdom.” This is a compilation from
European sources with a few American species of various groups
included. On the other hand, Godman’s Natural History, in three
volumes (1826–1828), was an illustrated and creditable work. Such
was also the case with Sir John Richardson’s Fauna Boreali
Americana of which the volume on quadrupeds was published in
England in 1829. The other volumes on birds, fishes and insects
appeared between 1827 and 1836. Audubon and Bachman’s
beautifully illustrated “Quadrupeds of North America” was issued
between 1841 and 1850.
About 1840 several of the states inaugurated natural history
surveys and published catalogues of the local faunas. The reports on
the animals of Massachusetts and New York are the most complete
zoological monographs published in America up to that time. This is
particularly true of DeKay’s Natural History of New York published
between 1842 and 1844 in beautifully illustrated quarto volumes.
The leader in the systematic studies in the early part of the century
was Thomas Say, who published descriptions of a large number of
new species of animals, particularly reptiles, mollusks, crustacea and
insects. Say’s conchology, printed in 1816 in Nicholson’s Cyclopedia,
is the first American work of its kind. This was reprinted in 1819
under the title “Land and Fresh-water Shells of the United States.” In
1824–1828 appeared the three volumes of Say’s American
Entomology.
The prominent position held by Say in the zoological work of this
period is illustrated by the following paragraph from Eaton’s
Zoological Text-book (1826, p. 133): “At present but a small
proportion of American Animals, excepting those of large size, have
been sought out ... And though Mr. Say is doing much; without
assistance, his life must be protracted to a very advanced period to
afford him time to complete the work. But if every student will
contribute his mite, by sending Mr. Say duplicates of all undescribed
species, we shall probably be in possession of a system, very nearly
complete, in a few years.” How different is the attitude of the
zoologist of to-day who sees the goal much further away after a
century’s progress through the industry of hundreds of investigators.
During the period of Say’s most active work he is reported to have
“slept in the hall of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,
where he made his bed beneath the skeleton of a horse and fed
himself on bread and milk.”
Next to Say, the most active zoologist of the early part of the
century was Charles Alexander Lesueur, who described and
beautifully illustrated many new species of fishes, reptiles, and
marine invertebrates. A memoir by George Ord, published in this
Journal (8, 189, 1849), gives a full list of Lesueur’s papers.
One of the most prolific writers of the period was Constantine
Rafinesque, a man of great brilliancy but one whose imagination so
often dominated his observations that many of his descriptions of
plants and animals are wholly unreliable.
 United States Exploring Expedition.—In 1838 a fortunate
circumstance occurred which eventually brought American
systematic zoology into the front ranks of the science. This
opportunity was offered by the United States Exploring Expedition
under the command of Admiral Wilkes. With James D. Dana as
naturalist, the expedition visited Madeira, Cape Verde Islands,
eastern and western coasts of South America, Polynesia, Samoa,
Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Hawaiian Islands, west coast of United
States, Philippines, Singapore, Cape of Good Hope, etc.
Of the extensive collections made on this four-years’ cruise, Dana
had devoted particular attention to the study of the corals and allied
animals (Zoophytes) and to the crustacea. In 1846 the report on the
Zoophytes was published in elegant folio form with colored plates.
Six years later the first volume of the report on Crustacea appeared,
with a second volume after two additional years (1854). These
reports describe and beautifully illustrate hundreds of new species,
and include the first comprehensive studies of the animals forming
well-known corals. They remain as the most conspicuous
monuments in American invertebrate zoology. Unfortunately the
very limited edition makes them accessible in only a few large
libraries. The other, equally magnificent, volumes include: Mollusca
and Shells, by A. A. Gould, 1856; Herpetology, by Charles Girard,
1858; Mammalogy and Ornithology, by John Cassin, 1858.
Principal investigators.—Of the many writers on animals at this
period of descriptive natural history, the following were prominent
in their special fields of study:
Ayres, Lesueur, Mitchill, Storer, Linsley, Wyman, DeKay, Smith,
Kirtland, Rafinesque and Haldeman described the fishes.
Green, Barton, Harlan, Le Conte, Say, and especially Holbrook,
studied the reptiles and amphibia. Holbrook’s great monograph of
the reptiles (North American Herpetology) was published between
1834 and 1845.
Wilson, Audubon, Nuttall, Cooper, DeKay, Brewer, Ord, Baird,
Gould, Bachman, Linsley and Fox were among the numerous writers
on birds.
Godman, Ord, Richardson, Audubon, Bachman, DeKay, Linsley
and Harlan published accounts of mammals.
 On the invertebrates an important general work entitled
“Invertebrata of Massachusetts; Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida and
Radiata” was published by A. A. Gould in 1841, which contains all the
New England species of these groups known to that date.
Lea, Totten, Adams, Barnes, Gould, Binney, Conrad, Hildreth,
Haldeman, were the principal writers on mollusks. The crustacea
were studied by Say, Gould, Haldeman, Dana; the insects by Say,
Melsheimer, Peck, Harris, Kirby, Herrick; the spiders by Hentz; the
worms by Lee; the coelenterates and echinoderms by Say, Mantell
and others.
The history of entomology in the United States previous to 1846 is
given by John G. Morris in the Journal (1, 17, 1846). In this article F.
V. Melsheimer is stated to be the father of American Entomology,
while Say was the most prolific writer. Say’s entomological papers,
edited by J. L. Le Conte, were completely reprinted with their colored
illustrations in 1859. The first economic treatise is that by Harris on
Insects Injurious to Vegetation; printed in 1841. This has had many
editions.
 Zoology in the American Journal of Science,
1818–1846.
The establishment of the Journal gave a further impetus to the
scientific activities of Americans in furnishing a convenient means
for publishing the results of their work. In the first volume of the
Journal, for example, are two zoological articles by Say and a dozen
short articles on various topics by Rafinesque, the latter being
curious combinations of facts and fancy. Most of the zoological
papers appearing in its first series of 50 volumes are characteristic of
an undeveloped science in an undeveloped country. They deal,
naturally, with observational studies on the structure and
classification of species discovered in a virgin field, with notes on
habits and life histories.
Many of the papers are purely systematic and include the first
descriptions of numerous species of our mollusks, crustacea, insects,
vertebrates and other groups. Of these, the writings of C. B. Adams,
Barnes, A. A. Gould and Totten on mollusks, of J. D. Dana on corals
and crustacea, of Harris on insects, of Harlan on reptiles, and of
Jeffries Wyman and D. Humphreys Storer on fishes are
representative and important.
The progress of zoology in America during the first twenty-eight
years of the Journal’s existence, that is, up to the year 1846, is thus
summarized by Professor Silliman in the preface to vol. 50 (page ix),
1847:

“Our zoology has been more fully investigated than our mineralogy and botany;
but neither department is in danger of being exhausted. The interesting travels of
Lewis and Clark have recently brought to our knowledge several plants and
animals before unknown. Foreign naturalists are frequently visiting our territory;
and, for the most part, convey to Europe the fruits of their researches, while but a
small part of our own is examined and described by Americans: certainly this is
little to our credit and still less to our advantage. Honorable exceptions to the truth
of this remark are furnished by the exertions of some gentlemen in our principal
cities, and in various other parts of the Union.”
 During these 28 years the Journal had been of great service to
zoology not only in the publication of the results of investigations but
also in the review of important zoological publications in Europe as
well as in America. There were also the reports of meetings of
scientific societies. In fact all matters of zoological interest were
brought to the attention of the Journal’s readers.
 The Influence of Louis Agassiz.
At the time of the founding of the Journal and for nearly thirty
years thereafter descriptive natural history constituted practically the
entire work of American zoologists. In this respect American science
was far behind that in Europe and particularly in France. It was not
until the fortunate circumstances which brought the Swiss naturalist,
Louis Agassiz, to our country in 1846 that the modern conceptions of
biological science were established in America.
Agassiz was then 39 years of age and had already absorbed the
spirit of generalization in comparative anatomy which dominated the
work of the great leaders in Europe, and particularly in Paris. The
influence of Leuckart, Tiedemann, Braun, Cuvier and Von Humboldt
directed Agassiz’s great ability to similar investigations, and he was
rapidly coming into prominence in the study of modern and fossil
fishes when the opportunity to continue his research in America was
presented. On arriving on our shores the young zoologist was so
inspired with the opportunities for his studies in the new country
that he decided to remain.
Bringing with him the broad conceptions of his distinguished
European masters, he naturally founded a similar school of zoology
in America. It is from this beginning that the present science of
zoology with its many branches has developed.
It must be remembered in this connection that the great service
which Agassiz rendered to American zoology consisted mainly in
making available to students in America the ideals and methods of
European zoologists. This he was eminently fitted to do both because
of his European training and because of his natural ability as an
inspiring leader.
The times in America, moreover, were fully ripe for the advent of
European culture. There were already in existence natural history
societies in many of our cities and college communities. These
societies not only held meetings for the discussion of biological
topics, but established museums open to the public, and to which the
public was invited to contribute both funds and specimens. This led
to a wide popular interest in natural history. It was therefore
comparatively easy for such a man as Agassiz to develop this
favorable public attitude into genuine enthusiasm.
The American Journal of Science announces the expected visit of
Agassiz as a most promising event for American Zoology (1, 451,
1846): “His devotion, ability, and zeal—his high and deserved
reputation and ... his amiable and conciliating character, will,
without doubt, secure for him the cordial cooperation of our
naturalists ... nor do we entertain a doubt that we shall be liberally
repaid by his able review and exploration of our country.” We of to-
day can realize how abundantly this prophecy was fulfilled.
In the succeeding volume (2, 440, 1846) occurs the record of
Agassiz’s arrival. “We learn with pleasure that he will spend several
years among us, in order thoroughly to understand our natural
history.”
Immediately on reaching Boston, Agassiz began the publication of
articles on our fauna, and the following year he was appointed to a
professorship at Harvard. The Journal says (4, 449, 1847): “Every
scientific man in America will be rejoiced to hear so unexpected a
piece of good news.” The next year the Journal (5, 139, 1848) records
Agassiz’s lecture courses at New York and Charleston, his popularity
with all classes of the people and the gift of a silver case containing
$250 in half eagles from the students of the College of Physicians
and Surgeons.
The service of Agassiz to American zoology, therefore, consisted
not only in the publication of the results of his researches and his
philosophical considerations therefrom, but also, and perhaps in
even greater degree, in the popularization of science. In the latter
direction were his inspiring lectures before popular audiences and
the early publication of a zoological text-book. This book, published
in 1848, was entitled “Principles of Zoology, touching the Structure,
Development, Distribution and Natural arrangement of the races of
Animals, living and extinct, with numerous illustrations.” It was
written with the cooperation of Augustus A. Gould. The review of this
book in the Journal (6, 151, 1848) indicates clearly the broad modern
principles underlying the new era which was beginning for American
zoology.
 “A work emanating from so high a source as the Principles of Zoology, hardly
requires commendation to give it currency. The public have become acquainted
with the eminent abilities of Prof. Agassiz through his lectures, and are aware of
his vast learning, wide reach of mind, and popular mode of illustrating scientific
subjects ... The volume is prepared for the student in zoological science; it is simple
and elementary in style, full in its illustrations, comprehensive in its range, yet well
considered and brought into the narrow compass requisite for the purpose
intended.”

The titles of its chapters will show how little it differs in general
subject matter from the most recent text-book in biology. Chapter I,
The Sphere and fundamental principles of Zoology; II, General
Properties of Organized Bodies; III, Organs and Functions of Animal
Life; IV, Of Intelligence and Instinct; V, Of Motion (apparatus and
modes); VI, Of Nutrition; VII, Of the Blood and Circulation; VIII, Of
Respiration; IX, Of the Secretions; X, Embryology (Egg and its
Development); XI, Peculiar Modes of Reproduction; XII,
Metamorphoses of Animals; XIII, Geographical Distribution of
Animals; XIV, Geological Succession of Animals, or their
Distribution in Time.
A moment’s consideration of the fact that all these topics are
excellently treated will show how great had been the progress of
zoology in the first half of the nineteenth century. The sixty years
that have elapsed since the publication of this book have served
principally to develop these separate lines of biology into special
fields of science without reorganization of the essential principles
here recognized. This remained for many years the standard
zoological and physiological text-book, and was republished in
several editions here and in England. Another popular book is
entitled “Methods of Study in Natural History” (1864).
More than 400 books and papers were written by Agassiz, over a
third of which were published before he came to America. They cover
both zoological and geological topics, including systematic papers on
living and fossil groups of animals, but most important of all are his
philosophical essays on the general principles of biology.
One of Agassiz’s greatest services to zoology was the publication of
his “Bibliographia Zoologiæ et Geologiæ” by the Ray Society,
beginning with 1848. The publication of the Lowell lectures in
Comparative Embryology in 1849 gave wide audience to the general
principles now recognized in the biogenetic law of ancestral
reminiscence. As stated in the Journal (8, 157, 1849), the “object of
the Lectures is to demonstrate that a natural method of classifying
the animal kingdom may be attained by a comparison of the changes
which are passed through by different animals in the course of their
development from the egg to the perfect state; the change they
undergo being considered as a scale to appreciate the relative
position of the species.” These “principles of classification” are fully
elucidated in a separate pamphlet, and are discussed at length in the
Journal (11, 122, 1851).
One of the most interesting of Agassiz’s numerous philosophical
essays, originally contributed to the Journal (9, 369, 1850), discusses
the “Natural Relations between Animals and the elements in which
they live.” Another philosophical paper contributed to the Journal
discusses the “Primitive diversity and number of Animals in
Geological times” (17, 309, 1854). Of his systematic papers, those on
the fishes of the Tennessee river, describing many new species, were
published in the Journal (17, 297, 353, 1854).
 Agassiz’s beautifully illustrated “Contributions to the Natural
History of the United States” cover many subjects in morphology and
embryology, which are treated with such thoroughness and breadth
of view as to give them a place among the zoological classics. The
Essay on Classification, the North American Testudinata, the
Embryology of the turtle, and the Acalephs are the special topics.
These are summarized and discussed at length in the Journal (25,
126, 202, 321, 342, 1858; 30, 142, 1860; 31, 295, 1861).
 The volume on the “Journey in Brazil” (1868) in joint authorship
with Mrs. Agassiz is a fascinating narrative of exploration.
The conceptions which Agassiz held as to the most essential aim of
zoological study are well illustrated in his autobiographical sketch,
where he writes:[174]

“I did not then know how much more important it is to the naturalist to
understand the structure of a few animals, than to command the whole field of
scientific nomenclature. Since I have become a teacher, and have watched the
progress of students, I have seen that they all begin in the same way; but how many
have grown old in the pursuit, without ever rising to any higher conception of the
study of nature, spending their life in the determination of species, and in
extending scientific terminology!”

It is not surprising, then, that under such influence the older

systematic studies should be replaced in large measure by those of a
morphological and embryological nature.
The personal influence of Agassiz is still felt in the lives of even the
younger zoologists of the present day. For the investigators of the
present generation are for the most part indebted to one or another
of Agassiz’s pupils for their guidance in zoological studies. These
pupils include his son Alexander Agassiz, Allen, Brooks, Clarke,
Fewkes, Goode, Hyatt, Jordan, Lyman, Morse, Packard, Scudder,
Verrill, Wilder, and others—leaders in zoological work during the last
third of the nineteenth century. Through such men as these the
inspiration of Agassiz has been handed on in turn to their pupils and
from them to the younger generation of zoologists.
The essential difference between the work of Agassiz and that of
the American zoologists who preceded him was in his power of broad
generalizations. To him the organism meant a living witness of some
great natural law, in the interpretation of which zoology was
engaged. The organism in its structure, in its development, in its
habits furnished links in the chain of evidence which, when
completed, would reveal the meaning of nature. Of all Agassiz’s
pupils, probably William K. Brooks most fittingly perpetuated his
master’s ideals.
 Period of Morphology and Embryology,
1847–1870.
The new aspect of zoology which came as a result of the influence
of Agassiz characterized the zoological work of the fifties and sixties,
that is, until the significance of the natural selection theory of
Darwin and Wallace became generally appreciated.
The work in these years and well into the seventies was largely
influenced by the morphological, embryological and systematic
studies of Louis Agassiz and his school. The structure, development,
and homologies of animals as indicating their relationship and
position in the scheme of classification was prominent in the work of
this period. The adaptations of animals to their environment and the
application of the biogenetic law to the various groups of animals
were also favorite subjects of study.
The most successful investigators in this period on the different
groups of animals include:—Louis Agassiz on the natural history and
embryology of coelenterates and turtles; A. Agassiz, embryology of
echinoderms and worms; H. J. Clark, embryology of turtles and
systematic papers on sponges and coelenterates; E. Desor,
echinoderms and embryology of worms; C. Girard, embryology,
worms, and reptiles; J. Leidy, protozoa, coelenterates, worms,
anatomy of mollusks; W. O. Ayres and T. Lyman, natural history of
echinoderms; McCrady, development of acalephs; W. Stimpson,
marine invertebrates; A. E. Verrill, coelenterates, echinoderms,
worms; A. Hyatt, evolutionary theories, bryozoa and mollusks;
Pourtales, deep sea fauna; C. B. Adams, A. and W. G. Binney, Brooks,
Carpenter, Conrad, Dall, Jay, Lea, S. Smith, Tryon, mollusks; E. S.
Morse, brachiopods, mollusks; J. D. Dana, coelenterates and
Crustacea; Kirtland, Loew, Edwards, Hagen, Melsheimer, Packard,
Riley, Scudder, Walsh, insects; Gill, Holbrook, Storer, fishes; Cope,
evolutionary theories, fishes and amphibia; Baird, reptiles and birds;
J. A. Allen, amphibia, reptiles and birds; Brewer, Cassin, Coues,
Lawrence, birds; Audubon, Bachman, Baird, Cope, Wilder,
mammals.
 The progress of ornithology in the United States previous to 1876
is well described in a paper by J. A. Allen in the American Naturalist
(10, 536, 1876). A sketch of the early history of conchology is given
by A. W. Tryon in the Journal (33, 13, 1862).
Jeffries Wyman was the most prominent comparative anatomist of
this period. His work includes classic papers on the anatomy and
embryology of fishes, amphibia, and reptiles.
Zoology in the American Journal of Science,
1846–1870.
The fifty volumes of the second series of the Journal, including the
years 1846 to 1870, cover approximately this period of morphology
and embryology. During this period the Journal occupied a very
important place in zoological circles, for J. D. Dana was for most of
this period the editor-in-chief, while Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray
were connected with it as associate editors. Moreover, in 1864 one of
the most promising of Agassiz’s pupils, Addison E. Verrill, was called
to Yale as professor of zoology and was made an associate editor in
1869.
In the Journal, therefore, may be found, in its original articles,
together with its reports of meetings and addresses and its reviews of
literature, a fairly complete account of the zoological activity of the
period. The most important zoological researches, both in Europe
and America, were reviewed in the bibliographic notices.
The most important series of zoological articles are by Dana
himself. As his work on the zoophytes and crustacea of the U. S.
Exploring Expedition continued, he published from time to time
general summaries of his conclusions regarding the relationships of
the various groups. Included among these papers are philosophical
essays on general biological principles which must have had much
influence on the biological studies of the time, and which form a
basis for many of our present concepts.
The importance of these papers warrants the list being given in
full. The titles are here in many cases abbreviated and the subjects
consolidated.

General views on Classification, 1, 286, 1846.

Zoophytes, 2, 64, 187, 1846; 3, 1, 160, 337, 1847.
Genus Astraea, 9, 295, 1850.
Conspectus crustaceorum, 8, 276, 424, 1849; 9, 129, 1850; 11, 268, 1851.
Genera of Gammaracea, 8, 135, 1849; of Cyclopacea, 1, 225, 1846.
 Markings of Carapax of Crabs, 11, 95, 1851.
Classification of Crustacea, 11, 223, 425; 12, 121, 238, 1851; 13, 119; 14, 297,
1852; 22, 14, 1856.
Geographical distribution of Crustacea, 18, 314, 1854; 19, 6; 20, 168, 349, 1855.
Alternation of Generations in Plants and Radiata, 10, 341, 1850.
Parthenogenesis, 24, 399, 1857.
On Species, 24, 305, 1857.
Classification of Mammals, 35, 65, 1863; 37, 157, 1864.
Cephalization, 22, 14, 1856; 36, 1, 321, 440, 1863; 37, 10, 157, 184, 1864; 41,
163, 1866; 12, 245, 1876.
Homologies of insectean and crustacean types, 36, 233, 1863; 47, 325, 1894.
Origin of life, 41, 389, 1866.
Relations of death to life in nature, 34, 316, 1862.

Of the above, the articles on cephalization as a fundamental

principle in the development of the system of animal life have
attracted much attention. The evidence from comparative anatomy,
paleontology, and embryology alike supports the view that advance
in the ontogenetic as well as in the phylogenetic stages is correlated
with the unequal growth of the cephalic region as compared with the
rest of the body. Dana shows that this principle holds good for all
groups of animals. His homologies of the limbs of arthropods and
vertebrates, however, do not accord with more modern views.
Other papers on the same and allied topics were published by
Dana in other periodicals. His most conspicuous zoological works,
however, are his reports on the Zoophytes and Crustacea of the
United States Exploring Expedition, 1837–1842. The former consists
of 741 quarto pages and 61 folio plates, describing over 200 new
species, while the Crustacea report, in two volumes, has 1620 pages
and 96 folio plates, with descriptions of about 500 new species. Each
of these remains to-day as the most important contribution to the
classification of the respective groups. The relationships of the
species, genera and families were recognized with such remarkable
judgment that Dana’s admirable system of classification has
remained the basis for all subsequent work.
Dana’s critical reviews (25, 202, 321, 1858) of Agassiz’s
“Contribution to the Natural History of the United States” are among
the most interesting of his philosophical discussions concerning the
relationships of animals as revealed by their structure, their
embryology, and their geological history.
The remaining zoological articles in this series cover nearly the
whole range of systematic zoology. Especially important are the
articles by Verrill on coelenterates, echinoderms, worms and other
invertebrates.
In the years following the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species
in 1859 occur many articles on the theory of natural selection. Some
of the writers attack the theory, while others give it more or less
enthusiastic support.
Experimental methods in solving biological problems were little
used at this time, although a few articles of this nature appear in the
Journal. Of these, a paper by W. C. Minor (35, 35, 1863) on natural
and artificial fission in some annelids has considerable interest to-
day.
 Exploring Expeditions.
Of the important zoological expeditions the following may be
selected as showing their influence on American Zoology:
The North Pacific Expedition, with William Stimpson as zoologist,
returned in 1856 with much new information concerning the marine
life of the coasts of Alaska and Japan and many new species of
invertebrates.
In 1867–1869 the United States Coast Survey extended its
explorations to include the deep sea marine life off the southeastern
coasts and Gulf of Mexico under the leadership of Pourtales and
Agassiz.
The Challenger explorations (1872–1876) added greatly to the
knowledge of marine life off the American coast as well as in other
parts of the world.
The explorations of the United States Fish Commission succeeded
those of the Coast Survey in the collection of marine life off our
coasts and in our fresh waters. These have continued since 1872 and
have yielded most important results from both the scientific and
economic standpoints.
Under the charge of Alexander Agassiz the Coast Survey Steamer
“Blake,” in 1877 to 1880, was engaged in dredging operations in
three cruises to various parts of the Atlantic. The U. S. Fish
Commission Steamer “Albatross,” also in charge of Agassiz, made
three expeditions in the tropical and other parts of the Pacific in the
years from 1891 to 1905. The study of these collections has added
greatly to our knowledge of systematic zoology and geographical
distribution. The reports on some of the groups are still in course of
preparation.
 Period of Evolution, 1870–1890.
The time from 1870 to 1890 may be appropriately called the period
of evolution, for although it commences eleven years after the
publication of the Origin of Species, the importance of the natural
selection theory was but slowly receiving general recognition. The
hesitation in accepting this theory was due in no small degree to the
opposition of Louis Agassiz. After the acceptance of evolution,
although morphological and embryological studies continued as
before, they were prosecuted with reference to their bearing on
evolutionary problems.
Following closely the methods which had produced so much
progress during the life of Agassiz, the field of zoology was now
occupied by a new generation, among whom the pupils of Agassiz
were the most prominent.
 The teaching of biology at this time was also strongly influenced by
Huxley, whose methods of conducting laboratory classes for
elementary students were adopted in most of our large schools and
colleges. This placed biology on the same plane with chemistry as a
means for training in laboratory methods and discipline, with the
added advantage that the subject of biology is much more intimately
connected with the student’s everyday life and affairs.
 This increasing demand for instruction in biology and the
consequent necessity for more teachers brought an increasing
number of investigators into this field.
Conspicuous in this period was the work of E. D. Cope, best known
as a paleontologist, but whose work on the classification of the
various groups of vertebrates stands preeminent, and whose
philosophical essays on evolution had much influence on the
evolutionary thought of the time. He was a staunch supporter of the
Lamarckian doctrine. Alpheus Hyatt also maintained this theory, and
brought together a great accumulation of facts in its support. He
thereby contributed largely to our knowledge of comparative
anatomy and embryology. A. S. Packard, whose publications cover a
wide range of topics, was best known for his text-books of zoology
and his manuals on insects.
W. K. Brooks was a leading morphologist and embryologist. S. F.
Baird, for many years the head of the United States Fish
Commission, was the foremost authority on fish and fisheries and is
also noted for his work on reptiles, birds and mammals. The man of
greatest influence, although by no means the greatest investigator,
was C. O. Whitman. It is to him that we owe the inception of the
Marine Biological Laboratory, the most potent influence in American
zoology to-day; the organization of the American Morphological
Society, the forerunner of the present American Society of
Zoologists; and the establishment of the Journal of Morphology. G.
B. Goode was distinguished for his work on fishes and for his
writings on the history of science.
E. L. Mark, C. S. Minot, and Alexander Agassiz were acknowledged
leaders in their special fields of research—Mark in invertebrate
morphology and embryology, and Minot in vertebrate embryology,
while Alexander Agassiz made many important discoveries in the
systematic zoology and embryology of marine animals, and to him
we owe in large measure our knowledge of the life in the oceans of
nearly all parts of the world.
The knowledge of the representatives of the different divisions of
the American fauna had now become sufficient to allow the
publication of monographs on the various classes, orders and
families. At this time also particular attention was given to the
marine invertebrates of all groups.
 Of the many investigators working on the various groups of
animals at this time only a few may be mentioned. The protozoa were
studied by Leidy, Clark, Ryder, Stokes; the sponges by Clark, Hyatt;
the coelenterates by A. Agassiz, S. F. Clarke, Verrill; the echinoderms
by A. Agassiz, Brooks, Kingsley, Fewkes, Lyman, Verrill; the various
groups of worms by Benedict, Eisen, Silliman, Verrill, Webster,
Whitman; the mollusks by A. and W. G. Binney, Tryon, Conrad, Dall,
Sanderson Smith, Stearns, Verrill; the Brachiopods by Dall and
Morse; the Bryozoa by Hyatt; the crustacea by S. I. Smith, Harger,
Hagen, Packard, Kingsley, Faxon, Herrick; the insects by Packard,
Horn, Scudder, C. H. Fernald, Williston, Norton, Walsh, Fitch, J. B.
Smith, Comstock, Howard, Riley and many others; spiders by
Emerton, Marx, McCook; tunicates by Packard and Verrill; fishes by
Baird, Bean, Cope, Gilbert, Gill, Goode, Jordan, Putnam; amphibians
and reptiles by Cope; birds by Baird, Brewer, Coues, Elliott,
Henshaw, Allen, Merriam, Brewster, Ridgway; and the mammals by
Allen, Baird, Cope, Coues, Elliott, Merriam, Wilder.
Interest in the evolutionary theory continued to increase and
eventually developed into the morphological and embryological
studies which reached their culmination between 1885 and 1890
under the guidance of Whitman, Mark, Minot, Brooks, Kingsley, E.
B. Wilson and other famous zoologists of the time. In these years the
Journal of Morphology was established and the American
Morphological Society was formed.
The morphological, embryological and paleontological evidences
of evolution as indicated by homologies, developmental stages and
adaptations were the most absorbing subjects of zoological research
and discussion.
 Zoology in the American Journal of Science,
1870–1918.
The third series of the Journal (1870–1895), likewise including
fifty volumes, embraces this period of zoological activity in
morphological and embryological studies, culminating with the
inception of the modern experimental methods.
In this period also occurred the greatest progress in marine
systematic zoology, due to the explorations of the United States Fish
Commission off the Atlantic Coast. The Journal had an important
share in the zoological development of this period also, for A. E.
Verrill, who was now an associate editor, was in charge of the
collections of marine invertebrates. Consequently most of the
discoveries in this field were published in the Journal in numerous
original contributions by Verrill and his associates. The explorations
of the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer “Albatross” are described from
year to year by Verrill, with descriptions of the new species of
invertebrates discovered.
The numerous original contributions by Verrill on subjects of
general zoological interest as well as on those of a systematic nature
give this third series of the Journal much zoological importance.
Verrill’s papers cover almost the whole field of descriptive zoology,
but are mainly devoted to marine invertebrates. Those which were
originally contributed to the Journal or summarized by him in his
literature reviews include the following topics:

Sponges, 16, 406, 1878.

Coelenterates, 37, 450, 1864; 44, 125, 1867; 45, 411, 186; 46, 143, 1868; 47,
282, 1869; 48, 116, 419, 1869; 49, 370, 1870; 3, 187, 432, 1872; 6, 68, 1873; 21,
508, 1881; 6, 493, 1898; 7, 41, 143, 205, 375, 1899; 13, 75, 1902.
Echinoderms, 44, 125, 1867; 45, 417, 1868; 49, 93, 101, 1870; 2, 430, 1871; 11,
416, 1876; 49, 127, 199, 1895; 28, 59, 1909; 35, 477, 1913; 37, 483, 1914; 38, 107,
1914; 39, 684, 1915.
Worms, 50, 223, 1870; 3, 126, 1872.
 Mollusks, 49, 217, 1870; 50, 405, 1870; 3, 209, 281, 1872; 5, 465, 1873; 7, 136,
158, 1874; 9, 123, 177, 1875; 10, 213, 1875; 12, 236, 1876; 14, 425, 1877; 19, 284,
1880; 20, 250, 251, 1880; 2, 74, 91, 1896; 3, 51, 79, 162, 355, 1897.
Crustacea, 44, 126, 1867; 48, 244, 430, 1869; 25, 119, 534, 1908.
Ascidians, 1, 54, 93, 211, 288, 443, 1871; 20, 251, 1880.
Dredging operations and marine fauna, 49, 129, 1870; 2, 357, 1871; 5, 1, 98,
1873; 6, 435, 1873; 7, 38, 131, 405, 409, 498, 608, 1874; 9, 411, 1875; 10, 36, 196,
1875; 16, 207, 371, 1878; 17, 239, 258, 309, 472, 1879; 18, 52, 468, 1879; 19, 137,
187; 20, 390, 1880; 22, 292, 1881; 23, 135, 216, 309, 406, 1882; 24, 360, 477,
1882; 28, 213, 378, 1884; 29, 149, 1885.
Miscellaneous, 39, 221, 1865; 41, 249, 268, 1866; 44, 126, 1867; 48, 92, 1869;
3, 386, 1872; 7, 134, 1847; 10, 364, 1875; 16, 323, 1878; 20, 251, 1880; 3, 132, 135,
1897; 9, 313, 1900; 12, 88, 1901; 13, 327, 1902; 14, 72, 1902; 15, 332, 1903; 24,
179, 1907; 29, 561, 1910.

S. I. Smith describes the metamorphosis of the Crustacea (3, 401,

1872; 6, 67, 1873), species of crustacea (3, 373, 1872; 7, 601, 1874; 9,
476, 1875), and dredging operations in Lake Superior (2, 373, 448,
1871). In this series occurs also a series of papers on comparative
anatomy and embryology from the Chesapeake Zoological
Laboratory in charge of W. K. Brooks. In the 39th and 40th volumes
of the third series (1890) occur several papers on evolutionary topics
by John T. Gulick (39, 21; 40, 1, 437) which have attracted much
attention.
Before the end of this period, however, the Journal was relieved
from the necessity of publishing zoological articles by the
establishment of several periodicals devoted especially to the various
fields of zoology. We find, therefore, but few exclusively zoological
papers after 1885, although articles of a general biological interest
and the reviews of zoological books continue.
In the fourth series of the Journal, beginning in 1896, occur also a
number of articles on systematic zoology by Verrill and others and
several papers having a general biological interest. Brief reviews of a
small number of zoological books are still continued, but at the
present day the Journal, which played so important a part in the
early development of American zoology, has been given over to the
geological and physical sciences in harmony with the modern
demand for specialization.