Herbert Weir Smyth, A Greek Grammar for Colleges

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THE VERB: VOICES

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ACTIVE VOICE

[*] 1703. The active voice represents the subject as performing the action of the verb: λούω I wash.

a. Under action is included being, as ἡ ὁδὸς μακρά_ ἐστι the way is long.

[*] 1704. Active verbs are transitive or intransitive (920).

[*] 1705. The action of a transitive verb is directed immediately upon an object, as τύπτω τὸν παῖδα I strike the boy.

[*] 1706. The object of a transitive verb is always put in the accusative (1553).

[*] 1707. The action of an intransitive verb is not directed immedi-ately upon an object. The action may be restricted to the subject, as ἀλγῶ I am in pain, or it may be defined by an oblique case or by a preposition with its case, as ἀλγῶ τοὺς πόδας I have a pain in my feet, ἀφί_κετο εἰς τὴν πόλιν he arrived at the city.

[*] 1708. Many verbs are used in the active voice both transitively and intransitively. So, in English, turn, move, change. Cp. 1557 ff.

a. The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is a grammatical convenience, and is not founded on an essential difference of nature.

[*] 1709. Active verbs ordinarily transitive are often used intransitively:

a. By the ellipsis of a definite external object, which in some cases may be employed, as ἄγειν (τὸ στράτευμα) march, αἴρειν (τὴν ἄγκυ_ραν) hoist the anchor, (τὰ_ς ναῦς) get under sail, start, ἀπαίρειν (τὰ_ς ναῦς, τὸν στρατόν) sail away, march away, διάγειν (τὸν βίον) live, ἐλαύνειν (τὸν ἵππον) ride, (τὸ ἅρμα) drive, (τὸν στρατόν) march, καταλύ_ειν (τοὺς ἵππους, τὰ ὑποζύγια) halt, κατέχειν (τῆν ναῦν) put in shore, προσέχειν (τὸν νοῦν) pay attention, τελευτᾶν (τὸν βίον) die. The original sense has often been so completely forgotten that it becomes possible to say ““αἴρειν τῷ στρατῷ” set out with the army” T. 2.12, ““ἐλαύνων ἱδροῦντι τῷ ἵππῳ” riding with his horse in a sweat” X. A. 1.8.1.

b. πρά_ττειν, ἔχειν with adverbs often mean to keep, to be: εὖ πρά_ττειν fare well, καλῶς ἔχειν be well (bene se habere), ἔχειν οὕτως be so. So when a reflexive pronoun is apparently omitted: ““ἔχ᾽ αὐτοῦ” stop there!” D. 45.26.

c. Many other transitive verbs may be used absolutely, i.e. with no definite object omitted, as νι_κᾶν be a victor, ἀδικεῖν be guilty. Cp. ‘amare’ be in love, ‘drink’ be a drunkard. This is especially the case in compounds, e.g. of ἀλλάττειν, ἀνύειν, διδόναι, κλί_νειν, λαμβάνειν, λείπειν, μειγνύναι.

d. In poetry many uncompounded transitive verbs are used intransitively. Many intransitive verbs become transitive when compounded with a prep., especially when the compound has a transferred sense, 1559. In some verbs 1st aorist and 1st perfect are transitive, 2d aorist and 2d perfect are intransitive.

[*] 1710. Instead of the active, a periphrasis with γίγνεσθαι may be used, often to express solemnity. ““μηνυ_ταὶ γίγνονται” they turned informers” T. 3.2, μὴ ὑβριστὴς γέϝῃ ‘do not be guilty of outrage’ S. Aj. 1092.

[*] 1711. Causative Active.—The active may be used of an action performed at the bidding of the subject: Κῦρος τὰ βασίλεια κατέκαυσεν Cyrus burnt down the palace (i.e. had it burnt down) X. A. 1.4.10. So with ἀποκτείνειν put to death, θάπτειν bury, οἰκοδομεῖν build, παιδεύειν instruct, ἀνακηρΰττειν publicly proclaim.

[*] 1712. An infinitive limiting the meaning of an adjective is usually active where English employs the passive (cp. 2006).

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MIDDLE VOICE

[*] 1713. The middle voice shows that the action is performed with special reference to the subject: λοῦμαι I wash myself.

[*] 1714. The middle represents the subject as doing something in which he is interested. He may do something to himself, for himself, or he may act with something belonging to himself.

[*] 1715. The future middle is often (807), the first aorist middle is almost never, used passively.

[*] 1716. The object of the middle (1) may belong in the sphere of the subject, as his property, etc.: λούομαι τὰ_ς χεῖρας I wash my hands, or (2) it may be brought into the sphere of the subject: τοὺς ὁπλί_τα_ς μετεπέμψαντο they sent for the hoplites, or (3) it may be removed from the sphere of the subject: ἀποδίδομὰι τὴν οἰκία_ν I sell my house (lit. give away). Here the object is also the property of the subject.

[*] 1717. The Direct Reflexive Middle represents the subject as acting directly on himself. Self is here the direct object. So with verbs expressing external and natural acts, as the verbs of the toilet: ἀλείφεσθαι anoint oneself, λοῦσθαι wash oneself; and κοσμεῖσθαι adorn oneself, στεφανοῦσθαι crown oneself; γυμνάζεσθαι exercise oneself.

a. The direct reflexive idea is far more frequently conveyed by the active and a reflexive pronoun, 1723.

b. The part affected may be added in the accusative: ““ἐπαίσατο τὸν μηρόν” he smote his thigh” X. C. 7.3.6.

[*] 1718. So with many other verbs, as ἵστασθαι stand (place oneself), τρέπεσθαι turn (lit. turn oneself), δηλοῦσθαι show oneself, τάττεσθαι post oneself, ἀπολογεῖσθαι defend oneself (argue oneself off), φαίνεσθαι show oneself, appear, παρασκευάζεσθαι prepare onself, ἀπόλλυσθαι destroy oneself, perish.

[*] 1719. The Indirect Reflexive Middle represents the subject as acting for himself, with reference to himself, or with something belonging to himself. Self is often here the indirect object. So πορίζεσθαι provide for oneself (πορίζειν provide), φυλάττεσθαι guard against (φυλάττειν keep guard), αἱρεῖσθαι choose (take for oneself), παρέχεσθαι furnish (παρέχειν offer, present).

[*] 1720. Cases in which the object is to be removed from the sphere of the subject may be resolved into the dative for oneself (1483）: ““τὴν ῥᾳθυ_μία_ν ἀποθέσθαι” to lay aside your indolence” D. 8.46, ““ἐτρέψαντο τοὺς ἱππέα_ς” they routed the cavalry” T. 6.98, τοὺς ἐχθροὺς ἀμύ_νεσθαι to ward off the enemy for themselves, i.e. to defend themselves against the enemy 1. 144.

[*] 1721. The middle often denotes that the subject acts with something belonging to himself (material objects, means, powers). It is often used of acts done willingly. Thus, παρέχεσθαι furnish from one's own resources, ἐπαγγέλλεσθαι promise, make profession of, τίθεσθαι τὴν ψῆφον give one's vote, τίθεσθαι τὰ ὅπλα ground arms, ἀποδείξασθαι γνώμην set forth one's opinion, λαμβάνεσθαί τινος put one's hand on (seize) something. Thus, ““ἐσπασμένοι τὰ ξίφη” having drawn their swords” X. A. 7.4.16, ““παῖδας ἐκκεκομισμένοι ἦσαν” they had removed their children” T. 2.78, ““τροπαῖον στησάμενοι” having set up a trophy” X. H. 2.4.7, ““ὅπλα πορίσασθαι” to procure arms for themselves” T. 4.9, ὁπλί_τα_ς μετεπέμψατο he sent for hoplites 7. 31, ““γυναῖκα ἠγαγόμην” I married” L. 1.6.

[*] 1722. Under the indirect middle belong the periphrases of ποιεῖσθαι with verbal nouns instead of the simple verb (cp. 1754). ποιεῖν with the same nouns means to bring about, effect, fashion, etc.

εἰρήνην ποιεῖσθαι make peace (of one nation at war with another).

εἰρήνην ποιεῖν bring about a peace (between opponents, nations at war: of an individual).

θήρα_ν ποιεῖσθαι ( = θηρᾶν hunt, θήρα_ν ποιεῖν arrange a hunt.

λόγον ποιεῖσθαι ( = λέγειν) deliver a speech, λόγον ποιεῖν compose a speech.

ναυμαχία_ν ποιεῖσθαι ( = ναυμαχεῖν) fight a naval battle.

ναυμαχία_ν ποιεῖν bring on a naval battle (of the commander).

ὁδὸν ποιεῖσθαι ( = ὁδεύειν) make a journey, ὁδὸν ποιεῖν build a road.

πόλεμον ποιεῖσθαι wage war, πόλεμον ποιεῖν bring about a war.

σπονδὰ_ς ποιεῖσθαι conclude (make) a treaty , or truce.

σπονδὰ_ς ποιεῖν bring about a treaty , or truce.

[*] 1723. Active and Reflexive.—Instead of the direct middle the active voice with the reflexive pronoun is usually employed; often of difficult and unnatural actions (especially with αὐτὸς ἑαυτόν, etc.).

““τὰ ὅπλα παρέδοσαν καὶ σφᾶς αὐτούς” they surrendered their arms and themselves” T. 4.38, ““μισθώσα_ς αὑτόν” hiring himself out” D. 19.29 (not μισθωσάμενος, which means hiring for himself), ““καταλέλυκε τὴν αὐτὸς αὑτοῦ δυναστεία_ν” he himself has put an end to his own sovereignty” Aes. 3.233, ““ἠτί_μωκεν ἑαυτόν” he has dishonoured himself” D. 21.103. But regularly ἀπάγχεσθαι hang oneself (1717).

a. The active and a reflexive pronoun in the gen. or dat. may be used for the simple middle when the reflexive notion is emphatic: ““καταλείπειν συγγράμματα ἑαυτῶν” to leave behind them their written compositions” P. Phae. 257d.

[*] 1724. Middle and Reflexive.—The reflexive pronoun may be used with the middle: ““ἑαυτὸν ἀποκρύπτεσθαι” to hide himself” P. R. 393c; often for emphasis, as in contrasts: οἱ μέν φα_σι βασιλέα_ κελεῦσαί τινα ἐπισφάξαι αὐτὸν Κύ_ρῳ, οἱ δ᾽ ἑαυτὸν ἐπισφάξασθαι some say that the king issued orders for some one to slay him (Artapates) over (the body of) Cyrus, while others say that he slew himself with his own hand X. A. 1.8.29, cp. also τί τὴν πόλιν προσῆκε ποιεῖν, ἀρχὴν καὶ τυραννίδα τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὀρῶσαν ἑαυτῷ κατασκευαξόμενον Φίλιππον; what did it beseem the city to do when it saw Philip compassing for himself dominion and despotic sway over the Greeks? D. 18.66.

[*] 1725. The Causative Middle denotes that the subject has something done by another for himself: ““ἐγὼ γάρ σε ταῦτα ἐδιδαξάμην” for I had you taught this” X. C. 1.6.2, παρατίθεσθαι σῖτον to have food served up 8. 6. 12, ὅσοι ὅπλα ἀφῄρηνται, ταχὺ ἄλλα ποιήσονται all who have had their arms taken from them will soon get others made 6. 1. 12, ἑαυτῷ σκηνὴν κατεσκευάσατο he had a tent prepared for himself 2. 1. 30.

a. This force does not belong exclusively to the middle; cp. 1711.

[*] 1726. Reciprocal Middle.—With a dual or plural subject the middle may indicate a reciprocal relation. So with verbs of contending, conversing (questioning, replying), greeting, embracing, etc. The reciprocal middle is often found with compounds of διά.

““οἱ ἀ_θληταὶ ἠγωνίζοντο” the athletes contended” T. 1.6, καταστάντες ἐμάχοντο when they had got into position they fought 1. 49, ἀνὴρ ἀνδρὶ διελέγοντο they conversed man with man 8. 93, ““ἐπιμείγνυσθαι ἀλλήλοις” to have friendly intercourse with one another” X. C. 7.4.5, ““ταῦτα διανεμοῦνται” they will divide this up among themselves” L. 21.14. So αἰτιᾶσθαι accuse, λυ_μαίνεσθαι maltreat, μέμφεσθαι blame, ἁμιλλᾶσθαι vie, παρακελεύεσθαι encourage one another.

a. The active may also be employed, as πολεμεῖν wage war.

b. Some of these verbs have a passive aorist form, as διελέχθην (812).

[*] 1727. The reciprocal relation may also be expressed (1) by the use of the reflexive pronoun (cp. 1724) with the active: ““φθονοῦσιν ἑαυτοῖς” they are mutually envious” X. M. 3.5.16; (2) by the use of ἀλλήλων, etc., with the active: ““ἀμφισβητοῦμεν ἀλλήλοις” we are at variance with one another” P. Phae. 263a; (3) by repetition of the noun: πτωχὸς πτωχῷ φθονέει = beggars envy each other Hesiod W. D. 26. The reflexive pronouns and ἀλλήλων, etc., may also be added to the middle.

[*] 1728.